Ego Development 1
The Relationship Between Adolescent Ego Development
and Patterns of Parental Control
Dana Celeste Keener
Distinguished Majors Thesis
University of Virginia
Advisor: Joseph P. Allen
Second Reader: Charles L. Fry
Running head: EGO DEVELOPMENT
Ego Development 2
Abstract
Research has shown that parenting styles are involved in the internalization of children's beliefs
about themselves and the world around them. This paper examines the relationship between various
types of parental control and adolescent ego development. Analyses were based on self and parent
reports of 24 female and 25 male youth. Results revealed that positive parental influence, control and
knowledge of adolescent decision making are positively related to adolescent ego development.
However, parental control that is restrictive and overcontrolling in nature was found to be negatively
related to ego development in teenagers. Additionally, mothers' controlling behaviors generally revealed
stronger relationships with teen ego development than fathers' controlling behaviors. Finally, it was
found that adolescent ego development relates positively to parental control over adolescent decisions
involving issues of deviance, while no relationship was found between adolescent ego development and
parental control over adolescent decisions involving issues of character. These findings suggest that the
relationship between parental control and the psychosocial development of adolescents may depend on
whether the imposed method of control facilitates or inhibits healthy levels of autonomy within
adolescents. This study supports the need for further investigation of parental control as related to
adolescent development.
Ego Development 3
The Relationship Between Adolescent Ego Development
and Patterns of Parental Control
Adolescence is a period within the life span characterized by fundamental biological, cognitive
and social changes (Peterson & Spiga, 1982). These changes generally lead adolescents towards a
desire for greater freedom from the restrictions imposed upon them by authority, specifically by their
parents. Thus, the teenage years are a time when children and parents negotiate this process of
realignment and growth towards greater independence (Collins, 1990; Pardeck & Pardeck, 1990;
Steinberg, 1990; Youniss & Smollar, 1985).
The negotiations which occur between parents and teens during the process of establishing
independence can be developmentally healthy for children (Steinberg, 1990). Even expressed conflict
can be a constructive part of the process when it occurs in the context of closeness and trust (Cooper,
1988). Such growth towards independence, along with the healthy maintenance of a parent-child
relationship, has been variously referred to in research as the establishment of interdependence,
(Youniss & Smollar, 1985); individuation (Grotevant & Cooper, 1986); autonomy and relatedness
(Allen, Aber, & Leadbeater, 1990); attachment and autonomy (Hill & Holmbeck, 1986); and cohesion
and adaptability (Olson, Sprenkle & Russell, 1979). These various approaches are similar in that they
all consider the importance of maintaining a mutual connection and bond between parents and teens as
the relationship is redefined in terms of greater freedom and shared decision-making.
Past research has found positive outcomes in teens to be associated with parent-child
relationships characterized by interdependence and other related constructs. Lamborn and Steinberg
(1993) found emotional autonomy and relationship support in teens to be related to academic
competence and to psychosocial adjustment. Allen, Hauser, Bell and O'Connor (1994) found display
of adolescent autonomy and relatedness to be related strongly to measures of self-esteem and ego
development. Grotevant and Cooper (1985, 1986) revealed a positive relationship between family
interaction styles that encouraged individuation and the identity exploration of teens.
Ego Development 4
Although adolescent autonomy and individuation is normal and healthy, parents are often
reluctant to allow it to occur. It can be frightening for parents to observe their children grow older and
cultivate interests over which parents have little control. Although teens tend to be anxious to loosen ties
to their parents, they generally replace these parental ties with strong connections to their peers (Youniss
& Smoller, 1985). This process may often lead parents to feel as if they have less influence over their
children. Some parents may respond to such feelings by imposing more control upon their children or at
least by attempting to do so.
A large body of research has examined constructs related to overcontrolling parenting and its
relationship to various outcomes in children. Maccoby and Martin (1983), in a historical overview of
family interactions involved in the socialization of children, reviewed findings related to authoritarian or
autocratic parenting styles. This definitional style, according to the researchers, represents parenting that
lacks balance between the demands placed upon children and parents' acceptance of their children.
Parents characterized by this style of discipline, value the maintenance of their authority and do not allow
their children to question the positions of parental control. They impose strict limits upon their children
and demand complete obedience to all rules. Children's ability to express needs and desires is greatly
inhibited under this style of parenting (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).
Authoritarian parenting has been found to be related to childhood outcomes such as low social
interaction with peers, obedience towards authority figures, domination by peers, lack of such
characteristics as spontaneity, affection, curiosity, and originality (Baldwin, 1949); social withdrawal
(Baumrind & Black, 1967); low levels of conscience (Hoffman & Saltzstein, 1967); low self-esteem
(Coopersmith, 1967; Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg & Dornbusch, 1991; Loeb, Horst, & Horton,
1980); and external locus of control (Loeb, 1975).
In contrast to overcontrolling styles of parenting, healthy styles of parental control are very
important for effective child rearing. Positive control can best be seen in what Maccoby and Martin
(1983) refer to as authoritative and reciprocal parenting. These terms refer to parenting that expects
Ego Development 5
responsiveness from children to parental demands while being equally responsive to the needs and
reasonable desires of children. Additional characteristics of this form of parenting include firm
reinforcement of rules, encouragement of individuality in children, and open communication (Baumrind,
1971).
Authoritative and reciprocal parenting styles have been related to outcomes in children such as
social competence in preschoolers (Baumrind & Black, 1967); high self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967;
Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg & Dornbusch, 1991); acquisition of prosocial behavior (Yarrow, Waxler
& Scott, 1971); conscientiousness (Hoffman & Saltzstein, 1967); academic achievement (Steinberg,
Elmen & Mounts, 1989); high competence and less delinquency (Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg &
Dornbusch, 1991).
Based on these findings which associate parental disciplinary styles with various aspects of
adolescent development, it is seems that parenting styles are involved in the way children internalize
certain beliefs about themselves and can affect the personal framework from which children view the
world. Loevinger (1976) postulates that such a framework of thinking about the self and others is
represented by the construct of ego development. The concept of ego development, developed by
Loevinger and her colleagues, is based in several theories associated with the self, moral reasoning, and
cognitive development (Loevinger & Wessler, 1970; see also Hauser, 1976; Loevinger, 1976). Thus,
the model encompasses four domains of development, including interpersonal style, cognitive style,
impulse control and moral development.
The function of the ego, according to Loevinger (1976), is to create a frame of reference from
which an individual's inner experiences and perception of external events can be understood. The ego
remains stable and maintains its identity by shielding from itself observations that are inconsistent with
this framework of meaning. Every person's developmental framework is unique and can be
operationalized along an abstract continuum of sequential stages known as ego development.
There are several themes of progression that occur through the course of ego development.
Ego Development 6
These themes involve tolerance of ambiguity, sense of control over the environment, ability to relate to
others, differentiation skills and the value of autonomy and individuality. These themes manifest
themselves differently at each stage of development. Each stage is more complex than the previous
stage and none of the stages can be bypassed during the developmental process. However, individuals
may or may not develop beyond var
