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Uniwersytet Łódzki
Wydział FilologicznyInstytut Anglistyki
Olga ŁabendowiczNr albumu: 298199
Przekładając nieprzekładalność: lakuny kulturowe w tłumaczeniu audiowizualnym na przykładzie polskiej wersji amerykańskiego serialu
komediowego Jak poznałem waszą matkę.
Praca magisterska napisana pod kierunkiemprof. dr. hab. Łukasza Boguckiego
Łódź 2014
University of Łódź
Faculty of LanguagesInstitute of English
Olga ŁabendowiczAlbum number: 298199
Translating untranslatability: cultural lacunas in audiovisual translation as
exemplified by the Polish translation of an American comedy series How I Met Your Mother.
MA thesis written under the supervision of Łukasz Bogucki Ph.D.
Łódź 2014
Table of ContentsIntroduction......................................................................................................................................3
1. Untranslatability...........................................................................................................................5
1.1. Background theories............................................................................................................7
1.1.1. Universalism versus monadism....................................................................................7
1.1.2. Universal Grammar......................................................................................................7
1.1.3. Linguistic relativism.....................................................................................................8
1.2. Reasons for untranslatability................................................................................................9
1.3. Types of untranslatability...................................................................................................10
2. Voice-over as a mode of audiovisual translation.......................................................................12
2.1. Advantages of voice-over...................................................................................................13
2.2. Drawbacks of voice-over...................................................................................................14
2.3. How I met Your Mother as a voiced-over TV series..........................................................15
3. Lacunas in AVT..........................................................................................................................16
3.1. Defining lacunas................................................................................................................16
3.1.1. Origins of the term.....................................................................................................17
3.1.2. Scholarly definitions of lacunas.................................................................................17
3.1.3. Defining cultural lacunas in AVT...............................................................................19
3.2.Types of lacunas..................................................................................................................20
3.2.1. Classification by Ertelt-Vieth.....................................................................................21
3.2.2. Classification by Dashidorzihieva..............................................................................23
3.2.3. Classification by Liu, Kang and Zeng........................................................................24
3.2.4. Classification of cultural lacunas in AVT...................................................................25
3.3. Procedures of translating lacunas.......................................................................................26
3.3.1. Baral's approach ........................................................................................................26
1
3.3.2. Anokhina's approach...................................................................................................27
3.3.3. Wu's approach.............................................................................................................28
3.3.4. Procedures of translating cultural lacunas in AVT.....................................................29
4. Types and procedures of translating cultural lacunas in How I Met Your Mother.....................30
4.1. Lacunas of brands .............................................................................................................31
4.2. Lacunas of media ..............................................................................................................38
4.3. Lacunas of anthroponyms .................................................................................................42
4.4. Lacunas of toponyms ........................................................................................................45
4.5. Lacunas of customs and language .....................................................................................48
Conclusions....................................................................................................................................52
References......................................................................................................................................54
Translating untranslatability: cultural lacunas in audiovisual translation as exemplified by the
Polish translation of an American comedy series How I Met Your Mother
(Summary/Streszczenie)................................................................................................................57
2
1 Introduction
Translation of audiovisual materials marked strongly with culture is always problematic.
It is not only for the constraints particular for a given mode of audiovisual translation but more
importantly due to the existence of elements impossible to be rendered (i.e. lacunas) into target
culture without confusing target audience.
The theory of lacunas has been applied to various disciplines, nonetheless its application
to audiovisual translation (AVT) is still without precedent. This dissertation is an attempt to
define cultural lacunas anew for the needs of AVT but still on the basis of already existing, well-
established definitions in order to present the data on the procedures applied to translating such
“untranslatable” cultural elements.
There are three main objectives of the presented case study: first of all, to define cultural
lacunas in audiovisual translation, secondly, to distinguish and classify the types of cultural
lacunas and finally to examine, whether it is possible to limit the procedures of translating
lacunas to only two of them: omission and shift, the later subdivided into two subcategories:
equivalence and explanation.
Defining the term is only the first step towards understanding how cultural lacunas work
in AVT. Identifying such elements existing between cultures might be of great use for translators,
who have to deal with many difficult decisions when and how to translate particular cultural
elements. Therefore, the classification of cultural lacunas in AVT as well as limited number of
procedures of translating such elements is simply a means of presenting in what way it is
possible to deal with cultural lacunas in AVT and which procedures are used most frequently.
3
The case study is based on the TV series How I Met Your Mother – an American sitcom
premiered on CBS on September 19, 2005. The original English version (ST) is compared with
the Polish translation (TT) produced by Jacek Mikina and Błażej Kubacki commissioned by
Comedy Central Polska – Synthesis Media.
The first chapter of the dissertation contains an overview of theories and approaches
towards untranslatability. The second part presents background information about voice-over as
AVT mode. The third, methodological chapter, includes scholarly approaches towards lacunas as
well as the definition, classification of cultural lacunas in AVT and the characteristics of the
limited number of procedures for translation of such elements. In the final, analytical part, the
examples from the TV series How I Met Your Mother are presented in the context of the
previously established methodology.
4
Language is not the vehicle of thought
but its determining medium.
(Leibniz 1967)
1. Untranslatability
“All human communication means translation, either inside or between languages”
(Lorés Sanz 1990:99). This observation shall be the starting point for the analysis conducted in
this dissertation. Bering that in mind, we should also be aware of the fact that if even face-to-face
communication is liable to translation hence some sort of interpretation, therefore the actual act
of translating the original text into another language is probably one of the biggest challenges we
may face.
Susan Bassnett claimed in her book Translation Studies that “exact translation is
impossible” (1991:22). Such a statement shall not be a surprise to anyone who professionally
deals with translation. However, as there is also a belief that, actually, everyone who knows a
foreign language is able to translate (Korzeniowska and Kuhiwczak 1994:11-12), therefore we
should all be bothered by such limitation.
Fortunately, other scholars present more optimistic view. According to Roman Jakobson,
everything is translatable, “to a certain extent” (1959/2000 in Hatim & Munday 2004:15). Some
elements of ST might be lacking in TT but at the same time a translation can be rendered.
Therefore, we shall not deem translation impossible and translators should simply seek some sort
of tertium comparationis in order to provide the best, thus most accurate, appropriate and
equivalent, translation.
Of course, due to the specificity of translation in general, translation shifts might occur.
According to John Catford, who was the first scholar to use this term in his A Linguistic Theory
of Translation, shifts are “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from
5
the SL to the TL” (1965:73). By formal correspondence he means “any TL category (unit, class,
structure, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, 'the same'
place in the 'economy' of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL” (Catford 1965:27).
At the same time, Catford provides also a definition of a textual equivalent which is understood
as “any TL text or portion of a text which is observed (…) to be the equivalent of a given SL text
or portion of text” (1965:27).
However, finding an equivalent element is not always as obvious. And here we arrive at
the notion of untranslatability itself. In order to fully conceive of the concept, we shall first
determine how should we perceive its opposite. Translatability is “a relative notion and has to do
with the extent to which, despite obvious differences in linguistic structure (grammar, vocabulary
etc.), meaning can still be adequately expressed across languages” (Hatim & Munday 2004:15).
Nevertheless, as it usually happens, not everything comes that easy. Translators often face the
instances in which finding an “adequate meaning across languages” seems impossible. This is
exactly what untranslatability is.
Untranslatability “refers to a term where it becomes impossible to convey the meaning as
it requires to be conveyed, where the ‘sense’ (...) cannot be expressed in target language”
(http://language.ezinemark.com/untranslatability-translation-problems-7d2d733e5f9b.html).
Notwithstanding the fact that according to Jakobson, “Both practice and the theory of translation
abound with intricacies, from time to time attempts are made to sever the Gordian knot by
producing the dogma of untranslatability” (1959:234), we shall not deem translation
unattainable. Moreover, as Korzeniowska and Kuhiwczak claimed, “it is a translator's
responsibility to try his best to solve even the most difficult problems” (1994:167) and we simply
“have to try and accept the fact that when translating (…) we will always come up against (...)
questions what to do (...)” (Ibid.). Therefore we shall do our best to make the job as easy as
possible at least by providing sufficient theoretical background.
6
1.1. Background theories
The first chapter encompasses an overview of concepts and theories dealing more or less
directly with the notion of untranslatability as well as presents the potential reasons for
untranslatability. Along with the second chapter, dealing with voice-over as a mode of
audiovisual translation, the theoretical part shall serve as a background for understanding the
functioning of cultural lacunas, which are discussed in detail in the third chapter.
1.1.1. Universalism versus monadism
One of the most general concepts with regard to translation is based upon the notion of
the possibility of translation. As it usually happens, there are two opposite approaches towards
this matter. First of all, there is a belief that all languages have one, universal structure that is
underlying rules in every language. According to such an understanding, translation is always
possible (Steiner 1977:73-74). On the other hand, monadists claim that, in fact, no translation
would be ever possible and the only possibility of overcoming the differences between languages
is to find equivalents or analogies (Ibid.).
1.1.2. Universal Grammar
Following the universalistic approach towards translation, the concept of Universal
Grammar suggested by Noam Chomsky shall be mentioned as well. The idea proposed by the
scholar is that all languages have the common core, this being the basic grammatical structures
hardwired in human brains (Cook and Newson 2007). The concept caused a lot of controversy
and was criticised by many scholars (Elman 1996; Sampson 2005; Hinzen 2012, among others).
The main problem with such perception of languages is the fact that it disregards the
7
notion and importance of culture in language. And, as everyone who deals with translation is
perfectly aware, “Language is an expression of culture and individuality of its speakers”
(Hariyanto 2006:1) thus the cultural aspect is of high importance in the perception of language as
such.
1.1.3. Linguistic relativism
The concept of linguistic relativism is based upon the idea that language determines
thoughts of a person using it (Beek 2004:1). It is best summarized by the statement that
“Thought is language internalized, and we think and feel as our particular language impels and
allows us to do” (Leibniz in Steiner 1977:74).
According to Carrol, “There are more similarities than differences in the way language
codes symbolize concepts because the concepts are the result of the transactions of human
societies with physical and social environment that has many uniformities over the world. Even
if there are differences, the basic intelligence of men is usually sufficient to overcome them”
(1964:109). This optimistic claim would suggest a universalistic approach towards translation. It
is, however, at least partially mistaken.
Already Benjamin Whorf, who along with Edward Sapir is world renowned for
advocating the theory of linguistic relativism, claimed that
“The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be
organized by our minds. We can nature up, organize it into concepts, and
describe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement
to organize it in this way – an agreement that holds throughout our speech
community and is codified in the patterns of our language” (1956:209).
As there are many such speech communities, therefore it shall not be surprising that significant
differences arise. And such disparities may be extremely difficult to overcome.
According to Edward Sapir, “No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be
8
considered as representing the same social reality. The world in which different societies live are
distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached” (Sapir in Bassnett-
MacGuire 1980:12). Hence, cultural lacunas are most likely to occur.
Furthermore, culture may be also treated as a context for language. Halliday claimed that,
actually, the theory of the context existed prior to the theory of the text (in Halliday and Hasan
1985:5). Context here means context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan, 1985:7). It is
crucial for complete understanding of the text and is one of the most important determinants in
translation. Thus, “translating without understanding text is non-sense, and understanding text
without understanding its culture is impossible”(Hariyanto 2006:3).
Summarizing, following the words of Sugeng Hariyanto:
“(...) Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and Halliday's idea have a far-reaching
implications for translation. In its extreme, the notion that language conditions
thought and that language and thought is bound up with the individual culture
of the given community would mean that translation is impossible. We cannot
translate one's thought which is affected by and stated in language specific for a
certain community to another different language because the system of thought
in the two languages (cultures) must be different. Each language is unique. If it
influences the thought and, therefore, the culture, it would mean that ultimate
translation is impossible.” (Hariyanto 2006:4).
Henceforth, the difficulties resulting from the cultural differences become apparent. Such
untranslatability may, however, have various causes, which are illustrated in the following
section.
1.2. Reasons for untranslatability
According to Eugene Nida (1975), all “adequate semantic analysis” must take into
consideration three basic presuppositions:
“(1) no word (or semantic unit) ever has exactly the same meaning in two
different utterances;
9
(2) there are no complete synonyms within a language;
(3) there are no exact correspondences between related words in different
languages” (1975:5).
These observations already illustrate why translation may be sometimes highly problematic,
especially when we are dealing with texts marked strongly with culture.
Furthermore, Nida claimed that “Language cannot be properly treated except in terms of
its status and function as a part, a process, and, to some degree, a model of culture, with a high
degree of reciprocal reinforcement. Though one may not wish to go all the way with Whorf,
nevertheless, one cannot escape the fact that language seems to provide the 'grooves for thought'
in the same way that cultural patterns constitute the molds for more general modes of behaviour”
(1975:6). Those so-called “molds” have also a determining effect on cultural aspects existing in
one culture and lacking in another one thus constituting potential cultural lacunas.
Finally, Nida lists three main problems of translation:
1. loss of information
2. adding of information
3. skewing of information (1975:27).
These three issues may be already considered as a basis for discussing the possible means of
translating cultural lacunas, however, this aspect will be analysed in detail in the third,
methodological, chapter. Let us, however, bear this information in mind as it is crucial for
understanding the inner workings of procedures for translating cultural lacunas.
1.3. Types of untranslatability
According to Jingjing Cui (2012), we may distinguish two basic types of
untranslatability: linguistic and cultural untranslatability. The former is later subdivided into
untranslatability in phonology, in character structure (the case study was, however, based on the
differences between English and Chinese, therefore this category is language-specific for the
10
latter, ) and untranslatability in figures of speech, such as puns, alliteration or malapropism (a
figure of speech based on the idea of using words with different meaning but with similar
pronunciation) (Ibid.).
On the other hand, cultural untranslatability may be further divided into untranslatability
resulting from culture gap (thus a lacuna) which is often a consequence of cultural differences in
material, traditional, religious or historical culture (Cui 2012:827-828), and resulting from
culture conflict. The second one appears as a consequence of the existence of so-called false
friends, which may cause confusion and lack of understanding between the cultures in contact
(Ibid.).
Furthermore, according to Teresa Bałuk-Ulewiczowa, we may also distinguish absolute
untranslatability. It occurs “whenever a text is presented for translation the full comprehension of
which by its source-language recipients requires the application of extra-textual subjective
information or, more generally, extra-textual emotional experience which is inaccessible to the
recipients of the target language for the translation” (2000:173). Moreover, the author
emphasises that “absolute untranslatability involves irreconcilable differences of collective
social identity between the group of recipients of the original text in its source language and the
target group of the recipients of the translation in the target language" (2000:173-174).
11
2. Voice-over as a mode of audiovisual translation
Since 1980s, audiovisual translation (AVT) is successfully becoming an important
discipline within the scope of translation studies (Franco, Matamala and Orero 2010:19).
According to Pilar Orero, “Audiovisual Translation will encompass all translations – or
multisemiotic transfer – for production or postproduction in any media or format, and also the
new areas of media accessibility: subtitling for the deaf and the hard or hearing and
audiodescription for the blind and the visually impaired” (Orero 2004:VIII). Despite the fact that
nowadays, AVT is “experiencing an unprecedented boom of interest and activity at all levels, a
number of problematic issues remain to be addressed” ( Díaz Cintas and Anderman 2009:8). One
of such problems is that “Old methods tend to compete with new techniques, and consistency is
not always maintained” (Ibid.).
It may sometimes seem that voice-over, as one of the modes of AVT, has been forgotten
by many scholars despite the fact that in Poland and some Baltic States it is this mode that is
used very frequently for film translation (Orero in Diaz Cintas and Anderman 2009:131).
According to Luyken et al., in the majority of academic studies, voice-over has been traditionally
associated with translation of documentaries about nature or travel (1991). However, some
scholars claimed that such a course of events is definitely not desirable (see: Franco 2000).
According to Pilar Orero and Jorge Diaz Cintas (2009:131), voice-over is still usually
discussed when scholars want to give an overview of most of AVT modes. Interestingly, in some
works, voice-over has been treated as a type of dubbing (Luyken et al. 1991; Baker and
Brann 1998; Shuttleworth and Cowie 1997; and Franco 2001) as it operates with a voice
transmitting the translated version added to the original, not altered by any extra text, image on
the screen.
12
Voice-over may be defined as “a technique in which a disembodied voice can be heard
over the original soundtrack, which remains audible but indecipherable to audiences” (Chiaro
2009:152). It was brought to Poland from the former Soviet Union and is still one of the most
popular modes of audiovisual translation (Bogucki 2004). According to the research conducted
in 2002 by Inst. SMG KRC Poland, “50.2% of Poles prefer voice-over and 43.4% opt for
dubbing; subtitling has only 8.1% supporters” (Bogucki 2004). This curious result is reflected in
the number of productions translated by the means of voice-over mode.
One of the possible reasons of such perception is reflected in the definition provided by
Luyken et al. (1991: 80), who describe voice-over as:
“The faithful translation of original speech. Approximately synchronous delivery (…). A common practice is to allow the original sound to be heard for several seconds at the onset of the speech and to have it subsequently reduced so that the translated speech takes over. This contributes to the sense of authenticity in the translation and prevents a degree of mistrust from developing. Alternatively, if the translation is recorded as part of the original production, it may follow the original speech exactly.”
This highly positive image of voice-over procedure gives an impression that this mode of
audiovisual translation is the best possible solution. We shall, however, bear in mind that nothing
is perfect, therefore let us consider the advantages as well as the potential drawbacks of voice-
over.
2.1. Advantages of voice-over
The process of voice-over has been referred to as ”the easiest and most faithful of the
audiovisual translation modes” (Luyken et al., 1991:80; Diaz Cintas, 1997:112). Already this
statement suggests that it is one of the most, if not the most, convenient in terms of procedures
of conducting the translation. There are also other, connected to this fact, advantages of voice-
over.
First of all, it allows the audience to watch a production without getting distracted by an
13
additional text of translation appearing on the screen and interrupting the reception as it happens
in the case of subtitling, what in turn minimalizes the audience's cognitive effort. This aspect is
desirable especially in case of children, illiterates and elderly people with sight deficiencies.
(Szarkowska 2009:188). Moreover, this feature also allows the viewers to focus on the plot as
well as appreciate the visual aspect.
Furthermore, production of a voiced-over version is less expensive than dubbing and the
production process is less time-consuming (Ibid.). It is also more authentic than dubbing as we
may hear in the background the original sound (Ibid.) and it does not pretend to be the original
version (Diaz Cintas and Orero 2006:477).
2.2. Drawbacks of voice-over
The most commonly reported disadvantage of this mode of audiovisual translation is “the
mismatch between the gender (and also the age) of the original actors and the voice-over reader”
(Szarkowska 2009: 189). Despite the fact that it is, in fact, a significant obstacle in perceiving the
film or a picture as such, many Polish viewers claim getting used to this aspect and report that
after some time it is no longer an issue.
Furthermore, some people find it annoying that two different languages are heard at the
same time what may sometimes cause confusion (Ibid.). Moreover, usually, certain parts of
dialogues are in some situations given prominence by being more audible than others – such is
the case of better discernible utterances at the beginning and end of a voice-over (Chiaro
2009:152).
However, probably the biggest drawback, which usually remains unnoticed by the
audience lacking the knowledge of the language of the original version, is the fact that there is “a
high number of elements from the original dialogue list that undergo reduction, condensation or
omission” (Ibid.). This aspect may be extremely damaging for the dialogues marked strongly
14
with culture or humour hence the overall experience of target audience might be in the result
poorer.
2.3. How I met Your Mother as a voiced-over TV series
The research presented in the dissertation is based on the first two seasons of the TV
series How I Met Your Mother – an American sitcom premiered on CBS on September 19, 2005.
The final episode appeared on to March 31, 2014. The original English version is compared with
the Polish translation produced by Jacek Mikina and Błażej Kubacki commissioned by Comedy
Central Polska – Synthesis Media.
The series evolves around the lives of five central characters: Ted Mosby – a young,
aspiring architect, Robin Sherbatsky – a beautiful and ambitious journalist from Canada, a loving
couple of Lily Aldrin and Marshall Eriksen and an eccentric playboy, Barney Stinson. The story
of how the protagonist, Ted, met the mother of his two adolescent children, is told from a
retrospective point of view.
How I Met Your Mother has received a great critical response in Poland. It is, however,
deeply rooted in American, and partly Canadian, culture. This circumstance causes a lot of
difficulty for the translator as, despite the fact that, thanks to mass media, Polish audience got
accustomed with a lot of culturally American-specific aspects, there are still some elements
which turn out to be cultural lacunas thus the translation of which causes some problems.
Another problematic aspect is connected to the fact that the translated version is made in
a voice-over mode. Due to the aforementioned in the drawbacks of the procedure potential loss
of some original elements which may undergo reduction, condensation or omission, the TV
series is from the very start prone to loose some of its characteristic culturally-specific features.
15
There is always a limit to translations:
something will be lost in translation.
Tetiana Anokhina
3. Lacunas in AVT
Translation of audiovisual materials marked strongly with culture is always problematic.
It is not only for the constraints particular for a given mode of audiovisual translation but more
importantly due to the existence of elements impossible to be rendered (i.e. lacunas) into target
culture without confusing target audience.
The theory of lacunas has been applied to various disciplines, nonetheless its application
to AVT is still without precedent. This analysis is an attempt to define cultural lacunas anew for
the needs of AVT but still on the basis of already existing, well-established definitions in order to
present the data on the procedures applied to translating such “untranslatable” cultural elements.
Defining the term is only the first step towards understanding how cultural lacunas work
in AVT. Identifying such elements existing between cultures might be of great use for translators,
who have to deal with many difficult decisions when and how to translate particular cultural
elements.
3.1. Defining lacunas
There already exists a number of definitions of the term lacuna. Over the last few decades
scholars have adapted the concept which has its origins already in ancient Greece to the needs of
various disciplines, amongst which cultural studies and intercultural communication seem to be
the most widely discussed (Sorokin 1977, 1993; Ertelt-Vieth 2003; Liu, Kang & Zeng;
Dashidorzhieva). Lacunas are usually defined as „gaps, blank spaces, missing parts” but also as
16
deficiencies (Merriam-Webster Online: Dictionary and Thesaurus). Needless to say, particular
definitions emphasize various characteristic features of the term as different fields require
definitions suited to their needs. Of course, the definition of the term is just a standpoint for the
analysis of its application and rules of its functioning, however, coining the term appropriate for
the analysis of audiovisual translation materials.
3.1.1. Origins of the term
The origins of the term date back to ancient Greece where Greeks used to call Sparta
“Lakedaimonios or Lakedaimon” where Spartans (laconian people) lived (Webster New World
Dictionary, 1988, p. 753). Later on the word „laconic” developed new meaning and started to
stand for „brief or tarse in speech or expression”. The term has undergone many alterations in its
meaning to finally end up in 17th century when it went into a few slightly different directions. It
changed into „laguna”, „lack” and a few more but it is the second element that is of the greatest
interest to this analysis. Finally, around 1663, the word lacῡna was born [Anokhina 2013:166-
168].
3.1.2. Scholarly definitions of lacunas
Dagut (1978) provides a definition of voids which explain the same phenomenon as
lacunas, claiming that they can be found only at a word-level, as larger SL units may always be
expressed in TL, if necessary through the use of rewording. He defines such voids as the “non-
existence in one language of a one-word equivalent for a designatory term in another” (978:45).
However, this definition is somewhat problematic as it classifies as lacunas only terms which
cannot be rendered by the means of a one word and it does not take into consideration cultural
elements which consist of more than one word or which are simply not terms but e.g. references
to some cultural phenomena.
17
According to Ertelt-Vieth, lacunas “between cultures refer to something strange,
unfamiliar, possibly awkward, possibly memorable”(2003:2). Furthermore, such cultural voids
„point to cultural phenomena which would almost certainly have no direct TL equivalent”
(Dictionary of Translation Studies 1997:196). As Anokhina states, in translation studies „lacunae
are interpreted as 'translation gaps' caused by irrelevance in the target text of translation where
the specific or vague information is often substituted by 'zero equivalents'” (Anokhina
2013:173). Those three complementary definitions are also extremely problematic as they
operate the words such as “possibly” or “almost certainly” which make impossible not only
verification of to what extent is a cultural element to be regarded as a lacuna but which also fail
to mention the conditions to be met when it comes to classifying a cultural element as a lacuna.
In relation with the presented definitions of lacunas it becomes clear that for the needs of
AVT a new, more precise and universal definition of the term lacuna is needed, especially one
that would take into consideration the specificity of the field. Providing such an explanation of
the term is of great importance for the further analysis of the procedures applied to the
translation of cultural lacunas in voice-over. It has to be mentioned that there is, however, a great
variety of the definitions of lacunas which – more general in understanding of the term – rather
than introduce strict systematic conditions required of a lacuna, make it possible to see the nature
of the concept itself. Such approach is of great use to forming a definition of cultural lacunas
present in audiovisual translation.
The most general understanding of the concept is that a lacuna “may be a cultural item
(…) absent in the target culture”(Routledge 2009:203). Astrid Ertelt-Vieth defines lacunas more
precisely – including the effect of their occurrence - as “elements or aspects of a text that do not
correspond to the experiences of the subjects of another culture. They may hamper or prohibit
understanding of that text (...)”(2003:14). The focus on corresponding experience is extremely
18
important in audiovisual translation, however, the definition deals solely with the understanding
and not with connotations (e.g. axiological lacunas defined by Dashidorzhieva as “Culture
specific connotations”(Lacuna as...:1)) that may be evoked in the audience's minds, and which by
the lack of triggering of such connotations the translation might be not fully satisfying in terms
of cultural aspects. When “culturally specific information is missing in another culture and is
difficult to be understood by non-members of the given culture”(Wen-jie...:1), a cultural lacuna
occurs. Moreover, it can be defined as “the unique cultural or language phenomena which exist
in one culture, but whose equivalence cannot be found in another culture because of different
social customs, beliefs, ideology, geographical features, etc.” (Ibid.). A “lacuna is a signal or a
marker of a presence of an intercultural or interlingual difference in the meaning and the starting
point for the semantic assessment of an equivalence relation”(Panasiuk 2009:44). Finally, we
shall bear in mind that “lacuna is an integrated unit combining both language and
culture”(Dashidorzhieva, Types of lacunae...:1).
3.1.3. Defining cultural lacunas in AVT
In deciding whether or not a particular cultural element may be considered a lacuna in
AVT two concepts are of a high importance. First of all, the definition of Content Lacuna
provided along with Capital Lacuna and Production Lacuna by Rohn. It is defined as „the
phenomenon when media content is not enjoyable to audiences in foreign market because it does
not match with their need for culturally proximate content or it contradicts their pre-existing
attitudes”(Rohn 2009:89-90). This type of lacuna is extremely important in the translation of
audiovisual materials marked with humour as it is usually the similar effect that matters the most
in the perception of the material in the target language (Nida, 1964: 159).
Secondly, we shall take into consideration the necessary differentiation between cultural
19
reference and cultural lacuna as the former is simply embedded in the latter. As there is no
precise definition of cultural reference provided in the literature, for the needs of this analysis it
shall be understood as the direct or indirect use of an element of culture which evokes certain
connotations in the audience's mind. It may occur in ST as well as in TT.
Having the two aforementioned concepts in mind, cultural lacuna in audiovisual
translation shall be defined as presented below.
The provided definition is comprised of two vital elements. First of all, it takes into consideration
not only terms but also all the sorts of cultural elements and references to source culture the
understanding of which might be highly problematic for the target audience. Secondly, it
acknowledges the importance of the response of the target audience which is crucial in the
analysis of audiovisual materials marked not only with culture but also with humour.
3.2.Types of lacunas
Scholars provide many useful classifications of lacunas for the analysis of their
occurrence in various texts. As Dashidorzieva points out, “The problem of types of lacunas is
one of the theoretical questions put by linguists” (Dashidorzieva, Types of lacunae). Despite the
fact that such typologies focus mainly on written texts, they may be easily adapted for the needs
of audiovisual translation. In this section, an overview of classifications by Ertelt-Vieth,
Dashidorzieva and Liu, Kang and Zeng is presented as a means of establishing types of lacunas
in audiovisual materials.
20
Cultural lacuna - a SC element which has no equivalent in TC or a reference
to SC which is not easily recognizable by TC audience and its presence in TT
may confuse target audience.
3.2.1. Classification by Ertelt-Vieth
Astrid Ertelt-Vieth divides lacunas into mental lacunas, lacunas of activity and lacunas of
objects. The first category, which is referred to by the author as “the superior class”, denotes
“differences in all cognitive or affective states or models, differences in the state of knowledge in
its broad sense”(Ertelt-Vieth 2003:7). It comprises the conscious and subconscious, common
sense and reflected knowledge, rules derived from experience or ethics as well as expectations or
fears (Ibid.). The authors mentions, that this category is comprised of two subgroups labelled as
the culture emotive lacunas and the lacunas of fond or of knowledge. The former is connected
with the emotions caused by the misunderstandings resulting from the existence of lacunas
between cultures (Ibid.). The latter is further subdivided by the scholar into the following
subtypes:
Based on Ertelt-Vieth, A. (2003) How to Analyze and Handle Cultural Gaps in German Everyday Life. Interculture-
Online, 4/2003. Retrieved from: http://www.interculture-journal.com/index.php/icj/article/viewFile/11/12; p.8.
The second type, namely lacunas of activity, “denote differing processes of thinking,
talking, moving and other activities” (Ertelt-Vieth 2003:12). Interestingly enough, as the author
points out, these lacunas “may be caused by peculiar mental and objective preconditions and
their results in turn may constitute mental lacunas or lacunas of objects. This would signify that,
in fact, all the suggested types of lacunas listed by Ertelt-Vieth (including axiological lacunas
21
• conceptual lacunas – occur when “in (…) other languages there exists neither a concept nor the corresponding word” (Ertelt-Vieth 2003:8)
• role related lacunas – deal with cultural differences between expectations towards how a given person should behave
• spatial lacunas – refer to cultural differences in the perception of distance• time related lacunas – denote cultural differences with regard to the perception of time• mnestic lacunas – relate to differences in cultural memory of a given culture• lacunas related to the language knowledge • partial and complete lexical lacunas – refer to “the inventory and meaning of words”
(Ibid.)• grammatical lacunas – some grammatical structures are absent in another culture
which are deeply rooted in all the other categories) are in a state of constant interaction thus it
might be extremely difficult to assign a given cultural element to only one category of lacunas.
He author herself acknowledges this fact by stating that lacunas “do not describe stable
meanings”(Ertelt-Vieth 2003:14) and that they “may not be thought of as a rigid classes but of a
dynamic model”(Ibid.). Furthermore the author divides lacunas of activity into the following
categories:
Based on Ertelt-Vieth, A. (2003) How to Analyze and Handle Cultural Gaps in German Everyday Life. Interculture-
Online, 4/2003. Retrieved from: http://www.interculture-journal.com/index.php/icj/article/viewFile/11/12; pp.12-13.
The third type of lacunas, according to Ertelt-Vieth, are lacunas of objects, which “denote
differences in objects and human environment”(2003:13). The author lists the following
subgroups:
Based on Ertelt-Vieth, A. (2003) How to Analyze and Handle Cultural Gaps in German Everyday Life. Interculture-
Online, 4/2003. Retrieved from: http://www.interculture-journal.com/index.php/icj/article/viewFile/11/12; pp.13.
22
• Lacunas of use of language – a given word or concept might have an equivalent in another language but the use of this word might be different, eg. in terms of frequency
• Lacunas of paralanguage and body language – particular gesture or bodily expression might have different meaning in another culture
• Lacunas of etiquette, behavior, routine and taboo – particular activity might be considered culturally unacceptable. Such lacunas, however, “differ in the degree of consciousness and public control”(Ertelt-Vieth 2003:12)
• Lacunas of thinking, perception and orientation in space and time, further divided into syllogistic and perceptive lacunas
• Lacunas of communicative means to constitute an identity• Lacunas of oral texts and of moving pictures – conventions in non-literal texts,
concerning small-talks, speed of speech in television etc. • Lacunas of virtual texts and pictures – connected to Internet communication.
• lacunas of written or otherwise recorded texts and images – eg. differences in letters or family photos
• lacunas of public environment • lacunas of geographic infrastructure such as architecture, network and condition of
roads, cultivated forests or virgin forests etc.• lacunas of private environment• lacunas of the human body such as hair color, weight, posture• attributive lacunas – eg. hairstyle, clothing, make-up.• lacunas of food – dishes or products absent in another culture as well as the ways of
preparing or consuming food.
However, the author claims that there exists also a “special class” of lacunas, namely
axiological lacunas. According to her, such lacunas “denote culture specific connotations and
evaluations of differing phenomena” (Ertelt-Vieth 2003:14). This final type of lacunas is of a
great importance in the translation of cultural lacunas in AVT as the connotations trigerred in the
minds of audience by certain dialogues or images affect the perception of the message and since
humorous materials are based heavily on such associations thus the translated version should
evoke at least similar connotations in the minds of target audience. We shall as well bear in mind
that such connotations are deeply rooted in the culture, therefore finding a cultural element
equivalent in terms of the evoked connotations might be extremely challenging and requires of
the translator a great understanding and sensitivity towards both cultures being mediated.
3.2.2. Classification by Dashidorzihieva
Dashidorzihieva suggests different classification of lacunas dividing them into linguistic,
which are “defined by the languages comparison: (…) divergences, gaps, failures,
emptiness(...)”(…:1), culturological - “caused by absence of realities, characteristics for one
culture, in another culture”(Ibid.) - and lingacultural, with the latter occupying “an intermediate
position”(Ibid.).
The first category comprises three large groups:
Based on Dashidorzihieva p.3, after Makhonina&Strenina 2005:50.
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• Nominative lacunae - “allocated on the basis of absence in background language
appropriate to nomination”.
• The generalizing lacunae - “allocated on the basis of absence in background language of
the appropriate generalization to (…): the form, structure, action, place, rating, time and
sequence, material”.
• Concretizing lacunae - “allocated on the basis of absence in background language of the
appropriate concrete definition to the certain attribute: place, form, purpose, age, manner
of behaviour, performance of the official duties etc.”.
The second category includes ethnographic lacunas, “the existence of which is caused by
absence of realities, characteristic for one culture, in another culture”(Dashidorzihieva:5).
According to G.V. Bykova, ethnographic lacunas have two layers. First of all, a linguistic one,
which relates to the absence of a word or an idiom from one culture in another culture. Secondly,
an extralinguistic layer, in which the phenomenon itself is absent in another culture (Bykova
2003:75).
3.2.3. Classification by Liu, Kang and Zeng
In the article “Analysis of Factors Causing Lacuna in Intercultural Communication” Liu,
Kang and Zeng suggest the division of lacunas according the factors causing them into lacunas
induced by geographic, religious, customary and historical factors.
The first aspect is based on the fact that environment influences people’s living styles
what in consequence leads to the existence of lacunas between cultures. Such differences are,
however, helpful in establishing the peculiarity of a given culture but what on the other hand
might cause problems in translation.. Religious factors “can affect people’s values, attitude
towards life, and even living styles” (Liu, Kang & Zeng :2). Furthermore, lacunas caused by
customary factors, again, significantly affect living styles as they deal with “A habitual or usual
practice, which is an accepted way of behaving or doing things in a certain community”(Liu,
Kang & Zeng :3). Finally, historical factors may trigger a lacuna as it is history that shapes
culture (Ibid.) As the authors point out, “The uniqueness of a culture is very often a result of its
historical heritage” (Ibid.). Therefore, idioms, proverbs etc. may be strongly connected with the
history of a given culture and what may lead to a confusion of the target language users.
This typology of lacunas is of great importance to presented later on analysis of
audiovisual materials marked strongly with culture as it takes into consideration aspects of
24
culture which, often unsaid, are, nevertheless, crucial for conveying the intended meaning.
3.2.4. Classification of cultural lacunas in AVT
The problem with the abovementioned classifications is that with regard to AVT, their
application is somewhat unsuitable as they are mostly concerned with interpersonal
communication which in AVT is mostly a one-sided relation. Therefore, as we shall observe in
the analytical part of this dissertation, cultural lacunas in AVT deal usually, as it was defined
before, with a SC element which has no equivalent in TC or a reference to SC which is not easily
recognizable by TC audience and its presence in TT may confuse target audience.
As cultural lacunas are per se nation/country/culture-specific, therefore, in accordance
with this definition, the following classification of cultural lacunas in AVT based on the notion of
cultural aspects (Łabendowicz 2012:13), shall be applied:
It must, however, be stated, that the provided classification of cultural lacunas in AVT is
not a complete classification of all existing cultural lacunas. The methodology for this
dissertation has been based solely and entirely on the analysed materials therefore the suggested
set might be altered in the further studies.
25
Lacuna of brands – a SC brand with which TC audience may not be familiar;
Lacuna of media (music, TV, films, radio, art, etc.) – a cultural item related to media
appearing in the SC with which TC audience may not be familiar, eg. a TV series, a music
band, a film, a radio programme, etc.;
Lacuna of anthroponyms – a name of a person from the SC with which TC audience may not
be familiar;
Lacuna of toponyms – a name of a SC location, a building, etc., with which TC audience may
not be familiar;
Lacuna of customs and language – a SC-specific custom or linguistic expression with which
TC audience may not be familiar. It also includes lacunas related to history, cuisine and habits
of a given culture group.
3.3. Procedures of translating lacunas
The procedures for translating lacunas suggested by scholars strongly coincide with the
general procedures applied to translation. However, as it shall become apparent in the analytical
part of the dissertation, in translation of cultural lacunas in AVT, in fact, very limited number of
translation procedures is used by the translators. Nevertheless, making an overview of scholarly
approaches with regard to translation of such cultural aspects is crucial as it enables us to
perceive the inadequacy of some of the suggested procedures with regard to cultural lacunas in
AVT.
3.3.1. Baral's approach
In the article “Gaps in translation and compensating them: A linguistic perspective”,
Parmeshwar Baral summarizes the procedures of translating gaps (i.e. lacunas). The scholar
based the overview on the works by professor Vladimir Ivir and Prem Phyak. The classification
consists of nine procedures: borrowing, definition, literal translation, substitution, lexical
creation, omission/neutralization and addition. Notwithstanding the fact that the procedures are
to be applied not only to cultural gaps but also linguistic (including phonological, word level and
sentence level gaps) and text level gaps, the provided division shows great variety of possible
procedures of compensating for cultural lacunas in target text.
26
Borrowing – when “a concept does not have its equivalence in the target language, the word
from the source language is used in the target language as well”.
Definition - “Providing the definition of the source language word can also help compensate gap
in translation as it makes the concept clear in the target language”.
Literal Translation “If the translator translates exactly as it is done in the source language”
Substitution - “a word in the source language is substituted by similar type of word from target
language as they do have same importance in both languages even though those concepts might
be different”.
Based on: Baral, P. (2003) Gaps in translation and compensating them: A lingistic perspective. Retrieved from:
http://pbaral2000.blog.com/gaps-in-translation-and-compensating-them-a-linguistic-prespective/.
3.3.2. Anokhina's approach
According to Tetiana Anokhina, a Ukrainian scholar who in the article “The Linguistic
Lacunicon: Cognitive Mapping in Schemes and Terms” presents an overview of the approaches
towards lacunas in translation, there are only two possible ways of dealing with lacunas:
omission or shift (Anokhina 2013:172). The author claims that “To render lacuna or liquidate
lacuna means two methods of translation, cf. the vague element may be rendered by shift (…) or
(…) by means of the omission technique” (Ibid.). The latter is defined as the “deletion of lacuna
(...) absence of translation or putting the specific element in italics without translation”(Ibid.).
We might already notice that the procedures suggested by the scholar are aimed at written texts
27
Lexical creation - “In this procedure to compensate gap the translator coins/invents new words
for the words of source language. Lexical creation is mostly done when a concept in the target
language does not have similar concept as it is in the source language. In such a case a new word
is created in the target language”.
Omission/neutralization - “In some cases the translator deletes some items which are not worth
translation. Even such items are translated such bring mistranslation so the translation does not
be perfect. Deletion of some items in translation is done because such source language items do
not bring any communication between SLT and TLT. So for effective communication, deletion
of such source language item is necessary”.
Addition - “For some cultural words adding extra element after the given word to make the
meaning of the given source language word can be done. By adding extra element the translator
can make the implicit element of the culture explicit” (Phyak:2005).
Using footnote - “an asterisk/ raised mark will be given at the end of the word and at the last of
the page or at the end of the given article or at the end of chapter. At the end, the elaborated
meaning of the word is given”.
Paraphrasing - “rewording the given source language item for the target language item while
translating”.
as it would be impossible to use an italicised element in voice-over as this type of AVT does not
include written transcription. However, the basic division suggested by the author is of great use
for the further analysis presented in the thesis. The other procedure for eliminating lacunas,
namely shift, is further subdivided to three other procedures: transposition, substitution and
modulation.
3.3.3. Wu's approach
In the article “The Analysis of Cultural Gaps In Translation and Solutions”, Jianquing Wu
suggests six procedures of establishing cultural equivalence: retaining original cultural flavor,
transliteration, transference, replacement of the cultural expression of the source text with those
of the target language, translation of the implied meaning and explanation (Wu 2008).
Characteristics of the procedures are presented below.
Based on: Wu, Jianqing (2008) The Analysis of Cultural Gaps in Translation and Solutions. English Language
Teaching. Vol. 1, No. 2. Retrieved from: http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/article/viewFile/462/473
The procedures proposed by Wu take into consideration cultural differences what makes
28
Retaining original cultural flavor – applied to translation of idioms or explaining context or
circumstance of a story.
Transliteration – translating words with regard to pronunciation. Usually applied to translation
of countries, areas as well as food and games. It may also have form of transliteration plus a
generic word, in which the generic word functions as an additional explanation. The two
procedures may be combined.
Transference – complete or partial transfer of the original word.
Replacement of the cultural expressions of the source text with those of the target text –
procedure most useful in translation of proverbs. It is synonymous with equivalence.
Translation of the implied meaning – rendering the intended meaning from the context.
Explanation – illustrating the characteristic features of the original cultural element.
this typology very useful in establishing final classification of procedures of rendering cultural
lacunas in AVT for the needs of this thesis. It is of great value as it also acknowledges the
translation of cultural references (as in translation of the implied meaning) which very often
occur in audiovisual materials marked with humor.
3.3.4. Procedures of translating cultural lacunas in AVT
On the basis of the abovementioned procedures of translating cultural aspects which we
shall treat as lacunas, the following classification of procedures of translating cultural lacunas in
AVT shall be applied to the analytical part of the dissertation:
The presented analysis is therefore an attempt to observe which of the procedures of
translating cultural lacunas in AVT are used most frequently and whether the suggested, quite
limited, classification is satisfactory for the needs of other analyses of such type.
29
Omission – the TT lacks the original ST cultural element and nothing else is offered in its place
to the target audience.
Shift – the ST cultural element is not present in the TT but something is offered to the target
audience instead:
• Equivalence - replacement of the cultural expressions of the SC with those of the TC;
• Explanation – illustrating the characteristic features of the original cultural element or
rendering the intended meaning from the context.
4. Types and procedures of translating cultural lacunas in How I Met Your Mother
The following chapter contains the analysis of the dialogue passages from the TV series
How I Met Your Mother. The provided examples illustrate the scope of each of categories of
cultural lacunas listed in the third, methodological, chapter as well as show which procedures of
translating cultural lacunas is the most frequent in AVT. By each example an episode in which
the quote appeared is noted (eg. S02E12, where S stands for Season, and E for Episode) as well
as approximate time of appearance on the screen (eg. 8:10). The original, English line is
presented in bold. Below, the translated version which appeared on Polish television is presented.
Four x-es signify lack of translation of any sort.
As illustrated with the following examples, the series is packed with cultural lacunas
which for Polish audience may be somewhat problematic. Therefore pinpointing such instances
is crucial for understanding in what way translator has dealt with rendering particular cultural
aspects into TL or whether omission was applied. As it turns out, the latter procedure seems to be
prevalent.
The following subchapter has been divided into further sections according to the
particular type of lacunas listed in the third chapter. Such a structure is of a great use for drawing
conclusions as procedures applied to rendering each of original lines become apparent. Naturally,
some examples could be classified as another type of cultural lacuna as the suggested model, no
matter how specifically the distinction between each type has been made, is still liable for
individual interpretation. Moreover, the presented observations are connected strongly to the
analysed material therefore they shall be applied to different source materials before they shall be
considered universal.
30
4.1. Lacunas of brands
Lacunas of brands occur in the TV series and in films extremely often. Especially, when
they are deeply rooted in the SC. They always contain a name, a trademark of a given product,
store, company, etc. Interestingly enough, as a foreign brand name of food product with a long-
standing tradition appears in the original dialogue, it is usually omitted by the translator. Shifts
are applied very rarely and usually they are forced by the image appearing on the screen and it is
often an explanation and not equivalent that is provided. Let us consider the following examples:
Example 1 [S01E17 13:50]
Listen, I've been thinking, Nutter Butter are underrated cookies.
xxxx
Nutter Butter is a brand of peanut-shaped sandwich cookie with a peanut butter filling, which
was introduced to the public in 1969 by an American manufacturer of cookies and snacks,
Nabisco (Wikipedia). The brand is not present on Polish market thus the audience would not
relate the name to any particular product. Therefore, the translator omitted the reference and in
fact no translation was provided.
Example 2 [S02E20 8:10]
I was telling it to you and a bag of Funyuns.
Miałem na myśli ciebie a nie ją.
Funyuns is the brand name of an onion-flavored corn snack introduced in the United States in
1969 and invented by Frito-Lay employee Ray Trinidad of Arlington, Texas. They are a product
of PepsiCo's Frito-Lay company. Similarly as in the first example, the product is foreign to
31
Polish audience, and here also omission, in terms of the cultural aspect, was applied.
There are many similar instances of such a solution in the TV series. Usually, when a
brand name of a food product occurs, the translation is omitted (see below):
Example 3 [S02E17 15:45]
We'll get beef jerky, Triscuits!
xxxx
Here, the two brand names were not rendered into TL at all. Beef jerky is a type of a lean meat
that has been trimmed of fat, cut into strips, and then dried to prevent spoilage (Wikipedia),
while a Triscuit is a snack cracker, made by abovementioned Nabisco, which takes the form of
square baked whole wheat wafers. It was invented in 1900, a patent was granted in 1902, and the
Shredded Wheat Company in Niagara Falls, New York began production the next year
(Wikipedia).
Example 4 [S02E12 7:15]
She should be watching The Little Mermaid and drinking Yoohoo.
Powinna oglądać Małą Syrenkę.
Yoo-hoo is an American chocolate beverage originated in New Jersey in the 1920s, now
produced by Dr Pepper Snapple Group. And again, no substitute for the brand name occurring in
the original is provided.
Not only in case of food products but also with regard to other brand names characteristic for
American culture, the reference is often omitted (Examples 5-7).
32
Example 5 [S02E05 16:33]
They're registered at Pottery Barn. I've figured we could go halfsies on a gravy boat.
Może jako para dostaniemy rabat.
Pottery Barn is an American-based home furnishing store chain with retail stores in the United
States, Canada, Puerto Rico and Australia, founded in 1950 (Wikipedia). The brand name, once
again, does not appear in the TT and nothing is offered the target audience instead.
Example 6 [S01E21 16:30]
Highlights is a children's magazine.
To taki żart.
Highlights: Fun with a Purpose (often referred to simply as Highlights), is an American
children's magazine with its first issue published in June 1946 in Honesdale, Pennsylvania (the
present location of its editorial office) (Wikipedia). As in the previous examples, the reference is
omitted.
Example 7 [S02E15 14:45]
Vera Wang!
xxxx
Vera Ellen Wang is an American fashion designer known for her wide range of haute couture
bridesmaid gowns and wedding gown collections based in New York City (Wikipedia). What is
interesting, is the fact that also brides in Poland are familiar with the brand, the translator,
33
however, decided not to convey the information in the translation.
Furthermore, as it has been already mentioned, in case of dealing with lacunas of brands,
shifts are sometimes applied (Examples 8-11):
Example 8 [S02E20 7:00]
I have Cool Whip and half of bag of Fritos.
Mam bitą śmietanę i chipsy.
In this example, the original brand names of Cool Whip - a brand of imitation whipped cream
used in North America as a dessert topping and in some no-bake pie recipes (Wikipedia), and
Fritos - a brand of corn chips invented in the 1930s by Elmer Doolin and produced since 1959 by
Frito-Lay (Wikipedia), were rendered by the means of explanation procedure. The name is not
present in the translation but Polish audience is offered information about the nature of the
product.
Similar strategy towards translating lacunas of brands was used in the next three
examples:
Example 9 [S02E15 14:40]
Oh, wow! Badgley Mischka!
Jaka cudowna suknia!
Badgley Mischka is an American fashion label launched in 1988 by Mark Badgley and James
Mischka. The brand name refers here to the bride's gown appearing on the screen. However,
contrary to the 6th example, in which the name of a fashion designer also was used as a reference
to a gown, here, the brand name is not so easily recognizable in Poland. Nevertheless, in this
34
case, at leas an explanation was provided by the translator.
Example 10 [S02E20 6:10]
The only thing you are getting is Rice-A-Roni and Turtle Wax.
Jeśli wygram, kupię wam tylko chipsy i wosk do samochodu.
Rice-A-Roni is a product of PepsiCo's subsidiary, the Quaker Oats Company. It is a boxed food
mix that consists of rice, vermicelli pasta, and seasonings (Wikipedia), while Turtle Wax is a
manufacturer of automotive appearance products headquartered in Willowbrook, Illinois
(Wikipedia). Both brands are American culture-specific and they would not be appealing to
Polish audience thus in the latter, the explanation was offered by the translation. However, in
case of Rice-A-Roni, the equivalence procedure was introduced as common noun chipsy (Eng.
chips), occurring in the translated version, does not convey the same meaning and is just a
substitute for a product with which target audience may not be familiar.
Example 11 [S1E04 11:45]
I've started subscribing to the Esquire.
Czytam pisma dla gentelmenów.
Esquire is a men's magazine, published in the U.S. by the Hearst Corporation, founded in 1932
(Wikipedia). As we may read on the magazine's website, it is a “Guide for men who want to live
a fuller, richer, more informed and rewarding life. Style, manners, money, culture, and cuisine”
(www.esquire.com). The magazine does not have its Polish edition therefore it may not be
known to Polish audience. The brand name is therefore explained.
35
The following example illustrating lacunas of brands is actually an overview of the three
possible solutions for rendering such problematic elements (Example 12):
Example 12 [S02E02 1:01]
- You just walk right in and grab yourself some Whoppers.
- Is Whoppers the best one?
- Mounds.
- Milkduds!
- Gobstoppers?
(…)
- Double Bublle!
- Każdy wchodzi do sklepu i bierze to, na co ma ochotę.
- Na przykład czekoladki.
- Jakie?
- Nadziewane!
xxxx
(...)
- Ptasie mleczko!
First of all, we may note that in the original, English version, occur five brand names of different
candy. The name of Whoppers, malted milk balls covered with a chocolate-flavored coating
produced by The Hershey Company - the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America
(Wikipedia), is rendered by the means of equivalent with explanation, as the common noun
czekoladki (Eng. Chocolates) is not a complete equivalent as it does not contain an equivalent
brand name but partially an explanation of the specificity of the ST cultural aspect. The brand
36
name of Mounds - a candy bar consisting of a coconut based center enrobed with dark chocolate;
Milk Duds - a caramel candy, historically enrobed with milk chocolate and currently enrobed
with a confectionery coating made from cocoa and vegetable oil, and merchandised in a yellow
box – both products manufactured by Hershey's as well (Wikipedia), as well as Gobstoppers - a
type of round hard candy, are known as jawbreakers in Canada and the United States (Wikipedia)
referring to The Everlasting Gobstoppers, sold under Nestlé's Willy Wonka Candy Company
brand, named after the Everlasting Gobstoppers in Roald Dahl's children's book Charlie and the
Chocolate Factory (Wikipedia) - were omitted. Finally, Dubble Bubble - a brand of pink-colored
bubblegum invented by Walter Diemer, an accountant at Philadelphia based Fleer Chewing Gum
Company, in 1928 (Wikipedia) – were substituted by an equivalent Ptasie mleczko, which is a
Polish soft chocolate-covered candy filled with soft meringue (or milk soufflé) (Wikipedia)
manufactured by Wedel company.
However, it sometimes happens that a brand name which does not fall into the category of
lacunas of brands is treated as such by a translator (Example 13):
Example 13 [S02E01 8:50]
Eat Häagen-Dazs and watch Love Actually until your periods sink up?
Opychać się lodami i oglądać ckliwe seriale?
Häagen-Dazs is an ice cream brand, established by Reuben and Rose Mattus in the Bronx, New
York, in 1961.The business now has franchises throughout the United States and many other
countries around the world (Wikipedia). The brand is known in Poland thanks to many TV series
in which it appeared (eg. American TV series Gossip Girl). The translator, however, decided not
to render it and he treated the brand name as a lacuna of brand which, in fact, it is not.
37
4.2. Lacunas of media
Lacunas of media (press, music, TV, films, radio, art, etc.) contain a cultural item related
to media appearing in the SC with which TC audience may not be familiar, eg. a TV series, a
magazine, a music band, a film, a radio programme and many more. This category is extremely
broad and comprises many various aspects of media specific for a given culture. Those may not
be in fact just actual references to a specific media element (eg. a film title) but it may also
denote a more elusive concept connected to the category (eg. customary perception of a given
TV broadcaster specific to SC audience, what may not be as apparent for TC audience). Despite
the fact that this aspect was not included in the analysis, it must be borne in mind. The following
section illustrates how lacunas of media function in AVT and presents the possible ways of
rendering them into TL (Examples 14-18).
Example 14 [S01E02 11:38]
Everybody had fun, everybody Wanged, everybody Chunged.
Wszystkim bardzo się podobało i znakomicie się bawili.
Wang Chung are an English New Wave musical group formed in 1980 which found their greatest
success in the United States, with five Top 40 hits in the US (Wikipedia). However, the group is
not popular in Poland and Polish audience would probably be not familiar with the reference thus
its presence might confuse target audience thus it was omitted but no explanation or equivalence
was provided instead.
Example 15 [S01E01 9:38]
It is on to da break of dawn!
Chłopie, zdobyłeś ją!
38
“To da Break of Dawn” is a single from both LL Cool J's (an American rapper) fourth album and
the soundtrack to the Kid 'n Play film House Party (Wikipedia). It is easily recognizable for
American audience, however, not for the Polish one. Yet again, no translation was rendered.
Similarly, a quote from Robert Louis Stevenson's novel Treasure Island (1883) adapted
later on for a pirate song “Yo ho ho and a bottle of rum” (Example 15) appearing in Polish
version might have puzzled Polish audience. Therefore the cultural aspect has been omitted and
the line was translated directly with the loss of original, clear reference.
Example 16 [S01E01 17:25]
Yo ho ho and a bottle of rum!
Co powiesz na butelkę rumu?
Lacunas of media deal also with particular broadcasters. As a given channel is often
country-specific and does not broadcast worldwide, therefore it may not be appealing to the
people of different nationalities. This is the case in the following example:
Example 17 [S02E19 16:50]
I always watch it on TBS.
Zawsze oglądam ten serial.
TBS (stylized as tbs since 2004) is an American basic cable and satellite television channel
owned by Time Warner, launched in 1976. It broadcasts many various programmes, with a focus
on comedy, along with some sports events, including major basketball and baseball
championships (Wikipedia). The channel is not available for Polish audience therefore the name
39
was omitted. The translated version refers to the general conversation from the series which dealt
with a TV series one of the characters watches, therefore it shall be treated an explanation.
Finally, equivalence may be applied to translation of lacunas of media (Example 18):
Example 18 [S02E16 5:52]
By the way, Bell Biv DeVoe called, even they don't want these pants back.
Takich spodni nie przyjmą nawet w Armii Zbawienia.
It is an extremely interesting example of how a culture-specific colour may be conveyed in the
translation. The original text clues on Bell Biv DeVoe - an American R&B/hip hop musical
group founded in 1989 (Wikipedia). The group was famous for their bright, colourful and loose
clothing – the awareness of this aspect is crucial for understanding the reference. However,
assuming that Polish audience does not know the band as an American viewer might, the
translator decided to substitute the original reference with the reference to Armia Zbawienia
(Eng. Salvation Army) - a Christian international charitable organization known for collecting
used clothes for the less fortunate. The translated version therefore suggests that if not even
Salvation Army wants the pants, then they must be really terrible. The equivalence applied here
is quite far-off from the original. It is, however, still to be considered as such.
However, as it was in the case of mistakenly treating simply a cultural aspect as a lacuna
of brand, also the following two examples, illustrate the incorrect perception of n original
cultural aspect as lacunas of media (Examples 19-20):
Example 19 [S02E17 12:38]
40
Hitchhiking Waldo.
Dziwnego autostopowicza.
In the original line occurs a reference to a book and TV series known in the United States and
Canada as “Where's Waldo?” (Wikipedia) aimed at children. Their task was to spot Waldo,
wearing distinctive red-and-white-striped shirt, bobble hat, and glasses, in the crowd of similarly
dressed people. The programme was broadcasted in 1991 in Polish TV channels TVP 1 and RTL
7 therefore it is not foreign to at least part of the audience. Thus, the omitted cultural aspect shall
not be regarded a lacuna of media.
Similar situation concerns the following:
Example 20 [S02E19 2:38]
It goes: naked girls, democracy, the scene in “Every Which Way But Loose” where the
monkey gives the guy the finger.
Od jednego filmu.
“Every Which Way but Loose” is a 1978 American adventure comedy film, released by Warner
Brothers. It stars Clint Eastwood and an orangutan (Wikipedia), and its voiced-over version was
broadcasted in Polish television under the title “Każdy sposób jest dobry”. Therefore once again,
this shall not be deemed as lacuna of media but the omission shall be treated simply as procedure
of transating cultural aspects.
4.3. Lacunas of anthroponyms
It often happens that the names of real-life people are easily recognizable in one culture
41
while they bear no meaning and bring no connotations for members of an another. Lacunas of
anthroponyms signify exactly such a case (Examples 21-26).
The following example illustrates partial lack of consistency of the translator with regard to
translating lacunas of anthroponyms (see Example 21):
Example 21 [S1E04 15:02]
Elbert "Ickey" Woods, the Bengals were fool to cut you down a 91. Your 1525 rushing
yards and your 27 touchdowns will not be forgotten. So, coach Dave Shula, screw you and
your crappy steakhouse!
Ickey, nie powinni cię wyrzucać z drużyny.
First of all, Elbert "Ickey" Woods is a former American football fullback who played his entire
NFL career (1988 to 1991) with the Cincinnati Bengals. He is best remembered for his
lumbering "Ickey Shuffle" end zone dance, performed when he scored touchdowns (Wikipedia).
The name of the sportsman was kept in the translated version (direct transfer), despite the fact
that not many Poles follow American football. However, it retains the culture-specificity which
adds to the overall experience of the TV series. On the other hand, the reference to David Donald
Shula, a former American football player and coach who now works with his father in the
family's restaurant business, Shula's Steak Houses (Wikipedia), was omitted. Such a decision is
somewhat confusing as if we keep the first name, we might as well retain the latter as audience
familiar with American football would most certainly grasp it. Nevertheless, for most viewers,
both references would not be clear enough and may not be even linked to the accurate sports
discipline therefore, both names shall be considered lacunas of anthroponyms.
A typical application of omission procedure to lacunas of anthroponyms is illustrated with the
42
next four passages from the dialogues (Examples 22-25):
Example 22 [S02E01 11:40]
Oh, funk legend George Clinton!
xxxxxxx
George Clinton is an American singer, songwriter, bandleader, and music producer and the
principal architect of P-Funk. He was the mastermind of the bands Parliament and Funkadelic
during the 1970s and early 1980s, and launched a solo career in 1981 (Wikipedia). His easily
recognizable by Americans due to his unconventional looks (long colourful dreadlocks). His
fame did not, however, reach Poland in a similar manner and only music lovers will probably
understand the reference. What is surprising is that George Clinton appears on the screen and
despite that, the translator still did not render his name and used omission procedure instead.
Example 23 [S02E12 9:20]
Maybe we could put on some Al Green and take a bubble bath together.
Moglibyśmy się razem wykąpać.
Al Greene refers to Albert Greene - an American singer, best known for recording a series of soul
hit singles in the early 1970s, including "Tired of Being Alone", "I'm Still In Love With You",
"Love and Happiness" and his signature song, "Let's Stay Together". Inducted to the Rock and
Roll Hall of Fame in 1995, Green was referred to on the museum's site as being "one of the most
gifted purveyors of soul music" (Wikipedia). Here again, the name being known in Poland
probably only to a few music lovers, it is to be considered lacuna of anthroponym as the name
itself does not bring many connotations. Thus it was omitted in the translated version.
43
Example 24 [S02E04 12:40]
And then I was all: no Frank Gehry, you're on your own!
I wtedy powiedziałem mu, że musi sobie radzić sam.
Frank Gehry, is a famous Canadian-American architect from Los Angeles. Many of buildings
designed by Gehry has become world renowned tourist attractions and Vanity Fair magazine
labelled him as "the most important architect of our age" (Wikipedia). Despite his fame, the
name would probably still not be appealing enough for Polish audience as Gehry is an American.
Therefore, his name is also an example of lacuna of anthroponym which was omitted.
Example 25 [S02E05 16:07]
Walt Whitman suite, bro!
Co ty na to?
Walt Whitman was an American poet, whose works have gained him great fame worldwide.
Despite this, his name is known not to many Poles and as such it was omitted in order not to
confuse target audience.
Finally, explanation might be applied to translating lacunas of anthroponyms (Example
26):
Example 26 [S02E16 5:21]
Lily versus Joey Buttafuoco pants.
Lily contra wojskowe spodnie Marshalla.
44
Joseph "Joey" Buttafuoco is an auto body shop owner from Long Island, New York. He is best
known for having had an affair with sixteen-year old Amy Fisher. He was also recognizable by
his wide colourful military pants - hence the reference. However, in the translated version the
name is omitted and only the denotation is kept by the means of explanation. Thus, the name is
here treated as an adjective. Nevertheless, it being probably not appealing to Polish audience, it
is still a lacuna of anthroponym.
4.4. Lacunas of toponyms
As mentioned before, a lacuna of toponym is a name of a SC location, a building, etc.,
with which TC audience may not be familiar. Due to the fact that in the case of How I Met Your
Mother, a TV series deeply rooted in the city of New York, many such proper names occur,
therefore the translator is faced with the difficult decision whether or not to render particular
element. The limited number of procedures of translating lacunas in AVT (omission, shift by the
means of equivalence or explanation) seems to be satisfactory yet again (Examples 27-33).
First of all, frequently, lacunas of toponyms are omitted (Examples 27-30):
Example 27 [S02E01 10:12]
My uncle has a beachhouse up in Montauk.
Do letniego domku mojego wujka.
Montauk is a popular tourist destination in the town of East Hampton in Suffolk County, New
York. It is particularly famous for its fishing (Wikipedia). However, its popularity has mostly
local character therefore Polish audience may not be familiar with the name. Thus omission was
applied.
45
Example 28 [ S02E15 5:23]
It looks like Barney should be coming over the Queensboro Bridge and up 1st Avenue in the
next hour.
Mniej więcej za godzinę powinien biec Pierwszą Aleją.
The Queensboro Bridge, also known as the 59th Street Bridge, is a cantilever bridge over the
East River in New York City that was completed in 1909 (Wikipedia). Being known to probably
all New Yorkers, the name of a bridge is not appealing to Polish audience thus it was omitted as
well.
Example 29 [S02E19 20:08]
If you had three hours before your flight, what would you do: Alcatraz or Fisherman's
Wharf?
Sądzisz, że warto zwiedzić Alcatraz?
Fisherman's Wharf is a neighborhood and popular waterfront tourist attraction in San Francisco,
California. Similarly as in the case of Montauk, the popularity of the place has mainly local
character and it might not bring any connotations in the audience's mind. Hence the omission of
the original reference.
Moreover, explanation procedure might be applied to rendering lacunas of toponyms as
well (Examples 30-32):
Example 30 [S02E18 10:20]
Would you rather be on the bottom of the East River or the Hudson?
46
Z której rzeki chciałbyś wyławiać swoje graty?
Both abovementioned rivers, flowing through the New York City, are well-known to all New
Yorkers and probably every American, however, not necessarily to Polish audience. The latter
might denote for some Poles the location of a river but the former is somewhat problematic.
Therefore, consistent this time translator, used general phrase rzeki (Eng. Rivers), explaining the
quality of both lacunas of toponyms.
Example 31 [S02E12 7:41]
This place in the Catskills.
W górach.
Similarly, the Catskill Mountains referred here simply as the Catskills – a large area in the
southeastern portion of the U.S. state of New York (Wikipedia) – may not be appealing to Poles
thus, it being a lacuna of toponym, the name was explained as góry (Eng. mountains).
Example 32 [S01E21 15:10]
I'm not in Dutchess County.
Nie jestem na pustkowiu.
Here, appearing in the original version name of Dutchess County, a county in the state of New
York, not being easily recognizable for Polish audience (thus we may deem it a lacuna of
toponym) is translated in an explanatory manner as pustkowie (Eng. a desolated place) as it is
mostly rural area with almost only small villages and hamlets.
Finally, an interesting combination of two procedures of shifting the meaning may occur
47
as in the following example:
Example 33 [S02E13 12:58]
We're going to the Howe Caverns.
Ustaliliśmy, że jedziemy w góry.
Howe Caverns, popular tourist attraction, is a cave in Howes Cave, Schoharie County, New York
(Wikipedia). In the Polish version appears a noun góry (Eng. mountains) which might suggest
application of explanation procedure. However, knowing that the original name denotes a cave
and not mountains or even one mountain, we shall treat is as equivalent combined with
explanation as no equivalent toponym occurs and only a common noun.
4.5. Lacunas of customs and language
This category, as it was already noted, encompasses the widest range of cultural notions.
Lacuna of custom and language is a SC-specific custom or linguistic expression with which TC
audience may not be familiar. It also includes lacunas related to history, cuisine and habits of a
given culture group. The following section illustrates the scope of the category on the basis of
the analysed TV series (Examples 34-38).
Firstly, let us consider the way of rendering customary tradition of bridal registry in the
already quoted example, which earlier on served as a basis for analysis of lacunas of brands:
Example 34 [S02E05 16:33]
They're registered at Pottery Barn. I've figured we could go halfsies on a gravy boat.
Może jako para dostaniemy rabat.
48
A bridal registry is a service provided by a website or retail store to assist engaged couples in the
communication of gift preferences to wedding guests. The couple selects items from store stock
and lists desired items and files this list with the chosen merchant. The list is then made available
to wedding guests, either by the couple's family or the merchant. Upon the purchase of a listed
item, this gift registry is updated accordingly (Wikipedia). The procedure is not common on
Polish market hence many Poles might not be even familiar with the perks of the service. Thus
the reference to it was omitted.
Furthermore, the category of lacunas of custom and language encompasses sports popular
in the SC but which may be not easily recognized by the target audience (Example 35):
Example 35 [S02E18 2:41]
He was a cute little freshman discovering reggae and the ultimate frisbee.
Wydaje się, że był świeżo upieczonym studentem.
Ultimate is a sport played with a disc (frisbee) found in the late 1960s in the United States.
Points are scored by passing the disc to a teammate in the opposing end zone (Wikipedia).
Contrary to expectations, the discipline is practised also in Poland and there are over seventy
teams all over the country. However, the name of the sport has not its Polish equivalent and most
of Polish audience will probably not relate the game of frisbee to actual sports discipline.
Therefore it may be considered a lacuna of custom and language. The name was omitted in the
translated version.
The category deals also with the cuisine particular to a given culture, here American:
Example 36 [S02E18 12:56]
49
I will be at the snack shack eating our victory onion rings.
Idę do baru zjeść naszą nagrodę.
Onion rings are a snack commonly found in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom,
Ireland, Australia, and some parts of Asia. They generally consist of a cross-sectional "ring" of
onion dipped in batter or bread crumbs and then deep fried (Wikipedia). Despite the fact, that the
dish is recently becoming quite popular in Poland and is being served in various restaurants, its
popularity is not as high as to assume that most Poles are familiar with the notion. Therefore,
still, onion rings may be considered a lacuna of custom and language but it may soon change due
to their increasing popularity in Poland. At this point, the reference was omitted as well.
A perfect example of a lacuna of custom and language deals with the procedure of voting
which due to systematic and traditional differences bears little resemblance between the United
States and Poland (see Example 37).
Example 37 [S1E06 4:45]
She knows me as a hanging chad.
Poznała mnie jako chłopca z ogłoszeniem.
A hanging chad, is the scored piece of paper that remains on a punch-card ballot if the voter fails
to fully punch the card to dislodge the paper (Wikipedia). As the procedure of issuing a vote is
completely different in Poland, and voters do not punch out the paper but only mark the box next
to the candidate of their choice, thus they will most certainly not get the idea of a hanging chad.
Interestingly, the item appeared on the screen but resembling a lot an advertisement, it was
rendered as such (hence Polish ogłoszenie). The translator offered an equivalent to Polish
audience in order not to confuse them.
50
Let us now consider a few linguistic lacunas which are also deeply rooted in American
culture (Examples 38-39):
Example 38 [S01E22 16:24]
Dibs!
xxxx
Calling "dibs" is the US English term for an informal convention where one declares a first claim
to something to which no one else has a clearly recognized right. Such a declaration is often
recognized in certain cultures, or sub-cultures, as a means to avoid arguments over relatively
trivial issues although can be considered quite rude at some points (Wikipedia). Neither the
phrase, nor even such a concept exists in Polish culture. Therefore not proposing an equivalent or
explanation, the translator omitted the original, marked strongly with American culture, phrase.
51
Conclusions
Cultural lacunas are beyond any doubt one of the most problematic cultural elements to
be rendered into another language. On the basis of the conducted case study, the provided
definition of a cultural lacuna as a SC element which has no equivalent in TC or a reference to
SC which is not easily recognizable by TC audience and its presence in TT may confuse target
audience proves to be sufficient.
Furthermore, the suggested classification of lacunas into the five basic categories
(lacunas of brands, media, anthroponyms, toponyms, and customs and language) constitutes a
good starting point for further analysis of other audiovisual materials.. However, on the basis of
the provided examples, it is apparent that assigning a cultural lacuna to only one category is
somewhat artificial and serves here only as a method for pinpointing and understanding the inner
workings of the sort.
Moreover, with regard to the procedures of translating cultural lacunas, as presented in
the case study conducted on the basis of the first two seasons of an American comedy series How
I Met Your Mother, we may easily limit the procedures of translating cultural lacunas to only two
of them: omission and shift, later subdivided into equivalence and explanation. The only instance
of direct transfer of lacuna of anthroponym (reference to an American football player Elbert
"Ickey" Woods; Example 21) resulted probably from the fact that the translator treated the
original reference as easily recognizable for Polish audience, the assumption being somewhat
problematic in case of being acquainted with American football.
It is also worth mentioning, that, as illustrated by the study, some cultural lacunas might
eventually stop being considered as such due to bringing the cultures in contact closer to one
another (as in the case of onion rings, which still considered as lacuna of custom and language,
are becoming more popular in Poland; Example 36).
52
Finally, it becomes clear that omission procedure is applied most frequently to translation
of cultural lacunas. It may be a consequence of the mode of audiovisual translation chosen for
rendering the series. It is, however, beyond doubt, that Polish audience is faced with a translation
not so strongly marked with cultural specificity as the original one.
53
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Streszczenie
Przekład materiałów audiowizualnych silnie zakorzenionych w kulturze jest bez
wątpienia dużym wyzwaniem. Dzieje się tak zarówno przez ograniczenia wynikające z
wykorzystania konkretnego rodzaju przekładu audiowizualnego, jak i za sprawą elementów
nieprzekładalnych (tj. lakun), które przez wzgląd na słabą rozpoznawalność przez publiczność
docelową, mogą ją w efekcie zdezorientować.
Teoria lakun znalazła swoje zastosowanie w wielu dziedzinach, jednak jej aplikacja do
tłumaczenia audiowizualnego wciąż pozostaje bez precedensu. Niniejsza praca jest próbą
zdefiniowania lakun kulturowych na potrzeby tłumaczenia audiowizualnego na bazie już
istniejących definicji. To pierwszy krok do ustalenia klasyfikacji lakun kulturowych w zakresie
tej dyscypliny, który prowadzi z kolei do ukazania wyników analizy procedur stosowanych w
tłumaczeniu omawianego typu lakun.
Analiza przeprowadzona na bazie amerykańskiego serialu komediowego Jak poznałem
waszą matkę, emitowanego w stacji CBS pomiędzy 19. września 2005 a 31. marca 2014 roku,
pozwoliła dojść do następujących wniosków: po pierwsze, zaproponowana definicja lakun
kulturowych występujących w tłumaczeniu audiowizualnym, stwierdzająca, iż za lakunę
kulturową można uznać element kultury źródłowej, który nie ma swojego odpowiednika w
kulturze docelowej lub też nawiązanie do kultury źródłowej, które nie będzie wystarczająco
rozpoznawalne przez publiczność docelową, przez co obecność owego nawiązania w tekście
tłumaczenia może ją zdezorientować, spełnia swoje zadanie w obrębie zanalizowanego
materiału.
Ponadto, przedstawiona w niniejszym opracowaniu klasyfikacja lakun kulturowych
(lakuny marek, mediów, antroponimów, toponimów oraz zwyczajów i języka) stanowi podstawę
do dalszej analizy bardziej zróżnicowanych materiałów audiowizualnych. Dodatkowo, na
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podstawie przebadanych przykładów możemy zaobserwować, iż procedury tłumaczenia lakun
kulturowych w przekładzie audiowizualnym mogą zostać bez większych trudności ograniczone
do dwóch podstawowych: pominięcia oraz przeniesienia znaczenia, które następnie jest
podzielone na zastosowanie ekwiwalentu lub wyjaśnienie.
Analiza przeprowadzona w niniejszym opracowaniu stanowi punkt wyjścia dla szerzej
zakrojonego badania, którego celem jest opracowanie efektywnego zaplecza metodologicznego
do badania i rozwiązywania problemów tłumaczeniowych wynikających z występowania lakun
kulturowych między kulturą źródłową a docelową.
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