T H E R U B A C O N P R O G R A M M E

S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t U t i l i z i n g S e c o n d a r y a n d R e n e w a b l e R e s o u r c e s

Background In today’s world, rural and urban ‘waste’ has been the cause of many serious environmental problems. Nearly all countries are now well aware of the problem and taking steps to find solutions by encouraging utilisation or recycling. Many governments and individuals are seeking to create beneficial uses for these materials and view ‘waste’ in a positive way. For those in the field, waste (so called) falls mainly into two categories: Secondary Resources and Renewable Resources. Some of these resources contain harmful chemicals, heavy metals or are in the form of fine particulate powders. These factors may cause ground water or air pollution leading to human health problems and such possibilities must be taken into account. However, if the only options considered for such potentially hazardous materials are incineration or landfill, whilst the option of recycling is ignored, a valuable resource may simply be thrown away. At the same time, the excessively large quantity of these materials still presents a problem with landfill sites frequently restricted and the total amount of such ‘waste’ increasing dramatically every day. Many studies have been conducted on converting such resources into useful materials, specifically for application in the building and construction industries. For the poorer classes with restricted income, a large need exists for such products that are more affordable than those presently available. For building materials to be produced utilising secondary and renewable resources, and made readily available at a reasonable price, two things are required: a technology for producing such materials and a straightforward system of production. RUBACON – Resource Utilisation for Building And CONstruction - is based on utilisation of secondary and renewable resources; the RUBACON Programme of Sustainable Development is composed of a group of ten interrelated projects, with the key project, Advanced Building Materials and Construction System, at the core. The ‘RENEW’ project for developing Biogas (alternative energy), natural fertilizer and micro-mineral powder from agricultural residues, animal dung and humanure, is one of the major ancillary projects. Other projects making up the programme include: a solar energy water harvesting system for providing people with both hot and cold water, a process for utilisation of ceramic waste to produce surface-glazed ceramic tiles sans kiln, durable sewer, water and irrigation pipe, low-cost road construction, technology for cleansing polluted waterways and coastal erosion and flood barriers.

2

RUBACON – THE ADVANTAGES THE MATERIALS Building and Construction

Materials

RUBACON Technology

Cement Technology

Properties Properties

Dense

@ 1 cm wall thickness

40 N flexural strength

@ 6 cm. wall thickness

3-7 N Flexural Strength

Cellular blocks and panels

High Insulation Value

200 Kilos m3

Moderate Insulation Value

800 Kilos m3

Coatings Corrosion Resistant and colour range

Acid, Alkali and Salt Resistant

Requires Protective Coating

Poor resistance to acid and salt

Natural Fibre Composites

Non-brittle and Flexural

High Impact resistance and H2O repellent

Metal Bar Reinforced Concrete

Non-existent as natural fibre composite

Adobe & Earth Materials

Water resistant and repellent

Resistant to erosion and crumbling

Cement Stabilizer

Poor resistance to erosion and crumbling

Adobe & Earth Materials

Cellular Version

High Insulation Value

Technically not possible

Road Construction

High durability Low cost and high durability

Cement and Asphalt

Poor durability

Road Repair Excellent adhesion

Low cost and high durability

Cement and Asphalt

Poor durability

Ceramics RUBACON Technology Conventional Ceramics

Dense Water Absorption 2%

100 N flexural strength

Water Absorption 6%

Firing required

Surface Glazed

High energy savings

High thru put Kiln required Firing required

Metallo-Ceramic

Rust free using waste metal

Kiln required Fired version

3

Note: RUBACON materials may be cured at ± 120 o C. or less. Costing is anticipated to be approximately 50 % of concrete and conventional fired ceramics. THE PROGRAMME * Utilisation of locally-available resources for affordable and durable building

materials saves energy and reduces the excessive quantity of unused secondary and renewable resources

* Construction and testing of the DEMO ‘Do-It-Yourself’ shelter/house system * Transfer of the technology to economically-deprived people, providing

affordable, durable and fire-resistant housing * Setting up new ‘Incubator’ SMEs creates new work opportunities for

unemployed men, women and older children * Transfer of the technology to SMEs for production of low-cost, advanced,

building and construction materials, which possess superior properties * Enhancement of the life situation of people in rural communities will lessen the

negative social impact caused by migration to the cities * Solutions to key problems such as the acute shortage of water, low-cost,

alternative energy and health hazards caused by pollution * Promotion of the total technology to all sectors of society where it can play a

vigorous and positive role

4

Preliminary List Secondary and Renewable Resources

1. Combustion Process Resources 3. Agricultural Resources

- Fly Ash - Cereal grain straws - Lignite fly ash - Peanut shell - FGD-gypsum - Banana plant waste - Bottom Ash - Rice husk and straw - Municipal Waste Incineration Ash - Coconut husk and pith - Furnace Slag - Tobacco sweepings and dust - Steel Industry Black Iron - Coffee hulls

- Horsetail grass 2 Industrial Resources - Saw Mill Waste

- Brick rubble - Cotton stock - Glass cullet - Bamboo waste - Ceramic debris - Residues from clay washing 4. Animal Husbandry - Plastic waste - Pig Manure - Metal waste - Cattle Manure - Rubber tyres - Sheep Manure - Waste newspaper - Poultry Manure - Mine tailings

Implementat ion Plan A university, scientific institute or government agency in the host country shall prepare an implementation plan for the programme to be agreed with Arcilla Research, which will, obviously, have a key role in transfer of the technology. The plan shall be carried out in three separate, but not necessarily sequential, phases. The first phase consists of product development work to be executed at a university or institute. The second phase shall take place in cooperation with firms in the private sector based in the province or country. The companies will be selected by Arcilla on the basis that they have a particularly keen interest in the particular project and are actively occupied in an appropriate sector. The third phase involves work to be carried out in cooperation with academic or government institutions and, in most cases, jointly with the university or scientific institute. The implementation plan will thus create a link making for a good working relationship between the three parties – academic, technology and industrial. The plan is described in graphic form below:

5

Being AppointedDiagram of the RUBACON Programme of Projects

Diagram of the RUBACON Programme of Projects

Steel Industry

By-Products Util ization

Solaramic for

Enhanced Biogas

Production

RUBACON

PROGRAMME

Util izationSands

from Clay Washing

Sawdust and Agro-

Waste Util ization AgrNatura

l

Zeolite Cleansing Polluted

Waterways

Solaramic Water

Harvesting System

Extraction Process Micro

Mineral

Power Station

By-Products Piping

and Road Building

Recycling Ceramic Waste

6

Diagram of the DEMO Project

Up-scaling Building

Elements

Fine Tuning Binder

Systems

Full-Scale Building

of Houses

Ancil lary Systems

Work

Resources

Inventory Logistic

Plan

Lab-Scale

Product Developmen

t Work

D E M O

PROJECT

7

RUBACON Programme Literature

COMPANY PROFILE ARCILLA RESEARCH is a small, Dutch-based, technology enterprise, which has developed a special body of techniques and materials based on a mineral binder system, whereby products with ceramic-like properties are cured rather than fired. In partnership with industry, university and government institutions, 'Arcilla' is developing innovative products and systems to meet high technical specifications and which impact upon the environment, physical resources and mass needs. The mineral binder system and range of new materials are neither cements nor ceramics yet offer many of the advantages of both.

Bonding of renewable resources such as wood chips, sawdust, bark, chopped straw, thatching grass, bagasse and other cellulose materials presents special problems: water absorption and resistance to heat. Arcilla Research created the RENEW binder system to cope specifically with these problems - a new generation of particleboards is the outcome. The family of materials includes: high-density panel and curvilinear shell, lightweight cellular insulation and natural fibre-reinforced versions. In combination with the mineral binder as coating and adhesive, the possibilities of ecology and people-friendly materials for building and construction are now within reach. Saving in energy and costs, compared to cement and synthetic resins, the RENEW family of materials is also technically advanced. We invite you to visit our Website at:

www.arcillaresearch.com Please feel free to contact us:

ARCILLA RESEARCH JULIANASTRAAT 50 6285 AK EPEN NETHERLANDS TELEPHONE: +31 43 455 1482 SKYPE NAME: P.RAYAR TELEFAX: +31 43 455 2091 E-MAIL: arci l la@planet.nl

8

RUBACON PROFILE AND STRATEGY The impact of building on the economy of any given country is the highest of any single industry, roughly 40% - World Bank statement at the Urban Shelter for Developing World Conference in London in September, 1987. We must develop our own resources - Dr Kenneth Kaunda, President of Zambia in an interview by 'The Courier' in Brussels in April 1988. For a developing country to effectively use its resources, collation of the pertinent information is a first requirement. Materials are technology bound; those used to manufacture cement are obviously quite different from those needed to produce brick or concrete. A distinctive feature of the RUBACON technology is that a large variety of resources, organic and inorganic, can be utilised. Although primary materials may be employed, with the exception of sand, emphasis is placed on secondary and tertiary resources. Bearing in mind the fact that building and construction outstrips all other industries as a consumer of raw materials, it is imperative that properties be of the highest order. Affordability, the major concern in poor countries, is directly proportional to quality; better means less, lighter and cheaper. One man's throwaway waste is often another's valuable asset. Identification, classification and, occasionally, pre-treatment of materials from the host country is a prerequisite to the work of developing new products from locally available resources. The introduction of new technology is usually accomplished piecemeal. Small parts are manufactured and enter the market as isolated products rather than as a total system. RUBACON was set up as a unit with the mission of creating totally integrated systems. Only in this way can full advantage be made of the unique properties of the family of materials and the synergy that derives from a Gestalt-like design approach. Building today has arrived at a cul-de-sac, with a complexity of materials all sharing a common deficiency, best epitomised by the song made popular by Pete Seeger, "Little Boxes made out of Ticky-Tacky". One cannot replace Ticky-Tacky by another brick or block - a wall system now some 5,000 years old - but only by a fresh approach, through a dialectic process that comes to grips with the question "What is a house?" When houses must support roofs weighing 45 Kilograms per square meter, the result is a building designed from the top, down. An on-going, soul-searching rationalization of the process itself is called for, if we are not to go on putting up prototype structures that are unaffordable, unattractive and, in many cases, unfit for human habitation.

9

Histor ica l Background * Speaker at AshTech ’84 Conference London 1984 * RUBACON Presentation International Red Mud Conference Jamaica 1986 * RUBACON Presentations at I Y S H Berlin and London Conferences 1987 * Delft University of Technology study funded by Dutch Ministry Housing 1988 * Presentation at MatTech '90 Conference Helsinki and brief visit to Moscow * Invited to visit Chernogolovka Technology Village in Russia - winter 1990 * Proposal to develop integrated rural community in Chernogolovka 1991 * First phase of Danish Ministry of Environment study completed in 1991 * E C proposal 'Application of Agrofibres in Innovative Industrial Products * Presentation at Rinker International Conference, University of Florida 1993 * E U COPERNICUS proposal 'Recycling of Fly Ash for Producing Building and

Construction Materials Based on New Mineral Binder System' approved 1994 * Zimbabwe National Inventory Secondary and Renewable Resources sponsored

by Intermediate Technology Development Group * E U CRAFT proposal 'Development of New Construction Materials Based on

Mineral Binders Derived From Waste' approved 1995 * Second E U COPERNICUS proposal 'Furnace Slag Utilisation for Producing

High-Performance Materials approved 1995 * Presentation of RUBACON Programme at the International Center of Science

and High Technology (ICS) Workshop held in Bergamo, Italy 1997 * Speaker at International Conference Ecomaterials and a Sustainable Habitat

Havana, Cuba in November 1998 * Exhibition of Arcilla ‘Family of Materials’ Wascon 2000 Fair Maastricht,

Netherlands * Presentation of RUBACON Programme at ‘Sustainable Building 2000’ in

Maastricht, Netherlands * Presentation of RUBACON Technology at Progress Workshop in Barcelona,

Spain 2002 * Presentations of RUBACON Programme in India, Thailand and Vietnam during

5 1/2 week journey in March/April 2003 * Presentation at Symposium “Advances in Waste Management and Recycling” in

Dundee, Scotland 9-11 September 2003 * RUBACON Programme presentations in all nine provinces of South Africa

during 5 week journey in January/February 2004 * Nominated for Tech Museum of Innovation Awards in April 2004 * RUBACON Programme Presentations during visit to Macedonia, Bulgaria and

Greece in October 2005 for EuroRegion Belasica Pre-Proposal work * Finalist World Bank Development Marketplace May, 2006 with two proposals * Presentations University Rochester and Institute of Technology October, 2008

10

The RUBACON Network To take on the task of assisting less developed countries in turning their resources into useful products and systems, RUBACON is establishing a network of cooperating institutes, whereby use is made of the physical and human resources of the departments of materials science, economics, geography, urban and town planning, architecture, civil engineering and other appropriate faculties. RUBACON will provide transfer of the technology and know-how and participate actively with the staff in designing a programme of study, internship and ancillary activities. The 'Network', working together with institutions in the recipient countries, would comprise four major activity units: - Project Acquisition and Management - Resources Inventory and Technology - Materials Science - Information Technology Student Act iv i t ies Young people trained in the skills of project acquisition and management, particularly as related to the economically less developed countries, are unfortunately hard to find. In addition to having an intimate understanding of the 'product', introduction of new technology requires facility in foreign languages, the communication arts, and knowledge and feeling for the history and culture of people. Students are being selected from international business schools to participate in the RUBACON programme as an integral part of their internship or final year project. Upon graduation, they have the opportunity to become full members of a RUBACON team in their home country or in a country best suited to their talents and qualifications. It is expected that students will travel abroad on a reciprocal basis with a view to enlarging their project management or technical experience, broadening mutual understanding and advancing the project thru technology transfer. A Sampling of RUBACON Student Activities - Study of Materials Technology as it relates to Developing World countries

and to the RUBACON technology in particular - Setting up a Resources Profile Data Bank in cooperation with international and

national institutions - Fieldwork in host country to select resources for testing purposes - Analysis of mineral powders, particularly ashes, to determine their usefulness as

binder components or filler

11

THE RUBACON TEAM Paul Rayar Owner-Director Netherlands

RUBACON CENTRES Zakir Md. Hossain Director RUBACON Centre Bangladesh Alira Halidou Director RUBACON Centre Burkina Faso Floribert Kazingufu Director RUBACON Centre Burundi Kimsorn Sa Director RUBACON Centre Cambodia Bridget Anyu Director RUBACON Centre Cameroon Floribert Kazingufu Director RUBACON Centre DRC Dessisa Kabeta Director RUBACON Centre Ethiopia Being Appointed Director RUBACON Centre India Being Appointed Director RUBACON Centre Israel/Palestine Being Appointed Director RUBACON Centre Jamaica Geneveive A. Oluoch Director RUBACON Centre Kenya Elizabeta Jovanoska Director RUBACON Centre Macedonia Ivan Amade Director RUBACON Centre Mozambique Min Shahi Director RUBACON Centre Nepal Jojo Gabuya Director RUBACON Centre Philippines Cecelia Roman Director RUBACON Centre Romania Kaprie Thoronka Director RUBACON Centre Sierra Leone Being Appointed Director RUBACON Centre South Africa Marion Akiteng Director RUBACON Centre Uganda TuNhan Ly Director RUBACON Centre Vietnam Josephine Chirwa Director RUBACON Centre Zambia Busani Sibindi Director RUBACON Centre Zimbabwe

SPECIAL CONSULTANTS

To Be Appointed Stabilized Earth Unknown To Be Appointed Health Centre Unknown To Be Appointed Native Americans United States Elikana Wallace Children and Youth Tanzania Nonso Dike Children and Youth Canada

12

To Be Appointed Media and Website Unknown Kedsarin Pimraksa Materials Research Thailand

REGIONAL COORDINATORS

Elly Antonio Castro Aguilar Central America Being Appointed Southeast Europe Osama Nimer Middle East Yuliani Shinta Dewi West Africa

RUBACON CENTRE PARTICIPANTS AFRICA

EAST AFRICA Edith Munubbe Centre Participant Kenya Abdikadir Issa Centre Participant Somalia Mariam Idabaga Nchimbi Centre Participant Tanzania Vincent Ulargiw Centre Participant Uganda SOUTHERN AFRICA Lilian Chochi Centre Participant Botswana Josephine Marura Kitala Centre Participant Botswana

WEST AFRICA Zakaria Mariam Centre Participant Ghana Abdulai M. Bassie Centre Participant Sierra Leone

RUBACON CENTRE PARTICIPANTS ASIA

SOUTHERN ASIA Unnikrishnan Nair Centre Participant India Ahmad Jamal Akram Centre Participant India

13

SOUTHEAST ASIA Lu Chenpin Centre Participant Malaysia Anna Lou Abatayo Centre Participant Philippines Mai Thuy Centre Participant Vietnam Pham Quang Huy Centre Participant Vietnam

SOUTHWEST ASIA Mamuka Djibuti Centre Participant Georgia To Be Appointed Centre Participant Turkey

MIDDLE EAST To Be Appointed Centre Participant Iraq

RUBACON CENTRE PARTICIPANTS AMERICAS

CARIBBEAN BASIN Janeen Saunders Centre Participant Dominican Republic Sharon Beepath Centre Participant Trinidad &Tobago

CENTRAL AMERICA To Be Appointed Centre Participant Belize To Be Appointed Centre Participant El Salvador To Be Appointed Centre Participant Honduras To Be Appointed Centre Participant Mexico Elly Antonio Castro Aguilar Centre Participant Nicaragua NORTH AMERICA To Be Appointed Centre Participant United States

SOUTH AMERICA To Be Appointed Centre Participant Bolivia To Be Appointed Centre Participant Brazil

14

RUBACON CENTRE PARTICIPANTS EUROPE

CENTRAL EUROPE To Be Appointed Centre Participant Poland To Be Appointed Centre Participant Slovakia

EASTERN EUROPE To Be Appointed Centre Participant Ukraine

SOUTHEAST EUROPE Milena Ilieva-Sapunova Centre Participant Bulgaria

WESTERN EUROPE To Be Appointed Centre Participant United Kingdom

MIDEGO HEALTH CENTRE PRIME PARTNERS

Elvira Beracochea MIDEGO United States Gina Stracuzzi MIDEGO United States Michael Bright (Deceased) Natural Medicine Netherlands Bridget Shuri Anyu AGIR Cameroon Unnikrishnan Nair PRIME LABS India Jonathan Nkombe ARSDA Tanzania

Christine Naluswata Gods Mercy Women Assoc. Uganda David Sabiiti Kibagoo Hope for Kyomya Uganda Eleanor Tsitsi Gondongwe TOVCC Trust Zimbabwe

PRIME PARTNERS - ACADEMIC PARTICIPANTS AND

GOVERNMENT PARTICIPANTS (Avai lable Upon Request )

ARCHITECTURAL SPECIALISTS

Carmelo Enriquez National Architect Philippines Vera Polido Baeta National Architect Portugal

15

To Be Appointed National Architect Ethiopia Timothy Burkey Architectural Design United Kingdom Yusimi Portieles Tropical Architecture Mexico Huong Huynh Thi Quoc National Architect Vietnam

SUPPORTIVE ORGANISATIONS

ISCOWA Jan Senden Netherlands Progres Maria Janssen Netherlands Development Gateway United States Habitat International Coalition Andrea Carrión Chile Centre for Alternative Technology Gemma Light United Kingdom United Nations APCTT Said Ibeggazene India Global Village Energy Partnership Sarah Adams United Kingdom U N International Centre for Science and High Technology Italy David Laughing Horse Robinson Native Americans North America London Climate Change Agency United Kingdom World Bank Development Marketplace United States

REFERENCES

Architect Jonathan Zimmerman (Deceased) 2004 United States SKF 1994 Netherlands Energy Centre of the Netherlands 1984 Netherlands Delft University of Technology 1984 Netherlands Akzo Chemicals 1989 Netherlands Technical University of Denmark 1991 Denmark UNIDO 1987 Austria

16

FROM SHELTER TO HOUSE TO HOME NO-COST HOUSING INITIATIVE

The Des ign Team The novel shelter/house being designed by Arcilla Research, is a 'do-it-yourself' system, which can be put together by people themselves. The modular components are all based on locally available secondary and renewable resources. The American architect, Jonathan Zimmerman, noted for his curvilinear buildings and the Sigler residence in Pensacola Beach, Florida, which withstood the ravages of hurricane Ivan, will head an international team of designers. He is expected to work in close cooperation with architect colleagues in each host-country. The design work will be followed by production of an exact scale maquette composed of elements made from materials sourced in a specific developing country. Testing of the materials, maquette, shelter and ultimately the aerodynamic, hexagonal house is planned at institutes in the host countries. The maquette will assist in the resolution of technical problems prior to production of full-scale components and erection of a demonstration house for in-depth testing in the Euroregio. The basic design task will be followed by modification work to produce versions intimately related to specific regions, climates and cultural environments. For so many regions of the world, the RUBACON shelter/house must be resistant to earthquake and the elements. The team will also be called upon to create a design plan for an integrated rural community including housing area, innovation centre, industrial park, ancillary buildings and infrastructure. Design Constraints - Affordability - Easy to Manufacture Modular Elements - Do-it-self, Idiot-Proof System of Assembly - A Practical Logistic Plan for On-Site Production - Climatic Friendly and Energy Saving - Storm and Earthquake Resistant - Culturally Acceptable and Aesthetically Attractive It is hoped that the shelter/house system will find acceptance by NGOs engaged in humanitarian relief, as an alternative to the tent. A series of surface-glazed tiles based on colourful designs, reflecting the culture of each country and province, will form an integral part of the From-Shelter-to-House-to-Home programme.

17

The No-Cost Housing Ini t iat ive It is apparent that for people in a disadvantaged economic situation, such as so many of the people in developing countries, affordable or low-cost housing is unattainable. Only NO-COST housing can bring them out of the dire vicious-circle situation in which they find themselves. The Tsunami in South Asia in late December 2004 exacerbated the problem by leaving many thousands of people homeless, whilst in many regions; the economic structure has been destroyed as well. Now, more than ever, a solution to the desperate problem of housing must be found, a solution that is more than just rebuilding, but strategic and long-term. Arcilla Research of the Netherlands, pioneer in the field of ceramics without firing, has developed a family of unique materials made from secondary and renewable resources. By putting this technology to work in the context of a ‘No-Cost Housing Initiative’, Arcilla believes the vicious-circle situation, in which the homeless find themselves, can be broken. The initiative is structured and phased; above all, it will serve to empower people to help themselves. - Small-scale enterprises will be set up in major communities of the country. In

this way, the reservoir of human resources and their creativity can be tapped. - Each enterprise will become a production centre for building components using

the Arcilla Research technology and locally available secondary and renewable resources. They will be appropriate to the DIY construction system of the hexagonal shelter/house, which will be highly resistant to storm and earthquake.

- In the first phase of work, designs of tiles, cladding materials and special

furniture will be created and selected for eventual production. It should be noted that in many developing countries, South Africa for example, import of tiles is as much as 90% of the total quantity sold. It is planned that the designs will truly reflect the culture of the country and the region, rather than being, as is too often the case, merely ‘airport art’.

- Sales of the products will take place jointly thru the Arcilla Internet and

appropriate organisations in the country - with production on demand. - Profits will be ploughed back into the enterprises for production of shelter

panels made from agricultural by-products, such as straw, wood sawmill waste, bagasse, and natural fibre.

- In the next phase, production will take place of ‘CERAFOAM’ pellets for

application as insulative wall panels and insulation in the animal husbandry industry.

18

- In this stage, structural wall panels will be produced and installed. The panel may then be given a coating in an attractive colour or a thin panel of natural fibre adhered. Sound-softening, acoustic ceiling tiles will then be put in place.

- The finishing touch will be laying of floor, wall and terrace tiling selected by the occupants to be. Furniture chosen by the new homeowners will also be delivered, thus completing the transition ‘From Shelter to House to Home’.

The Plus Points of the No-Cost Housing Ini t iat ive - Significant Reduction of Homelessness - Manufacture and Installation by the Homeless Means Savings in Cost - Made Essentially from Locally-available Secondary and Renewable

Resources - Import Substitution - Eliminates Import of Building Materials - Use of Secondary and Renewable Resources is Positive to the Environment - High Durability and Low-Cost Upkeep - Sensible Lightweight Construction System – Saving Lives in Times of

Disaster - Poverty Reduction Providing Benefit to People and the Economy

HOW THE OTHER HALF LIVES by Christ ina Tobias-Nahi, M.A.I .R.

It must be remembered that there is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to manage than the creation of a new system. For the initiator has the enmity of all who would benefit by the preservation of the old institutions and merely lukewarm defenders in those who would gain by the new ones. - Niccolo Machiavelli - (1469-1527) In undertaking a Social-Economic-Technical Study of any given region, we must not only develop a majestic vision (which is an easy enough feat) but also the means for overcoming the constraints (and this tends to be harder!). When drawing up plans for a developing country in the conference room, it must be remembered that the goal is the conception of a design that promotes the domestic industry, local materials and application of appropriate technologies. This paves the road for approval by the host country and ideally, acceptance by the people for whom the project is targeted. J. Riedell1 says, "Sometimes, when design drawings are carried out, the initial purpose of the project is lost.

19

The construction designer plans a nebulous goal for himself, whereby the user is no longer consulted and little thinking about alternative solutions and users’ interests is done." This is what we are attempting to avoid - grand projects in the heads of foreign-trained minds. The target populations will be there long after the visionaries have gone away. Arcilla Research and the RUBACON Programme are there to offer then, those alternative solutions - give a person a fish and you feed him for a day; teach a person to fish and you feed him for a lifetime. We are well aware, from the newspapers and television broadcasts that bombard us daily until we are left void of feeling, that there is a growing gap between the basic human needs of the majority of the world’s peoples and the response by their local governments. The solution is simple - mobilise the mass of poor to satisfy their own needs as they perceive them. or, as Schumcher said "start all economic reasoning from the genuine needs of the people and help the poor to help themselves.” This avoids the problems of misunderstandings that often arise between governments and impoverished groups. In addition, the groups get back a sense of control over their environment and over their lives - especially when it is something so essential as a place for the "self" - a shelter, sanctuary or "home". In orientating people to take responsibility for their future, they must also be made aware of their environment and the need to preserve its rare indigenous renewable resources. Even the non-economist will no doubt quickly understand the capitalist idea that replenishable equals cost-effective since non-renewable and non- replenishable equate competition and soaring prices. Once again the poor lose out in this equation, becoming not only poorer, but at the same time loosing even control of their destiny. Arcilla Research and the RUBACON Programme can help people help themselves. But, in order to do that - we need information about the people in our host country and project region: How many are they? How many will they be in at the end of the Century? Where do they live? Where do they work? How do they get from where they live to where they work? How much do they earn? What does that really mean in term of purchasing power, inflation, GNP, and national debt? What are their dreams and aspirations and political tendencies?

20

These are just a few of the questions that interest us, but are vital to our work. We must examine the communication and transportation system already in place to clearly understand the governments' intentions: Do they really want to reduce unemployment with labour-intensive self-help cooperative rural projects? Do they subsidise local industries and contractors and whom? What are current legislation and specifications for land and zoning and property values? Is there money available for investment? Even if the answer to the latter question is yes, we will always be reminded that it is difficult to promote a new system because the status quo is preserved by those currently holding power. But regardless of who holds the power, the startling facts are there and must be addressed: By the year 2000, the expected tripling of urban population in the Third World will mean that Third World countries will account for 65% of the world's urban population. This trend will continue to create enormous needs for the construction of housing and infrastructure. In addition, the exploration and exploitation of the vast unused and empty spaces of many Third World countries require public works and huge investments in technical infrastructure." (J. Rieclal) In other words, the problem is getting larger and more urgent! In conclusion, Arcilla Research and the RUBACON programmes not only address and isolate the looming problems, they aim to offer solutions and answers - a construction technology that corresponds to the natural and social environment and to the capacities of the construction and building materials industries. What better gift to offer a people - not just a free hand-out in a tepid government low-cost housing project - but a complete system - a technology to help them to better themselves. They may be your "lukewarm” recipients, according to Machiavelli, in the beginning, but later they will be your most credible and ardent supporters. Because in the end, they are supporting themselves and their own preservation. Bibliography: Handbook of National Development Plans, Metra Consulting. Cook + Kuhn, Editors, TIMS: Studies in Management Sciences; Planning Processes in Developing Countries, Vol. 17. Investing in Natural Resources, 2nd Ed. Youngquist, Walter 1.TIMS “Planning Development Processes in the Third World: The Construction Sector”

21

ULTRA-DENSE CERCON

Arcilla has spent many years of work in developing a high-density ceramic concrete material known as 'CERCON'. Curing or hardening takes place by polymerisation at temperatures as low as 20 o C, rather than by firing. Conventional forming processes, such as extrusion, hydraulic press or injection moulding can be used, with stiffening taking place at room temperature or ~40 o C. Acceleration of the process can be accomplished chemically or by means of a phased heat treatment to 80o C. or higher, resulting in extraction of a larger quantity of the fine pore water. Three major versions of CERCON have been studied: - ARCILLA based on secondary resources and quartz sand - PYRAMIC based on primary powders and zircon sand or carbon fibres - RUBACON based on secondary and quartz sand or renewable resources The RUBACON versions use mineral powders from secondary resources and quartz sand. However, the sand may be replaced by chopped straw, thatching grass or bagasse, resulting in a material that is lightweight and sawable. Although the bending strength of an ARCILLA version is ~ 40 MPa and nearly 100 MPa in the PYRAMIC version, this was achieved at relatively low forming pressure. It is believed that the strength properties can be significantly increased by improvement of the granulometry, and high-frequency vibratory or percussion compaction. It is anticipated that RUBACON versions will have properties that far exceed cement/wood chipboard, a material approved in the UK for construction of housing up to three stories. Incorporation of fine fibres during fabrication substantially increases impact resistance and reduces shrinkage. A composite containing carbon fibres, recently tested in the laboratories of a large engineering firm, gave high bending strength results - nearly 100 MPa. Chemically bonded ceramics show good market growth potential due to the fact that high-performance, cost-effective products can be formed of almost unlimited size, using straightforward, economic production processes. The worldwide crisis of concrete has been well publicised in the media. Examples abound of buildings and other structures suffering from a disease called 'concrete rot'. Entire blocks of flats, roadways and bridges are disintegrating beyond repair.

22

The problem, however, is not confined to concrete. Acid rain and other corrosive atmospheric pollutants are causing stone surfaces of historical churches and monuments to crumble at the touch of a hand. In industry, annual repair bills caused by the problems of corrosion and erosion are astronomical. Surface treatment can perform a useful role in protecting pipes, silos, tanks and sumps. Formulations have been designed as coatings, impregnators, facings, grouts, mortars and adhesives to protect, refurbish or enhance specific substrata, concrete, brick, natural stone or metal. Properties to be examined include: adhesion, density, durability, hardness and heat and corrosion resistance. Concrete floors and structures treated with coatings have shown excellent resistance to wear by erosion and attack by almost all corrosive chemicals, including acid rain. Coatings can reduce or eliminate damage by frost, forming a durable barrier to weathering, whilst allowing the treated surfaces to 'breathe'. As industrial flooring or cladding, formulated with abrasion-resistant aggregate, coatings and facing compounds can save money lost by erosion. In cases where extreme delamination or loss of structural integrity has occurred, consolidation and strengthening of the substratum by means of an impregnator.is possible. Surface staining caused by 'bloom' or salt efflorescence can be corrected and further damage prevented. The colour and gloss may be varied as appropriate to give a glaze-like surface, where appearance or hygiene is vital. Resistance to elevated temperatures could open up applications as chimney liner and refractory coating. Aggressive corrosive environments play havoc to metal in industrial process plants, marine installations and underground pipe. Coatings on metal appear to have excellent adhesion; a special coating has even been developed for curing in winter temperatures as low as 50 C. The two-component formulations consist of a homogenised blend of selected dry ingredients: fine mineral powders, graded aggregate, colorant and additives, plus the liquid binder. In a fibre-reinforced version, impact resistance and structural integrity are enhanced and slump reduced in vertical applications. Coatings may be applied by a spray system; spraying orientates the fibre in a two-dimensional configuration for increased strength. A wide-ranging programme of ultra-dense materials are poised for commercial development, based on primary, secondary and renewable resources from industries as diverse as mining, manufacturing and agriculture. A new RUBACON binder especially for use with renewable agricultural resources makes these fibres, straws and grasses water repellent. Substitution of sand by enhanced organic aggregate

23

opens up new possibilities, creating a range of lightweight ‘Ecomaterials’ that is ‘gender sensitive’. A short list would include: - Roof and wall panelling and monolithic shell structures - Wall, floor and terrace tiling - Wear and corrosion-resistant flooring, cladding and foundation slabs - Sewer, duct, water and irrigation piping

24

- Road building and bridge deck repair - Corrosion-resistant flooring and elements for the animal husbandry industry - Agricultural and industrial containers resistant to corrosion and bacteria growth - Corrosion-resistant protective zinc-free coating of steel - Internal pipe coating when an impediment-free product flow is desired - Surfacing of entire interiors to create bacteria-free environments - Engineering ceramics and electrical insulators - Seamless, seismic-shock resistant containers for hazardous waste transport and

storage

ULTRA-DENSE CERCON Low-Cost Road Repair and Road Construction

Many years of work have been spent by Arcilla in developing a high-density ceramic concrete material known as 'CERCON'. The material is composed of fine powders and aggregate of various types and may find application in road building and road repair. Curing or hardening takes place by polymerization of the mineral binder at temperatures as low as 20 o C, rather than by firing. Forming processes used in conventional road building may be used, with stiffening occurring at room temperature or ~40 o C. Acceleration of the process can be accomplished chemically or by means of a phased heat treatment to 80 o C. or higher, resulting in extraction of a larger quantity of the fine pore water. For this purpose, industrial microwave techniques may usefully be employed. The Mater ia l Composi t ion The RUBACON version of ‘Ultra-Dense CERCON’ makes use of fine powders from secondary resources such as fly ash or bottom ash from coal-burning power stations, mine tailings, laterite earth or volcanic ash. While quartz sand is commonly used as the aggregate, it may be replaced by furnace slag, mine tailing sand or rubber tyre waste in the form of fine granules. The Mater ia l Propert ies A bending strength of ~ 40 MPa has been achieved at relatively low forming pressure; it is believed, however, that the strength properties can be significantly increased by improvement of the granulometry and the system of compaction. Good laboratory-scale results have been achieved with high-frequency percussion compaction, but it is anticipated that even higher densities can be achieved by high-frequency vibratory compaction. Obviously, the compressive strength of these materials is significantly superior to un-reinforced concrete. At the same time, the high resistance to corrosion by acid, salt and alkali is an important property of Ultra-Dense and, unlike asphalt; it is not affected by elevated temperature.

25

Benef i t s o f Fibre Incorporation of fine fibres during fabrication substantially increases impact resistance and reduces shrinkage. A composite containing carbon fibre was recently tested in the laboratories of a large engineering firm gave bending strength results of nearly 100 Mpa. This material contained no sand; the weight was, therefore considerably reduced from versions containing aggregate. Use of natural fibres could have price/technical advantages. Appl icat ions A wide-ranging programme of Ultra-Dense CERCON road repair and road building materials are poised for commercial development, based on secondary resources from industries as diverse as power stations, mining and manufacturing. Ancillary applications include: bridge deck repair, corrosion-resistant flooring and elements for parking lots and garages and low-cost feeder roads for plantations. Substitution of sand by rubber granule aggregate opens up new possibilities to create a material with applications in playgrounds, protection of the blind on road crossings and train platforms and tiling in public buildings. Roadbed Construct ion For use in the construction of roadbeds possessing superior compressive strength and resistance to water, a special technology has been created: RUBACON Adobe Systems. The technology for enhancement of earth and loam clay for a variety of applications is described in the following paper. Demonstrat ion As an important element of the RUBACON Programme of Sustainable Development, three demonstration projects of the technology are proposed: - Demonstration for Pothole Repairs - Demonstration for New Road Construction - Demonstration for Road Bed and Feeder Road Construction

26

PYRAMIC ULTRA-DENSE FIBERAMIC Non-brittle ceramics based on fine powder and natural fibre

Carbon Fibre Vers ion The flexural strength of this composite is comparative to natural slate and was achieved at a relatively low forming pressure and, as is the case of all ceramic materials in the family created by Arcilla Research, made without firing. Laboratory tests by a large engineering firm demonstrated bending strengths of close to 100 MPa. It is believed that the strength properties can be significantly increased by improvement of the granulometry, and use of high-frequency vibratory compaction. Bamboo Fibre Vers ions Arcilla plans to create ultra-dense versions based on fibres of a special type of bamboo. The fibres are known to be even stronger than steel. It is anticipated that the composites will find several major applications:

• earthquake and storm resistant housing and construction • shelter panels instead of tents in natural and man-made disaster situations • lightweight roofing panels • earthquake-resistant sheathing for conventional buildings • as a barrier wall against coastal erosion and flood • use in high-speed trains as replacement of cast iron holders for ball bearings • replacement of cast iron and concrete in tunnel wall construction

Applications of especial current interest are: • lightweight rotors for wind turbines • wind turbine tower elements

Processing using high-frequency vibratory compaction is expected to result in materials having even higher impact resistance and flexural strength than the carbon fibre version. Using long bamboo fibre and a fine particulate powder (micro) matrix, Arcilla Research seeks to develop lightweight rotors and support towers for wind turbines on land and in coastal waters. Advantages of F iberamic Mater ia ls PYRAMIC ULTA-DENSE FIBERAMIC composite materials have been produced at laboratory scale which behave like wood or metal, withstanding breakage by impact in ball drop tests. Incorporation of fine chopped fibre during fabrication reduces shrinkage to zero and substantially increases impact resistance. PYRAMIC materials are highly resistant to corrosive acid, salt and alkaline environments; this especially includes resistance to acid rain and seawater. A composite version with a matrix of alumina oxide has demonstrated excellent resistance to wear by erosion. Chemically bonded materials with fibre show good market growth potential due to the fact that high-performance, cost-effective products can be formed of almost unlimited size, using straightforward, economic production processes.

27

BUILDING RUBBLE UTILIZATION Physica l Descr ipt ion The crushing of housing and building demolition rubble results in a fine-grain by-product material known as breaker sand. Breaker sand is composed of sand, concrete, brick dust, small amounts of glass and other débris. The color varies, but is most frequently light brown. The large pebble fraction may find use in road construction. The Problem Utilization of breaker sand presents a problem because it contains small quantities of heavy metals, especially zinc and lead, and occasionally mineral oil. This severely hinders its use as a fill sand, while the fine grain structure precludes its use as aggregate for concrete. The present solution is dumping on a landfill, the cost of which varies from zero to €25 per metric tonne. I s Ut i l izat ion Poss ib le? Arcilla Research has developed a special binder system which can be employed for bonding of special types of aggregates and fine powders. At the Arcilla Research Centre, an exploratory study demonstrated that breaker sand can be bonded. Initial results gave a water absorption of circa 5.0 %. It is anticipated that product development work will reduce this figure to < 2.0 %. Approximately 15% binding agent is required to form a dense ceramic concrete product containing 65 % sand. Pre-treatment Due to the porosity of the aggregate, a special pre-treatment system developed by Arcilla will be used. In addition, classification by sieving, will be employed to produce an optimized grain size distribution. This process can be accomplished at the breaker facility. Potent ia l Appl icat ions Bonded rubble may be used for manufacture of a range of building and construction products such as: wall, floor and terrace tiles, brick-strips, rendering, wall paneling and cellular insulation.

RUBACON RUBBERAMIC Technology for Safe Healthy Flooring

Background Arcilla Research recently completed a study examining the combination of its mineral binder system with waste tyre granules. The result - a new material embracing the high-performance propertes of ceramics and the resilliancy of rubber.

28

RUBACON ‘RUBBERAMIC’ has a hard wear-resistant surface yet possesses the soft cushion-like feel of rubber. All of this is achieved without firing and, with properties of toughness and resistance to wear and corrosion, a number of high-impact applications were suggested: - non-slip road surfaces - bicycle path surfacing - playgrounds - flooring for animal husbandry stalls Its one less-attractive feature - the black colour - is overcome by colouring with ‘waste’ iron oxide (rust) as well as a range of natural mineral colours. The surface may be smooth, textured or profiled. The Process The process is straightforward; a special ceramic cement (CERMENT) paste is mixed with the polymer and fine chopped fibres. The mixture is formed into the desired shape, such as slab, facing or coating by one of several compaction techniques: extruder, hydraulic press, high-frequency hammer or vibrator. It is believed that spray-forming of the material is also a viable application technique. Curing may be carried out at ambient or room temperature or accelerated by gentle heat up to about 120 o C. Propert ies RUBACON RUBBERAMIC has the following properties and advantages: - Hardness - High Wear Resistance - Softness - Restful to Stand or Walk On over an Extended Time Period - Safe for Children, Handicapped and the Elderly - Slip Resistant - Aesthetically Attractive Colours and Surfaces - Flooring may be Colour Keyed - Hygenic - Easy to Maintain - Processing is at Ambient Temperature or Accelerated at 120 o C - May be Manufactured as Slab or Applied Directly to Concrete Floors at the

Building Site - Fibre Reinforcement means Net Forming and Dimensional Stability - Environment, People and Pocketbook Friendly Appl icat ions The excellent material properties suggest a myriad of applications for RUBBERAMIC: - Flooring in Public Buildings such as Airports, Hospitals and Sanitariums - Flooring on Cruise Ships - Flooring in Railroad Stations - Cerapanel and Cerashell versions for Earthquake Resistant Structures

29

RUBACON ADOBE SYSTEMS Roughly one-third of world housing is made from earth or loam. Being a natural and readily available material, it is used extensively in developing countries. Unfortunately, loam has limited resistance to the elements - rain, wind and sand. In addition to the time-consuming need for repair caused by erosion, freshly- made loam bricks suffer from fragility, tending to crumble at the corners, whilst high porosity hampers adequate grouting by cement. How can RUBACON help? RUBACON ADOBE Systems is a technology package of materials and techniques for improving the durability and other properties of earth and loam construction. A special additive increases plasticity and strength, reduces the water requirement by one-third or more and permits the sand aggregate to be doubled or even tripled. A RUBACON ADOBE brick has excellent resistance to water, whilst the less absorbent surface makes for easy and effective grouting. A low-density version - 300 Kilos/meter3 - made with chopped straw, can be used to produce insulative panels or bricks. CERACOAT, a ceramic coating with excellent adhesion to earth and loam surfaces can enhance the durability of all structures built of earth or loam - from houses to roads to historical monuments. Resistance to erosion by the elements is increased and the original natural surface restored or a new coloured and textured surface created. Durable Loam CERASHELL Bui ld ings and Structures The Arcilla technology for making ceramics without firing has recently been adapted for use with common loam clay. The new system will be incorporated into the RUBACON Programme for spray forming CERASHELL housing and structures from earth materials found at the building site. The system is consists essentially of two materials: - CERASHELL a fibre-reinforced, thin-section structural wall material - CERAFOAM an insulative cellular pellet for construction of the outer wall CERASHELL is composed of fine loam powder, graded sand, natural fibre, additives and the mineral binder system. It can be spray-formed or compacted by other techniques to form a thin-section - 4 to 10 mm - panel or sheet, possessing high flexural strength and stiffness, whilst incorporation of fine chopped natural fibre enhances toughness and impact resistance. CERAFOAM pellets are composed of treated loam powder, binder and special additives. Fully cured CERAFOAM weighs only about 150 kilos per meter2; floats on water and is resistant to fire, producing no toxic fumes. The fibre-reinforced matrix adds to the compressive strength and structural integrity of the wall, curing at ambient temperature within a period of a few days.

30

Appl icat ion Scope of RUBACON ADOBE Systems The new technology has almost boundless applications, a sampling of which includes the following: road and feeder roads, roofing sheet, interior wall panelling, tiles, foundation elements, paving stones, storage containers and silos.

RUBACON APACA CERAFOAM PELLETS CERAFOAM is a lightweight, highly insulative 'cellular ceramic'. It is non-combustible and does not contain or give off any noxious gases, making it safe to use and work with. In spite of its sponge-like appearance, the material is surprisingly resistant to water penetration and can float indefinitely due to its semi-closed cell structure. An open cell version is also possible for hydroponics and acoustic applications CERAFOAM is made of essentially 100% fine mineral powder together with a special mineral binder and additives. Use of secondary resources such as fly ash, a residue produced in large quantities by coal-fired power stations, coupled to the low energy requirement (≤ 120o C) makes it environmentally advantageous and economical on energy and raw materials. It is not only light and insulative, but also strong and heat resistant, to over 1000° C. RENEW versions based on fine particulate cellulose powders such as sawdust, bagasse, thatching grass and straw have recently been developed. The acronym APACA stands for the Arcilla-developed programme of special techniques for the production of Aggregate and Pellets for Application in Construction and Agriculture. The CERAFOAM technique can be used to produce pellets of low specific weight and considerable strength. High production thru-put should give the APACA CERAFOAM pellet price/technical advantages. CERAFOAM pellets based on fly ash are fire-resistant and experience no loss of integrity at temperatures of up to 1000 o C. CERAFOAM pellet types made from other fine particulate powders, such as waste gypsum, could find use as medium temperature insulation for industrial applications. Pellet specimens in two weight classes have been produced to date: 0.250 and 0.125. The diameters may range from 0.25 cm to 2.5 cm, to obtain a granule distribution close to optimal. In certain applications, such as wall cavity fill, pellets of a single diameter may even be preferable. The pellets may be bonded with CERAWELD, a specially developed ARCILLA adhesive. The incorporation of fine polypropylene fibres in the matrix enhances the processing properties, reduces shrinkage, maintains structural integrity and improves the compressive strength. APACA CERAFOAM Pellets may be used to produce insulative wall panels, spray-formed 'Cerashell' structures, ceiling tiles and acoustic panelling.

31

A lightweight modular element, composed of CERAFOAM pellets, with Ceracoat surface treatment, could be developed for industrial and domestic chimney applications. Chimney elements, currently on the market, are usually made from materials which are heavy and expensive. This product is vulnerable to replacement by a well-designed modular system that is lighter, less costly and easier to install. The new APACA CERAFOAM pellet could have the following applications: wall cavity insulation, production of building blocks, panels and special forms, exterior pipe insulation, construction material for off-shore platforms and light-weight structural forms. CERAFOAM pellets are intended to find application as wall and roof insulation in the very poor countries for affordable housing and agricultural construction. Surprisingly enough, the process techniques for making these materials are quite simple and straightforward: - MIXING After mixing the powders, binder and other ingredients to form a

slurry, the catalyst is added. - FORMING the activated slurry is extruded onto a simple non-stick, movable

pelletizer wheel for continuous production - CURING takes place at room temperature over a period of time but may be

accelerated by the use of a blower. Final curing can make use of warm air at a temperature of ≤120° C.. No firing is required.

Two different weight configurations have been produced: Material 1 - RUBACON CERAFOAM 250 Material 2 - RUBACON CERAFOAM 125 PROPERTY Material 1 Material 2

Density (g/cm3) 0.250 0.125 Water absorption ~ 30% by weight ~ 30% by weight Hygroscopic factor very low very low Thermal shock resistance excellent excellent Heat resistance 1000 ~1000 Alkali, salt and acid resistance very good very good

32

CERAFOAM INSULATION Comparison with other Materials

Product Type kg/m3 W/mK Value Cellular Concrete 400 0.17 Light Concrete 500 0.17 Light Concrete 300 0.12 Light Concrete 250 0.10 Leca Concrete 1050 0.3 Polyurethane Foam 30-150 0.023-0.035 Phenol Foam 25-200 0.035 Hard PVC Foam 25-50 0.035 Polystyrene 10-60 0.035 Foamed Cavity Wall 20-100 0.054 Wood Hardboard 1000 0.29 Wood Soft board 250-300 0.08 Wood Chipboard 1000 0.29 Wood Chipboard 600 0.15 Wood Chipboard 450 0.10 Wood wool Cement 350-700 0.09-0.21 Foamed Glass 125-150 0.05-0.06 Mineral Wool 35-200 0.04 Lytag Pellets 1200-800 ? Leca Pellets 360-320 0.113 Fresh Snow 80-190 0.1-0.2 Old Snow 200-800 0.5-1.8 Ice 900 2.2 Water (10 o C) 1000 0.58 Air (0-25 o C) 1.2 0.023 CERAFOAM * 350 0.14 CERAFOAM * 250 0.10 CERAFOAM * 200 0.09 CERAFOAM * 150 0.08 CERAFOAM * 125 ±0.05 * Note: Estimated in comparison with rigid inorganic cellular materials.

33

RUBACON CERASTRAW AND CERAWOOD CERASTRAW and CERAWOOD are a group of bonded particle materials with special properties. Although results from in-depth testing have yet to come, initial tests have demonstrated that the materials could be combustion resistant and fire retardant. The materials appear to be quite resistant to water and moisture swelling. The insulative values of these materials are relative to their density. Four binder possibilities suggest themselves: Binder 1 The Arcilla-developed mineral binder enhanced with micro mineral

powder extracted from straw Binder 2 This binder is based 100% on straw micro mineral powder Binder 3 Binder 1 with straw pre-treated by impregnation with Binder 4 in a

reduced concentration Binder 4 Bonding with the new binder especially developed for fibrous and

cellulose materials with pre-treatment as an option The materials can be produced from a variety of straw types and in high and low density versions, three examples of which will be examined in this profile sheet. Material 1 - CERASTRAW/CERAWOOD HD Material 2 - CERASTRAW/CERAWOOD LD Material 2 - CERASTRAW/CERAWOOD VLD Material 1 incorporates mainly fibrous particles in the composition. The binder matrix proportion to fibre is such that a strong rigid or flexible material is formed. As board, sheet or shell, this material can be produced in varying thicknesses down to 0.3 mm. It is believed that a lamination process could develop a product of very high flexural strength. In addition, the high-strength and 'sawable' property makes it suitable for application as an exterior and interior sandwich panel. For enhanced strength and appearance, a wood veneer finish may be applied to create a sandwich construction, or the surfaces may be 'Ceracoated'. Optionally, the HD material may be coloured to produce a fully colour-impregnated board. All versions are surprisingly resistant to fire - emitting no toxic fumes - or swelling caused by moisture. Material 2 is composed of fibre and chip particles and binder matrix. The proportion of particles to binder is much higher. The lower density of the material makes it insulative and suited as interior panelling and acoustic ceiling tile. Material 3 is a foamed version composed of chips and binder matrix. The proportion of particles to binder matrix is very high; the extremely low density of this material makes it suitable as the insulative wall component of the building system. It is expected to be particularly suitable as insulative roofing and walls for animal stalls to protect the animals against the effects of high temperatures during the hot summer months.

34

- MIXING the fine powder component is mixed with the liquid binder to form the Cerment paste, into which the pre-treated straw is added. - FORMING the mixture is pressed in a mould to produce a sheet. Heat

treatment can accelerate stiffening, enabling mould release to take place within minutes.

- CURING the formed material is cured by gentle heating in stages up to 125° C.. Microwave coupled with hot air or solar energy plus wind blower are two energy-efficient systems, with curing in only minutes for thin section boards.

BONDED CERASTRAW/CERAWOOD PLUS POINTS - Full density range of materials is possible as indicated in this profile sheet - The range of materials makes possible production of a ‘Cerastraw’ or

‘Cerawood’ house - The flexural strength of the HD version should be >6 x that of cement bonded

boards - Both types of binder systems have high resistance to water, heat, fire and

corrosion - The materials have high resistance to swelling and rot - The high degree of adhesion of the binders means incorporation of a high

volume of particles - The cured board is free of water and may be veneered using either binder as

adhesive - The board may be produced in a range of mineral colours or colour coated - Sandwich or multi-layered laminates can further enhance the strength

characteristics - High-frequency vibratory or percussion compaction offers price/technical

advantages - A special spray-forming system makes curvilinear ‘Cerashell’ in-situ production

feasible BONDED CERASTRAW PRECONDITIONS - A short period of materials technology adaptation is required - Categorisation of straw is vital to the success of a programme for straw

utilisation - Pre-treatment of the chips to enhance the water, heat and alkali resistance - A short learning curve is necessary to work with new types of process

equipment - Processing of ‘reject’ straw to create a fine particulate mineral powder

35

PROPERTIES MATERIAL 1 MATERIAL 2 MATERIAL 3 Density (g/cm2) 0.65 0.45 ≤0.25 Compressive strength not determined not determined not determined Flexural strength 18 N/mm2 * 12 N/mm2 N A Modulus of Elasticity < 20 GPa < 16 GPa not determined Lineal shrinkage ~0.0 ~0.0 ~0.0 Water absorption ~0.0 ~0.0 not determined Thermal resistance not determined not determined not determined Impact resistance not determined not determined not determined Alkali, salt and acid resistance excellent excellent excellent

WASTE GYPSUM UTILISATION Amongst the many studies of fine particulate powders, Arcilla has carried out research aimed at finding utilisation possibilities for waste gypsum. Potentially harmful to the environment, world-wide and large-scale production of waste gypsum derives primarily from two sources: - Flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) installations at coal-burning power stations; - Chemical fertilizer plants. Arcilla has over the years engaged in several studies of these two distinct, yet related gypsum materials: The first study in 1982 for the Swedish firm Fläkt, explored the use of a FGD product from Fläkt installations. This FGD ash is essentially calcium sulphite combined with fly ash and containing small quantities of reactive lime. The Arcilla process, which required low temperature firing, was not developed further. Exploratory work was conducted in 1985 on phospho-gypsum from a large Dutch chemical fertilizer firm. In 1987, a short study was made on a new FGD ash, which derived from a reaction with limestone powder. The Danish firm Niro Atomizer provided ash samples. In 1988 and 1989, Arcilla carried out two separate studies on waste phospho-gypsum materials, the former based on waste from a Belgian chemical fertilizer plant, and the latter material coming from Finland. Subsequently, Arcilla, as part of a project financed by the Danish Ministry of the Environment, completed a piece of work based on FGD product from a power station near Århus.

36

Arcilla is currently engaged in a project to develop new materials using converted FGD product as binder / matrix in combination with reinforcement fibre or cellulose fibre, the latter made from waste newspaper by an Arcilla-developed process. A special technology has been created by Arcilla, which alters the hygroscopic nature and reactivity of the gypsum and results in a material with entirely new properties. The Arcilla dual processes for FGD ash and waste phospho-gypsum utilisation could be useful for manufacturing a variety of products. The conversion process opens up the possibility of producing a range of bonded ceramic products from semi-dense to low-density versions; an inventory of potential products is given below. - CERAFOAM sheet, in varying thicknesses and densities, could find application

as building insulation panelling or high-temperature insulation. - In pellet form, CERAFOAM could be used for cavity wall insulation and,

perhaps, for hydro culture. An open cell version could find use as formwork for controlled permeability in the cast concrete industry.

- Fibre reinforced (FIBERAMIC) sheet or panel material, possessing properties superior to gypsum board, could be developed into interior wall panelling or ceiling tiles. Several fibre-reinforcement techniques, particularly with chopped polypropylene fibre, have been tested with success as a way of making low-weight, high-strength cellular materials.

Laboratory-scale pieces have also been made containing cellulose fibres produced from waste newsprint by a new process developed by Arcilla. Reinforcement of both low-density cellular CERAFOAM and medium-density materials with cellulose and/or straw fibre can provide added impact resistance and toughness. The production processes required are quite simple: the waste gypsum is mixed together with special chemicals, after which the product is formed and cured at a temperature of circa 130° Celsius. The immense problems created by phospho-gypsum and FGD ash product can best be solved through utilisation. Gypsum products do have lower resistance to acid and lower strength than those made with high silica content materials such as Fly Ash and micro silica; this limits their use outdoors. A summary of the main advantages is: - Low hygroscopicity - Off-white in colour - High density / high strength alternative to conventional gypsum board - Low-density closed cell material possessing high insulation value - Open cell form incorporating cellulose fibre from ‘waste’ newspaper - Inexpensive Although not suitable for structural applications or exposed outdoor use, gypsum products are expected to complement the RUBACON range of building materials.

37

RUBACON CERAPANEL CONSTRUCTION CERAPANEL is a sandwich composed of cellular insulation between two fibre-reinforced high-strength dense panels. The outer panel is a ceramic coated, non-woven, fibre matte, which provides at once a low-cost shelter in the first stage of construction. The special non-boxlike design system allows for placement in later stages of the insulative and structural components, creating extremely safe buildings of remarkable wind, earthquake, and fire-resistance. Fluid harmonious building forms, in a range of attractive colours, can be created using locally available resources to reflect the aesthetic and cultural diversity of the inhabitants. The on-site production system, circumventing factory manufacture, avoids the economic and design constraints imposed by conventional materials, which have condemned us to living in boxes. RUBACON has developed a high-density matte composed of chopped natural fibre, straw or grass embedded in a matrix of a special composition. The non-woven fibre material is the core of a cost-effective composite for use as panel or shell in building, construction and agriculture. The properties, particularly high flexural and compressive strength, heat, corrosion and wear resistance, make it possible to surface treat the matte in a rigid or flexible coating composed of permanent mineral colours. FIBERAMIC has high impact resistance, structural integrity and dimensional stability. Shrinkage, following demoulding and curing at ambient temperature or accelerated by gentle heat, is close to zero or net shape. The structural version of FIBERAMIC, used as the inner panel, is a thin-section, fibre-reinforced sheet material. The composition of fine particulate powders and fine graded aggregate, bonded by the mineral binder system give it high rigidity and fracture toughness. Flexural strengths from 40 to 100 N/mm2 have been achieved with impact resistance and toughness from 2.5 x to >10 x that of conventional ceramics. A choice of two RUBACON materials is offered to form the insulation wall: - CERAFOAM, a lightweight cellular material in the form of bonded pellets. The

weight of the pellet is ~ 150 kg/meter3; the bonded material is ~ 200 kg/meter3. In addition to forming the walls, CERAPANEL may also be used as roofing.

- CERASTRAW, a foamed version made of chopped straw, wood chips, bagasse,

thatching grass or other natural fibrous renewable materials. The proportion of chips to the Cerment matrix is very high; the extremely low density of this material creates an insulative wall component with properties superior to baled straw.

38

Summing up the sa l ient features of FIBERAMIC: * Compositions may be defined to meet specific target specifications * Versions can be thin or thick, flexible or rigid, as required * Choice of fibre may be natural or man-made to meet the specifications * The total weight of the finished outer panel @ 1 mm thickness is ~ 1 kilo per

meter 2 * The high durability of ceramic materials speaks for itself * Protection against intense sunlight and resistance to ultraviolet radiation * High resistance to heat, fire and water * The materials may be recycled, are people, environment and pocketbook

friendly For protecting organic and inorganic fibres from deterioration caused by moisture, corrosive environments, oxidation at elevated temperatures and flammability, RUBACON has developed a system composed of two distinct components: 1. Barrier Sheath. 2. Ceramic Coating The first component is a water-resistant, water-repellent, flexible film or sizing which, during the process, effectively acts as a barrier against penetration by the liquid ceramic coating, ‘Ceracoat’, which can impregnate porous fibre and rigidize it. The barrier film also protects the fibre from the destructive effects of a liquid or gaseous corrosive environment. The second coating, of a special composition, encapsulates the fibre filaments or tow and enhances the protective sheath, insulating the fibre from destruction by heat and preventing penetration by oxygen or water. Ceracoat may be formulated in one of several versions: rigid or flexible, natural white or coloured, opaque or slightly translucent. CERAPANEL is very durable, possessing excellent resistance to chemical corrosion or attack by acid rain. Its outer wall surface can 'breathe' but still withstand erosion by weather, including damage by frost. It is anticipated that housing and other structures built of CERAPANEL sandwich walls and roofing filled with CERAFOAM pellets will have good thermal and sound insulative properties. The potential of CERAPANEL extends well beyond the borders defined by building. Aggressive corrosive environments in industrial process plants, agriculture and in animal husbandry, coupled to the lower materials costs, people and environment friendliness of the components, make obvious many other potential applications for CERAPANEL: - Road repair and construction. - Seawater resistance and colourfastness suggests use in boat building - Seamless, seismic-shock resistant containers for hazardous waste storage

39

- Canal dam walls and coastal erosion protection - Modular panelling for storage tanks and containers - Production of lightweight pipe and hollow beams

PYRAMIC CERATREAT SYSTEMS The worldwide crisis of concrete has been well publicised in the media. Examples abound of buildings and other structures suffering from a new disease called 'concrete rot'. Entire blocks of flats, roadways and bridges are disintegrating beyond repair. The problem, however, is not confined to concrete. Acid rain and other corrosive atmospheric pollutants are causing stone surfaces of historical churches and monuments to crumble at the touch of a hand. Natural weathering - erosion by rain, wind and sand - causes lasting disfigurement to buildings of loam and low-fired brick masonry. In industry, annual repair bills caused by the problems of corrosion and erosion are astronomical. PYRAMIC has developed a range of new surface treatment materials - 'CERATREAT SYSTEMS'. The two component formulations consist of a homogenised blend of selected dry ingredients: fine mineral powders, graded aggregate, fibres, colorant and additives, plus the liquid binder. CERATREAT SYSTEMS comprises: coating, impregnator, facing, grout, mortar and adhesive, each especially designed to protect, refurbish or enhance a specific substrata such as concrete, brick, natural stone or metal. CERATREATed floors and structures possess excellent resistance to wear by erosion and attack by almost all corrosive chemicals, including acid rain. CERATREAT can reduce or eliminate damage by frost, forming a durable barrier to all forms of weathering while, at the same time, allowing the treated surfaces to 'breathe'. In cases where extreme delamination or loss of structural integrity has occurred, CERATREAT has a system for the consolidation and strengthening of the substratum. Surface staining caused by 'bloom' or salt efflorescence can be corrected and further damage prevented. Aggressive corrosive environments play havoc in industrial process plants. CERATREAT can perform a useful role in protecting pipes, silos, tanks and sumps from corrosion. As industrial flooring or cladding, formulated with abrasion-resistant aggregates, CERATREAT facing compounds can save money lost by erosion. A special CERATREAT system for industrial application at elevated temperatures of 1000 o C. or more, has also been developed.

40

CERATREAT means COLOURTREAT. CERATREAT coatings can be produced in a beautiful range of colourful, attractive surfaces from satin matt to a gloss, glaze-like finish. Long-term durability keeps maintenance costs to a minimum. Application of CERATREAT materials is simple - curing to a water-resistant surface takes place in less than 12 hours. The general properties of these materials are a high resistance to corrosion and a high heat resistance at relatively low cost. Since the application areas for these materials are so broad, please contact us for more specific up to date information. CERACOAT is a hard, corrosion resistant ceramic coating ideal for use in building, construction and other industries. This section looks at two examples: Material 1 - CERACOAT 500 Material 2 - CERACOAT 1100 Ceracoat 500 is a ceramic coating, which has been developed especially with the building and construction industries in mind. It can be used as rendering to protect brick, concrete and other building materials, giving them a far greater resistance to weather corrosion. It can also be used as a strong adhesive patching compound for filling cracks in floors and walls. When used as a finishing coat, colour and gloss may be varied as appropriate. A second version of this material has been developed which is very slightly porous, giving it a lighter density and the ability to breathe, so that it is suitable for inner-wall coatings. Ceracoat 1100 is an aggregate-free ceramic coating that can withstand temperatures of up to 1100˚C or more. It could have many uses in industry including chimney lining and refractory coating on various substrata. This has also been developed in a second version intended as a finishing coat, either alone or applied to Ceracoat 500, providing a glaze-like surface where appearance or hygiene is important. Ceracoat can be produced in a Fiberamic version. A major use here would be for surface bonding of wall elements in building to create a sandwich construction and eliminate the use of grouting, so reducing labour costs. Fibre increases impact resistance, structural integrity and reduces slump in vertical applications. Ceracoat may be applied by spray, even with fibre. This makes possible fibre orientation in a two-dimensional configuration for increased strength. The production and application procedures for these materials are fairly simple and straightforward and they may all be cured at ambient temperature or heat accelerated if desirable.

41

CORROSIVE ATTACK ON HISTORICAL MONUMENTS AND CHURCHES

It has been well established that acid rain and other corrosive atmospheric pollutants can be the cause of concrete 'rot'. What is less well known and certainly less publicised, is the high degree of vulnerability of limestone, marble and low-fired brick masonry of historical churches and monuments and the problems associated with their deterioration. Rocks which originated as chemical or organic deposits are often very pure; some crystalline limestone is nearly 99 per cent calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The essential mineral in limestone, calcite, is quite soft (Moh's Scale No. 3) and easy to grind. Chalk needs hardly any grinding at all. Marble, a crystallised limestone, although very pure, is a far harder material to break up. At temperatures around and above 870oC, the CO2 in calcite is liberated as gas, resulting in CaO (quicklime). Quick and easy field tests for limestone are: a) hardness No.3 and b) pour a little hydrochloric acid on the rock. If it bubbles immediately and energetically, it is calcite; if only with difficulty it is a magnesium limestone or dolomite. Brick clays may often contain a high percentage of calcium carbonate; resistance to wear by erosion and attack by almost all corrosive chemicals, including acid rain, is lowered accordingly, more so when the firing temperature is low. Calcium is an active body flux at high temperatures and promotes glass forming, but such clays must be fired to temperatures around or above 1050oC for vitrification to occur. If calcia is not involved somehow in a silicate, a glassy part of the body, it remains as the very absorbent quicklime. Very low-fired porous bodies naturally absorb moisture from the air, however quicklime does so with attendant swelling which is enough to cause flaking or even complete shattering of a finished piece of work. If, in addition, firing is too rapid, 'black coring' may be caused by vitrification of the outer skin, which then acts as a seal, preventing complete burn out of the carbonaceous material in the clay. In fact, at low temperature, a slight expansion of the body takes place creating a rather porous friable brick; if calcium carbonate is present in excess, bloating may also result. Low-fired brick acts as a sponge, soaking up any acids and salts present in the rain and producing in successive, alternating rainy and sunny periods a highly concentrated corrosive solution. Delamination and surface staining caused by 'bloom' or salt efflorescence are some of the visible symptoms. Ultimately, the structural integrity of the brick is destroyed as the solution penetrates to the interior walls and enters the atmosphere of the building where, as acid damp, it eats away at all it encounters.

42

THE PROBLEM OF WATER TOO MUCH AND TOO LITTLE

The Problem of Water Comprising over 70% of the Earth’s surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. Without it, life on Earth would be non-existent; it is essential for everything on our planet to grow and prosper. Supplies of freshwater are finite. At the beginning of the 18th century, there were less than a billion people in the world, sharing less than a million cubic kilometres of freshwater. In 1900, there were about 2 billion people sharing the same amount. Now there are more than 6 billion people and the freshwater supply has remained constant or diminished. The populations of water-short countries, today estimated to be 550 million, are expected to increase to 1 billion by the year 2010. Water shortages will be especially adverse for agriculture in general and irrigation agriculture in particular. Recently, the Secretary General of the United Nations listed the five most serious problems facing our planet. On this list is - water. The problem of water is ironic; our planet suffers from an over-abundance of water whilst, at the same time, an acute shortage. Recent studies at the Arcilla Research Centre in the Netherlands, devoted to examining this challenging problem, concluded that Arcilla materials could play a major role in the solution. T h e S o l u t i o n Arcilla has, over a period of twenty-five years, developed a family of materials based on its mineral binder system and secondary resources. It has also created a special binder system for use with renewable resources such as straw, waste wood and natural fibres. Notable for their high strength and resistance to corrosion, the materials are friendly to people and the pocketbook. In bringing this technology to bear on the problem of water in all aspects, Arcilla has drawn up a preliminary list of the application areas and products as follows: Water and Sanitation Acid-Resistant Sewer Pipe Water and Sanitation Water Pipe for Hard and Soft Water

Agriculture / Health Lightweight Irrigation Pipe Water and Health Erosion Protection for Oceans and Rivers Renewable Energy Solaramic Cerametal for Warm Water

Water and Health Water Collector and Storage System Water and Health Seawater Desalination System W a t e r C o l l e c t o r a n d S t o r a g e S y s t e m Dealing solely with the problem of water shortage, Arcilla proposes a rainwater collector and storage system for home and community use. The system, in the form of dual thin-section fibre-reinforced tanks, is for placement in the ground.

43

A water-repellent fabric in funnel form will feed rainwater into the tank intended for use as cool water during the rainy period or season. The system will include a fail/safe water purification filter during both collection and extraction. The second tank, intended for hot water, is heated by an active ‘SOLARAMIC’ system comprised of a profiled panel of metallo-ceramic made from ‘waste’ black iron and fine particulate powder.

SOLARAMIC Seawater Desalination System

Desal inat ion Many countries, particularly the island nations, suffer from dependency on their water table in the form of elevated or sea level aquifers. Because the level of water consumption is usually quite high, the output often being greater than the input, use of desalination plants to convert seawater into fresh or potable water is a necessity. Unfortunately, desalination plants consume large amounts of electricity in order to operate. To tackle the energy problem of the desalination plant, an energy autonomous desalination system should be developed. It would be even more advantageous if the new system could also have a mobile version. Such a version could be put to use at specific locations and in times of urgent need. The recent Tsunami in South Asia was such an instance, clearly revealing the desperate need for such a system. The lack of water for the survivors meant that water had to transported by air from such far away places as the United Kingdom. Malta – a Case in Point The islands of Malta have no rivers or lakes, thus being dependent on their water table aquifers. Water consumption is very high, especially in the summer months, and since most of the islands are concreted over, there is much runoff and little infiltration to refill the aquifers. With an output exceeding the input, the use of desalination plants to convert seawater into fresh water is a necessity. At present, there are five desalination plants, consuming large amounts of electricity in their operation. To satisfy the needs of the large tourist population, bottled drinking water is commercially produced. So laramic Arcilla Research of the Netherlands, pioneer in the field of ceramics without firing, has developed a unique material having dual properties: those of an ultra-dense ceramic and iron. The metallo-ceramic or ‘CERAMETAL’, contains over 85% fine black iron oxide embedded in a matrix of fine particulate powder and inorganic binder. The material has all the virtues of metal, without, however, the principal flaw - oxidation or rusting. A profiled sandwich can be used outdoors to heat rainwater as it flows through its channels.

44

Plate glass serves to enhance the infrared rays of the sun, providing people with hot water. Arcilla has given this system the appropriate name – Solaramic. Enhanced Solaramic A new version, enhanced by a matrix composed of a special infrared sensitive mineral, and designed to operate as a seawater desalination system, is anticipated to provide an even more effective solution. A brief study of desalination systems currently in operation exposed the fact that the main obstacle to economic viability is the high-energy cost. With the state-of-the-art solar energy system - Solaramic, Arcilla believes that the problem can be washed away. Spin-of fs Spin-off ancillary applications abound: cleansing of polluted rivers and streams, detoxification of contaminated earth and optimal constant temperature operation of digesters for production of biogas from animal dung and agricultural by-products. Seawater Mineral Res idues In addition to giving us potable water, the process of desalination leaves behind some fifty-seven mineral residues. The minerals found in seawater include a number useful for application in the fields of food, medicine, cosmetics and even precious metals such as gold and silver. Of great importance to us, as well, is calcium carbonate. The Plus Points of the Solaramic Seawater Desal inat ion System - Low Cost to Manufacture - Low Cost in Operation - Made Essentially from Locally-available Secondary Resources - Use of Secondary Resources gives Environmental Advantages - Flexible System in Fixed Plant or Mobile Versions - Import Substitution - Eliminates Import of Water - Spin-off Applications Providing Attractive Economic Benefits - The processes are straightforward, accomplished at temperatures of 120 o C or less - Women and older children may take part in the production, installation

and operation Note: From the recent list of five high-priority problem areas given by the UN Secretary General, Arcilla is active in four: Water, Energy, Health and Agriculture. Keywords: Acid-Resistant, Secondary Resources, Renewable Resources. Erosion Protection Rain Water, Gender-Sensitive, Chemically Bonded

45

SOLARAMIC A System for Energy Autonomy

ARCILLA RESEARCH is a small, Dutch-based, enterprise, which has developed the technology of ceramics without firing. The innovative materials, products and systems impact upon the environment, physical resources and mass needs. The 'Arcilla' technology can be used to produce new and affordable building and construction systems. To create the energy autonomous house, an integrated active solar energy system - 'SOLARAMIC' - is under development. Essentially, the system is based on a unique material having dual properties: those of ultra-dense ceramic and iron. The metallo-ceramic or ‘CERAMETAL’ contains over 85% fine black iron oxide embedded in a matrix of fine particulate powder and binder. The matrix prevents oxidation or rusting of the metal particles, whilst the high percentage of metal gives high thermal conductivity. SOLARAMIC is designed as thin slabs profiled on one side with half-round grooves; it is assembled so that the half-round profiles form channels on the inside of the sandwich. On the upper surface, sheet glass enhances the strength of the infrared rays of the sun. Mounted on the roof top and slanted downwards, rainwater from a collector flows slowly through the channels to be heated. The hot water then passes down radiator pipes of the same material in the walls, heating the walls of the house before entering a similar pipe system in the floor, which is clad in CERAMETAL. A spin-off of SOLARAMIC is production of hot water to satisfy the washing and bathing needs of the household. To complete the process, the water from the heating system is pumped up to the roof where it begins its journey once again. RUBACON RENEW TECHNOLOGY FOR UTILISATION

OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES At the heart of the Arcilla Research RUBACON programme is a body of technology aimed at achieving maximum utilisation of agricultural by-products, grasses and plants. The RUBACON technology would use renewable resources as mineral binder component, fibre, organic additive, wood alternative, soil food and energy source. Implementation would mean creation of a range of new, cost-effective building and construction materials, in tune with the needs of people and the environment. Arcilla has chosen to call its technology - 'RENEW'. Production of cement extracts large quantities of primary resources from the earth and, at great cost in energy, creates a binder. Arcilla Research set out to discover a

46

cheaper, more effective way. By using agricultural by-products, the first synthesised version of the Arcilla-developed mineral binder was created. A study at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands succeeded in demonstrating the credibility of the new system that employs specific straw, husk and grass ash residue in combination with additives and water. The key advantages of the process compared to cement are threefold: a 'waste' or secondary resource is converted into a binder and - as a bonus - energy and natural fertilizer are produced. The promising results of the 'Delft' study encouraged Arcilla to proceed with further developmental work on the technology, now befittingly named 'RENEW'. Laboratory research led to development of a prototype system for making a straw particleboard bonded with a binder composed of processed straw ash. By replacing straw with fine graded sand, strong, dense materials were made, whilst in a composition using only fine particulate powders, cellular materials with insulative properties resulted. The new family of 'green performance' materials all share the chemical inertness, strength, thermal stability, hardness and aesthetic properties of fired ceramics. But with a difference - they can be cured at ambient temperature or slightly higher, saving a great deal of energy compared to conventional ceramics. A further advantage is the ease with which the materials can be shaped either as large flat sheets, hollow beams, contoured shapes, expanded foam structures or fibre-reinforced composites. Their higher strength compared to cement means that thinner, lighter panels or entire walls can be produced in situ. We have always believed that true cost-effectiveness should mean taking into account all the costs. Hopefully, in the near future, a more critical market will make even the term 'green performance' superfluous. Whilst engaged in a comparative study on natural fibres, Arcilla explored techniques for improving their properties by reducing the water absorption or regain and, at the same time, increasing resistance to alkali attack. Enhanced natural fibres such as hemp, sisal, coir and flax, by virtue of their price/technical advantages over man-made fibres, could become a stimulus to revitalising agricultural industry. To protect fibres from deterioration caused by moisture, corrosive environments, oxidation at elevated temperatures and flammability, a system composed of two distinct components has been developed: 1. Barrier Sheath 2. Flexible Ceramic Coating

47

The first component is a water-resistant, water-repellent, flexible film or sizing which, during the process, effectively acts as a barrier against penetration by the liquid ceramic coating, ‘Ceracoat’, which can impregnate porous fibre and rigidize it. The barrier film also protects the fibre, organic or inorganic from the destructive effects of a liquid or gaseous corrosive environment. The second component, a coating, of special composition, encapsulates the fibre filaments or tow and enhances the protective sheath, insulating the fibre from destruction by heat and preventing penetration by oxygen or water. The coating may be formulated in one of several versions: rigid or flexible, natural white or coloured, opaque or slightly translucent. Amorphous silica, because of its pozzolanic properties, has been used as a partial cement replacement for low-cost building materials in developing countries, where burning rice husk or straw in an incineration kiln has produced it. Despite price/technical advantages of the modified cement product, projects in countries such as India and Nepal have seldom achieved commercial viability. Collection and transport of the bulky feedstock to the incineration site, combined with the difficulty of obtaining a constant ash quality, led to the failure of most projects. Perhaps the most crucial factor, however, has been the unwillingness of farmers to part with the rice by-product, traditionally used as fuel for heating and cooking. Burning of straw and husk is not a straightforward technical process: - The feedstock (straw or husk) should first be compacted by briquetting - The temperature must be kept fairly low, within the range of 500-700 o C. - To obtain a clean ash, an oxidising atmosphere must be maintained in the kiln The RUBACON system for silica extraction is a natural biological oxidoreductase process based on specifically organised and controlled chemical and biochemical reactions. The molecular bonded products are isolated and separated by means of special clean bacteria cultures, including oxidoreduction. The process consists of 12 distinct component stages, all of which may be realised in a humble rural situation. The basic materials and products may be produced under simple laboratory conditions in a preliminary stage, after which the process may be up-scaled and operate on a self-reproducible basis. The main categories of feedstock, which can be used, are grain straws, tubular plants and grasses. Examples of each category are: - cereal straws and husks - miscanthus and bamboo - sharp grasses and weeds

48

Selection of the appropriate feedstock to meet target specifications for each application requires a plant classification system, which may be vertical, e.g. within the plant itself, horizontal, comparison of ashes from various plants or by creation of entirely new plant species that are purpose designed - genetically engineered. In addition to rice and wheat straw and husk, Arcilla has been able to synthesise its mineral binder from several other straws and grasses, even from the ash of the ubiquitous weed, popularly known as horsetail or shave grass (Equisetum arvense), a nuisance to farmers and gardeners. With its fir-like leaves, horsetail grass is a perennial, requiring little or no attention, spreading its roots rapidly and up to 20 metres deep. In common with elephant grass, bamboo, coffee, rice and other cereal grasses, it seems able to extract high levels of silica from the soil. In northern Europe, horsetail is found, for instance, on the west coast dunes of northern Jutland in Denmark and in the peat bogs of Ireland. Cultivation and harvesting of the leaves for processing into a mineral binder would open up a new agricultural industry, making use of marginal lands. Although horsetail seems to prefer sand-rich soils and marshy grounds; a variant of horsetail, or a plant of like properties, could conceivably grow and flourish in arid regions, where agro-industry could become the precursor of desert reforestation. Potters have used the ashes of plants, cereal grains and grasses for centuries to produce beautiful glazes. In ‘A Potter’s Book’ by the noted British potter, Bernard Leach, a table is presented on ashes used by Japanese ceramists to produce their celadon and other glazes. The data was gathered by Miss Katharine Pleydell-Bouverie in 1930 and contains the first system of grading ashes according to their hardness, based on the proportion of silica and alumina to fluxes such as calcium, sodium and potassium. With a view to enhancing the properties of its family of materials, Arcilla began work nearly two decades ago with ‘Micro silica’, an industrial by-product of the alumina process. In its search to find viable and less expensive alternative sources of silica and alumino-silica, studies were conducted on many plant ashes to determine their properties, primarily particle size, silica and alumino-silica content and proportion of ash by volume and weight to the dry organic feedstock. Influenced by the work of Miss Pleydell-Bouverie, initial trials were with wheat and rice straw and husk ashes. As with Micro silica, these ashes can judiciously be used not only as a supplement to enhance the properties of Arcilla materials but also as an alternative to create a less expensive version of the industrially manufactured binder. The following products could be obtained from the process: - amorphous silica as a component of the RUBACON binder for low-cost housing - cellulose as an important additive to the RUBACON binder system - biogas or alcohol for meeting rural energy needs and promoting new industry

49

- soil food (fertilizer) containing natural chemical nutrients for enhanced productivity

- urea as a biological pesticide - minerals and acids of importance to the chemical industry The RENEW oxidoreductase process for the extraction of silica is inexpensive, self-generating in energy, requiring little or no external energy input. The variables are the feedstock materials, the intermediary and final products. The process may be easily adapted to operate under a broad range of circumstances, such as soil and climatic conditions, plant type and market needs, making use of readily procurable or assembled equipment. No toxic products are involved in the RENEW process, except for one intermediary product which may be converted into a safe, usable form. In contrast to incineration, no carbon dioxide or monoxide is produced; the process does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. By making use of locally available resources, RENEW can play an important part as the motor of a programme to bring affordable housing within the reach of people everywhere. The properties of the dense version of a fine powder composition are as follows: Immersion in H2O One Side ± 9% by cured weight Immersion in H2O Complete ± 23% by cured weight Water Repellence Excellent - Water forms droplets on surface Surface Coating To enhance strength properties and reduce H2O

penetration The properties of the cellular version of a fine powder composition are as follows: Specific Gravity 270 Kilos / m3 Target S.G. 250 Kilos / m3 Water Absorption N A Surface treatment by Coating / Adhesive Water Repellence Excellent - water forms droplets on surface Surface Coating to enhance properties or Panel and reduce H2O

penetration Suggested Form Pellets to form sheet with superior strength Insulation Value Anticipated to provide excellent insulation in Walls /

Roofing and Animal Stalls At the Arcilla Research Centre, studies are being conducted to expand the technology employed in the treatment of fibre to the bonding of renewable resources such as wood chips, sawdust, bark, chopped straw, thatching grass, bagasse and other cellulose materials. A new generation of particleboards in high density, lightweight cellular versions and fibre-reinforced products is anticipated to be the outcome.

50

In combination with the mineral binder as coating and adhesive, the possibilities for creating ecologically friendly materials for building and construction can be realised. Being chemical, rather than thermal, it is friendly to people, the environment and saving in energy. Compared to cement and synthetic resins, it is less costly and more effective. Based on the new Renew materials, a system of instant shelter - From Shelter to House to Home - for the homeless everywhere is currently being designed by the RUBACON architectural design team. Two styles of lightweight construction are being designed, both with high resistance to storm and earthquake. Other applications for these materials are foreseen in agriculture, e.g. construction of animal stalls, storage containers and irrigation pipe. Conventional irrigation pipe is quite heavy and lightweight ‘gender-sensitive’ pipe of bagasse or straw will find ready acceptance by women and children who, in many developing countries, are obliged to take on the task of irrigation. RENEWABLE RESOURCES ASH OVERVIEW Plant/Fraction Source % Ash Hardness Volume Rating Bamboo Waste Banana Peel Colombia 17.54 High Excellent Coconut Pith India High Good Coffee Hulls Nicaragua Hard High Excellent Cotton Gin Stems Arizona 12.00 High Good Cotton Gin Stems Texas High Good Cotton Gin Cotton Zimbabwe 6.62 Low Fair Elephant Grass Flax Plant Waste Ireland Horsetail Grass Denmark >16.00 Hard High Excellent Lawn Mowings Hard Maize Foliage S. Africa 5.82 Miscanthus Stems Holland <3.00 Low Poor Rice Husk Sumatra >15.00 Very Hard High Excellent Rice Straw Jamaica Very Hard High Excellent Soya Bean Stems Albania High Good Sugar Cane Bagasse Cuba 12.58 Medium Good Sugar Cane Bagasse Sudan Thatching Reed Zimbabwe 7.03 Hard High Good Thatching Reed Zimbabwe 9.20 Hard Medium Good Tobacco Reject Dust Zimbabwe 34.66 Very High Excellent Tobacco Cigar Leaf Sumatra 19.88 High Excellent Water Hyacinth All Zimbabwe 15.1 High Good Wheat Straw Very Hard High Excellent Wheat Husk Very Hard High Excellent

51

SOLARAMIC A System for Creating Alternative Energy

Cerametal Many countries today seek to reduce their dependency on petroleum imports in view of current instability and the very high cost of oil. To create alternative energy, Arcilla Research of the Netherlands, pioneer in the field of ceramics without firing, proposes to employ a unique active solar energy system using its materials. The system, ‘Solaramic’, is based on a material having dual properties: those of ultra-dense ceramic and iron. The metallo-ceramic or ‘Cerametal’ contains over 85% fine black iron oxide embedded in a matrix of fine particulate powder and mineral binder. The matrix prevents oxidation or rusting of the metal particles, whilst the high percentage of metal gives high thermal conductivity. The Solaramic Des ign Cerametal is designed as a cylindrical tank, intended to be placed horizontally on or close to the ground. On the upper surface, sheet glass enhances the strength of the infrared rays of the sun. To equalize the temperature, the tank is rotated clockwise or counter clockwise, whilst its position in relation to the sun is also adjusted periodically. Movement of the tank is made either manually or mechanically. Arcilla ‘Cerafoam’ insulation may be positioned so as to maintain the desired temperature. The Solaramic System The anaerobic system, designed to digest animal dung, humanure and agro-waste, is anticipated to provide a sizeable proportion of our need for low-cost energy in the form of biogas or methane. In addition, a clean natural fertilizer will be produced and a substantial quantity of micro mineral powder, In a short study conducted on fertilizer from pig dung, it was found that the micro mineral content was ± 30 % by weight. The chemical and physical analysis is yet to come. Such powders are extremely important, used in nearly all of the Arcilla materials as a key component for high strength and durability. In the field of cement-based building products, under the name of Micro Silica, a similar powder is used to enhance strength and density. Micro Silica is a by-product of the alumina industry and has a high commercial value, whereas the powders produced by the Solaramic digester are derived from plants, animal and human manure. Natural Fert i l izer Obviously, it is important to have comparative figures on chemical fertilizer to learn how much mineral must ideally be retained in the fertilizer for insuring that the soil is rich and fertile. Many government are today encouraging farmers to use natural fertilizer in preference to chemical. In some countries, such as Nigeria, human excrement is collected and sold to farmers for use on their land. Such practices are extremely dangerous to the helth of the population.

52

Enhanced Solaramic A new version under development, enhanced by a matrix composed of a special infrared-sensitive mineral, is expected to be even more effective in creating the desired temperature. For impact strength, a special fibre is used as reinforcement. A brief study of digester systems currently in operation exposed the fact that the main drawback is the inability to maintain a constant temperature. Optimisation of the process requires that a temperature of 45-55 o C. must be maintained day and night in all seasons of the year. With its state-of-the-art solar system - Solaramic, Arcilla believes that technical/economic viability is assured.

CONTAMINATED EARTH AND SLUDGE IMMOBILISATION TECHNOLOGY

Contamination of earth, clay and sludge by oil, pesticides, toxic organic chemicals and heavy metals has created serious problems to the environment of almost all industrial countries. At the same time, these very same toxic chemicals pollute many rivers and streams. Costly, controlled storage or firing at high temperatures, with the attendant risk to people and the environment are believed to be the only options currently available. Immobilisation without firing, whereby leaching into the ground water of the hazardous chemicals is prevented, has been considered hitherto all but impossible. A recent study at the Arcilla Research Centre in the Netherlands, devoted to finding a solution to this challenging problem, has resulted in development of a three-stage process for treating this category of materials, which renders them virtually immobile. The first stage treatment converts the plastic loam or sludge into a relatively non-plastic material with significantly reduced water absorption. During the second stage, a special ceramic cement (CERMENT) paste is mixed with the powder and the mixture is formed into the desired shape, such as a round pellet. The pellets are combined with a 'clean' Fiberamic Cerment matrix in the third stage of the process to create a fail-safe system. The three stages of the process are carried out at temperatures of ~120o C. For cleansing of waterways, zeolites would be used in the first stage to take up the pollutants. The contaminated zeolite material would then be mixed with CERMENT and formed into a dense pellet. In the third stage, bonding of the pellets to form a dense slab would provide a fail-safe protection against leaching. Arcilla proposes initiation of a two-phase test and product development programme aimed at perfection of the process and full-scale durability testing. At the same time, application possibilities in non-critical areas such as road building should be explored. Hinging on a successful outcome, a pilot project would follow, in which a large-scale production scheme is worked out.

53

The objective of the programme is twofold: to develop a highly dense, graded aggregate and secondly, a bonded aggregate version in which water absorption of the pellets is close to nil. Anticipated intended uses for the aggregate material would be as a core layer for road and airport runway construction and land fill foundations. To sum up the main points of the Arcilla process: - The three processes are accomplished at low temperatures of ~120 o C - Immobilisation is of a very high order, insuring that leaching of potentially

hazardous chemicals is eliminated - Application provides environmental protection and at a fraction of the cost

THERMAL-SHOCK RESISTANT CERAMICS The latest development by Arcilla is technology for producing thermal-shock resistant ceramics - without firing. It is believed that the new materials could have considerable value to the ceramic industry. The immediate application possibilities suggested are threefold: 1 Creation of a range of well-designed wall, floor and terrace tiles, which upon

curing (@ ±150 o C.) may be glazed sans kiln. Whilst the Arcilla technology makes possible production of tiles and panels with a coated surface, it is now possible to produce surface-glazed tiles, as well, by means of heat treatment with an infrared lamp or other heat source. Surface-glazed tiles would have the advantage of superior density, hardness and high resistance to the elements (freeze-thaw). The tiles could thus be applied outdoors as terrace tile. Economically, the extremely high thru-put would mean a large savings in energy and labour costs. The tile market is huge and we are convinced that a good market. can be found for this application.

2 Surface-glazed buildings would result in buildings that are aesthetically

attractive, free of blemish caused by pollution, thus making for a large savings in upkeep costs. A spin-off could well be protection against attack by acid rain, thus avoiding concrete rot. Interior applications would include bacteria-free environments in hospitals, meat markets and the dairy industry. Without the use of mortar grouting, a favourite breeding ground for bacteria in tile walls, the health benefits would go along with the savings in labour costs.

3 Up-market applications for heat-shock resistant ceramics made without firing

are envisaged in the aerospace industry. Tiling of metal surfaces with the attendant problems would be replaced by seamless surfaced monolithic coatings or, indeed, by replacement of the metal entirely.

54

4 Fibre reinforcement would add toughness and impact resistance; a carbon fibre version, tested externally, was shown to have a very high flexural strength of close to 100 Newton and a high modulus of elasticity. Further work is expected to reduce the water absorption from 2 % to 1 %, equal to electro-porcelain fired at ± 1400 o C..The Arcilla PYRAMIC material was cured at 150 o C.!

THE RUBACON APPROACH IN BRIEF RUBACON aims to bring multi-dimensional benefits to both the rural and urban areas and people of economically deprived countries. Rural development is an essential component of national economic advancement. Often subjected to isolation and neglect, rural areas are too frequently excluded from the benefits of development initiatives. Urgency for radical change exists, not only if mass migration to the cities is to be prevented, but because vital resources of all kinds are found in the countryside. The RUBACON technology, utilizing rural resources, is anticipated to stimulate the start up of new enterprises, initiatives that will give fresh impetus to agriculture through its holistic approach. Because building materials common to cities: concrete, metal and fired brick and buildings made from such materials are energy wasteful, contributing to climate change, RUBACON believes that a new model of urban development is needed to accommodate the worldwide housing deficiency and the ever-growing crisis of global warming. With innovative building technology and a commitment to sustainable development, RUBACON strives to globally address these twin problems in both rural and urban settings.