© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Foundations of Individual Behavior Chapter TWO

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Foundations of Individual Behavior

Chapter TWO


Learning Objectives

Define the key biographical characteristics. Identify two types of ability Shape the behavior of others. Distinguish between the four schedules of

reinforcement. Clarify the role of punishment in learning. Practice self-management


Biographical Characteristics

Biographical CharacteristicsPersonal characteristics—such as age, gender, race and tenure—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.


Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence

AbilityAn individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.Intellectual AbilityThe capacity to do mental activities.

Multiple IntelligencesIntelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.


• Number aptitude• Verbal comprehension• Perceptual speed• Inductive reasoning• Deductive reasoning• Spatial (occupying space) visualization• Memory

Dimensions ofIntellectual Ability

E X H I B I T 2–1


COGNITION

Dictionary Meanings

The mental process of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.

That which comes to be known, as through perception, reasoning, or intuition; knowledge.

The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth EditionCopyright © 2006 by Houghton Mifflin Company.


Cognitive Science

‘Cognitive Science is the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, embracing philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.’

(Thagard, P. 1996. Mind: Introduction to Cognitive Science, Cambridge, Mass,: MIT Press, page ix. In 1996)


What is Cognition?

‘The expression cognitive science is used to describe a broadly integrated class of approaches to the study of mental activities and processes and of cognition in particular. Cognitive science is broad not just in the sense of encompassing disciplines as varied as neuroscience, cognitive psychology, philosophy, linguistics, computer science, and anthropology, but also in the sense that cognitive scientists tend to adopt certain basic, general assumptions about mind and intelligent thought and behavior.

These include assumptions that the mind is (1) an information processing system, (2) a representational device, and (3) (in some sense) a computer.’

(Bechtel, W, and Graham, G. 1998. A Companion to Cognitive Science, Oxford: Blackwell, page xiii. In 1998


What is Cognition?http://www.bianys.org/learnet/tutorials/cognition.html

In general, the word “cognition” refers to all of the mental activities involved in receiving information, comprehending it, storing it, retrieving it, and using it. Thus cognition includes:

1. The sensory and perceptual processes that enable us to receive information from the world (e.g., vision, hearing, smell, taste, and tactile sensation/perception)

2. All of the mental processes involved in attending to the information, recognizing it as something meaningful, making sense of the information, relating it to what is already known, organizing the information, deciding what is important and what is not important, storing the information for later retrieval, retrieving it when useful

3. Using the information to make decisions about what to do, to solve problems, to communicate, and the like.

http://www.bianys.org/learnet/tutorials/cognition.html


Deductive and Inductive Thinking

In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches.


Deduction

Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not) of our original theories.


Induction Inductive reasoning works the

other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach (please note that it's "bottom up" and not "bottoms up" which is the kind of thing the bartender says to customers when he's trying to close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.


Physical Abilities

Physical AbilitiesThe capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity (good physical coordination ), strength, and similar characteristics.


Other Factors7. Body coordination8. Balance9. Stamina

Nine Physical Abilities

Strength Factors1. Dynamic strength2. Trunk strength3. Static strength4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors

5. Extent flexibility6. Dynamic flexibility

E X H I B I T 2–2

Source: Adapted from HRMagazine published by the Society for Human Resource Management, Alexandria, VA.


Ability-JobFit

The Ability-Job Fit

Employee’sEmployee’sAbilitiesAbilities

Job’s AbilityJob’s AbilityRequirementsRequirements


Learning

Learning• Involves change• Is relatively permanent• Is acquired through experience

LearningAny relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.


Theories of Learning

Key Concepts• Unconditioned stimulus• Unconditioned response• Conditioned stimulus• Conditioned response

Classical ConditioningA type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus ( incentive) that would not ordinarily produce such a response.


Classical Conditioning

The meat was an unconditioned stimulus( it invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way).

The reaction that took place whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred, was called the unconditioned response ( the noticeable increase in salivation, in this case).

The bell was an artificial stimulus, called conditioned stimulus.

Although it was originally neutral, after the bell was paired with the meat (an unconditioned stimulus), it eventually produced a response when presented alone. .


Classical Conditioning … continued

Conditioned response – the dog salivated in reaction to the bell alone.

When the stimuli, one compelling and the other neutral, are paired, the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and, hence, takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus.

Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific way. As such, it can be explain simple “reflexive”.


E X H I B I T 2–3

Source: The Far Side ® by Gary Larson © 1993 Far Works, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission.


Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior• Conditioned (learned) behavior• Reinforcement

Operant ConditioningA type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.


Operant Conditioning

It argues that the behavior is the function of its consequences.

People learn to get something they want or to avoid something they do not want.

Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behavior.

The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement.

Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behavior & increases the likelihood that it will be repeated.


Operant Conditioning ……continued.

Skinner, argued that people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they immediately follow the desired response; and that behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.

Example - A commissioned sales person wanting to earn a sizable income finds that doing so is linked to generating high sales in his territory.



Key Concepts• Attentional processes• Retention processes• Motor reproduction processes• Reinforcement processes

Social-Learning TheoryIndividuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people & just by being told about something, as well by direct experience.Much of what we have learned comes from watching models – parents, teachers, peers, motion pictures, TV performers, bosses, and so forth.

The influence of models is central

to the social – learning viewpoint


Social-Learning Theory

Attentional Processes: People learn from a model only when they recognize & pay attention to its critical features. We tend to be influenced by the models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation.

Rentention Processes: A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available.

Motor Reproduction Processes: After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. This process demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities.

Reinforcement Processes: Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if +ve incentives/rewards are provided. Behaviors that are +vely reinforced will be given more attention, learned better, & performed more often.



Key Concepts• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.• Some rewards are more effective than others.• The timing of reinforcement affects learning

speed and permanence.

Shaping BehaviorSystematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.


Contingencies of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement – occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a behavior.

Negative reinforcement – occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a behavior.


Contingencies, cont.

Punishment – occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a behavior

Extinction – occurs when a target behavior decreases because no consequences follow it –


Punishment vs. Negative-Reinforcement

Behavior Consequence Behavior Consequence

Punishment Negative

Reinforcement

Customers served

too slowly

Boss criticizes

Customers served faster

Boss stopscriticizing


Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.


Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement refers to reinforcement being administered to each instance of a response

Intermittent reinforcement lies between continuous reinforcement and extinction


An Example of Continuous Reinforcement


An example of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement


An Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement


Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.


Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-ratio

E X H I B I T 2–4


Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

E X H I B I T 2–5


Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)


Behavior Modification

Five Step Problem-Solving Model1. Identify critical behaviors2. Develop baseline data3. Identify behavioral consequences4. Develop and apply intervention5. Evaluate performance improvement

OB ModThe application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.


Chapter Checkup: Reinforcement Theory

When professors give random pop quizzes or take random attendance, students often

complain that they are adults, old enough to make their own decisions, and should therefore not be required to come to class. How do you

reconcile this argument with what we know about reinforcement theory? Discuss with a

classmate.

What kind of reinforcement schedule are these professors using? Would a different schedule be

preferable? If so, which one?


Methods of Shaping Behavior - Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement– Providing a pleasant reward for a desired

behavior. Negative reinforcement

– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs.

Punishment– Is causing an unpleasant condition in an

attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior.

Extinction– Eliminating any reinforcement that is

maintaining a behavior is called extinction.


Chapter Checkup: Reinforcement Theory

Recall and write down the three criteria that indicate learning has occurred. Do you think

that learning, according to these criteria, really occurs as a result of a one semester college

class? Discuss with a neighbor.

What kinds of things would you recommend to a college professor to increase the likelihood of

students learning all class material? Use theories from the text to frame your answer.

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© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. Foundations of Individual Behavior Chapter TWO