The metallurgy of Roman medical instruments

The metallurgy of Roman medical instruments

Katherine E. Jakielskia,*, Michael R. Notisb

aCenter for Materials Research in Archaeology and Ethnology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Cambridge, MA 02139, USAbDepartment of Materials Science, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA

Received 20 March 2000; accepted 31 May 2000

Abstract

A metallographic study was conducted to characterize the composition and manufacturing techniques of two

Roman medical instruments. The instruments, one, the typical form of an ear speculum or `̀ scoop'', and the other,

a spatula, are part of a set of nine Roman medical instruments. The exact provenance of the instruments is unclear,

but they are stylistically similar to Roman medical instruments dating from the 2nd to 4th century AD. The present

results are compared with the findings from a previous examination of one Roman medical olivary probe. This

analysis illustrates the variety of manufacturing techniques that ancient Roman metallurgists implemented in

medical instrument fabrication. D 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Archaeometallurgy; Ancient medicine; Metallurgy; Roman; Medical instruments

I would prefer a knowledgeable surgeon with a rusty

knife to a charlatan with fancy equipment.

Ð Lucian, 2nd century AD [1]

1. Introduction

Harnessing the forces of nature and surmounting

their formidable powers to prevent sickness and

death has preoccupied humankind across the world

and throughout the ages. To the modern reader,

descriptions of early Roman medical techniques, as

outlined in the works of Celsus and Galen, appear

inhumane and can make even the hardiest reader

queasy. However, primitive as they may appear, it is

the successes and failures of ancient and historic

medical scientific endeavors that have fused into the

state of modern medicine.

Although the medical sciences have advanced far

beyond the imagination of ancient practitioners (and

will continue to advance beyond anything that we

can presently imagine), healing still contains an

element of mysticism. Throughout the development

of more `̀ advanced'' societies, medicine appears to

move from a healing system that is based completely

on the supernatural rule of the gods to a system that

places more power into the hands of human sur-

geons. The line between religious leader and healer

was blurred and as medical science advanced, doc-

tors and surgeons were imbued with the divine right

to heal.

1044-5803/00/$ ± see front matter D 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

PII: S1 0 4 4 - 5 8 0 3 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 7 8 - 4

* Corresponding author. 1230 Royal Street #12, New

Orleans, LA 70116, USA. Tel.: +1-504-581-3209; fax: +1-

504-257-1482.

E-mail address: [email protected] (K.E. Jakielski).

Materials Characterization 45 (2000) 379± 389

Like a religious leader, a medical practitioner

would need sufficient tools and symbols to be estab-

lished as a healer. An effective surgical instrument

would have to incorporate functional design and

aesthetic appeal, as well as establish a ritualistic

connection. Functional aspects, such as strength to

prevent breakage during use, were manipulated by

choosing associated metallurgical manufacturing tech-

niques to control the mechanical properties. Surgical

instruments could be connected to ritualistic objects

based on alloy selection. The aesthetic appeal of a

surgeon's medical tool kit was an important means of

earning a patient's trust [2]. An impressive medical

tool kit composed of intricately manufactured, eye-

catching, shiny metal objects could assuage the fears

of new patients. Alloy selection, design, and manip-

ulation of mechanical properties by associated metal-

lurgical technologies would be expected to vary by

region and culture. Though we can never fully know

the motivations or nuances of the everyday life of past

cultures, the scientific materials analysis of objects can

give us some insight into the technological and social

organization employed. Materials analysis of ancient

objects can answer such questions as the way in which

materials were manipulated in terms of form and

function, and why some instruments were manufac-

tured in certain styles or metals and others were not.

When coupled with historical medical documents,

materials studies of surgical instruments can give us

a glimpse into the way in which our ancestors viewed

human life, the risks that they were willing to take, and

the integration of separate technologies (i.e., metal-

lurgy and surgery) to, in essence, save human life.

This paper examines one small block of time and

space in this evolution in surgical history: the Roman

period in the 1st to 4th century AD. The Roman time

is of particular interest because it was in that time that

their folk-based medicine developed into a more

scientific method based on principles adopted from

the Greeks [1,3,4]. In addition, their successful mili-

tary campaigns and widespread imperialism gave

them the power to disseminate their surgical techni-

ques and medical principles throughout the Western

world. This paper presents the results of a metallo-

graphic and microchemical analysis of three Roman

medical instruments. It is intended to provide insight

on the metallurgical technologies used and basic

principles of material selection and design implemen-

ted by Roman metallurgists in the manufacture of

Roman medical instruments.

2. Background

Previous studies of Roman medical instruments

have focused primarily on constructing typologies

and little scientific materials analysis has been

done [5±8]. A notable exception is the investiga-

tion of a set of 40 Roman medical instruments

from the British Museum that incorporated macro-

scopic visual examination, X-ray radiography,

XRF, and XRD analyses [9]. Though X-ray radio-

graphy and visual examination provide a general

idea of the method of manufacture on a macro-

scopic level, metallographic investigations can pro-

vide a much deeper level of understanding of the

metallurgical processes employed. Only one metal-

lographic study on Roman medical instruments has

been published to our knowledge [10]. There is a

cursory overview of another metallographic inves-

tigation, but no formal results from this study have

been published [11]. Metallographic studies, when

coupled with scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) can give

a thorough picture of the metallurgical history of

an object.

2.1. Roman medicine

Early Roman medicine relied heavily on herbal

folk remedies, magical incantations, and the will of

the gods. The plague of Rome in 295 BC forced

the Romans to enlist the aid of the more scienti-

fically based Greek medicine [1,3,4]. It was neither

an easy nor rapid amalgamation of Greek surgical

techniques with the Roman medical repertoire. The

Roman citizenry was reluctant to place their lives

in the hands of another person instead of an

omnipotent god (let alone a person brandishing

knives and probes in a time of no anesthesia!).

In addition, the general populace of Rome was

highly opposed to human dissection, which re-

sulted in a poor knowledge of human anatomy.

The general mistrust of the public coupled with an

inadequate anatomical knowledge base made it

imperative for an ancient surgeon to fully charac-

terize each patient's physical ailment before opera-

tion. A misdiagnosed condition or failed operation

could not only ruin the surgeon's reputation, but

also the trust of the public in the medical field as

a whole [1]. It follows then that a wide range of

probes, used to fully characterize the wound before

operation, were an essential part of the Roman

surgeon's tool kit.

Roman medicine and surgical instruments have

their origin by transmission from the Greeks, but, as

the Roman Empire grew, this body of knowledge and

technology increased tremendously [3,5,10]. The

dissemination and evolution of Roman medical tech-

niques and theories throughout the Roman Empire

can be attributed largely to the medical staff within

the Roman army [1,12]. Roman medicine had a

K.E. Jakielski, M.R. Notis / Materials Characterization 45 (2000) 379±389380

symbiotic relationship with the folk medicine prac-

ticed in the conquered territories; Roman doctors

could amass new medical knowledge from interaction

with local healers, concurrently, the local healers

gained knowledge of Roman techniques [1]. It is

likely that this exchange of information included

the introduction of Roman medical instruments and

the associated metallurgical technology used to man-

ufacture them.

2.2. The Roman surgical toolkit

Probes, spatulas, scoops, forceps, and scalpels

comprise the major typological groups found in the

basic Roman medical toolkit [5,8,9,13]. Most Roman

medical instruments were double-ended and multi-

functional; most scoops and spatulas served also as

probes. This multi-functionality extended beyond

basic instrument design to the decorative inlays and

Fig. 1. Roman medical instruments examined in this study. (a) Roman ear scoop and (b) Roman spatula. The archaeological

context of all objects is uncertain, but each object is stylistically similar to Roman objects dated to the 1st to 4th century AD.

K.E. Jakielski, M.R. Notis / Materials Characterization 45 (2000) 379±389 381

ridges, which served the dual purpose of aesthetic

enhancement and the ergonomic role of ensuring a

firmer grip.

Ancient medical instruments functioned in ways

that are similar to the ways in which we employ their

modern counterparts. Spatulas were mainly used for

applying medicaments and ointments, and blunt dis-

section [5,9]. Probes were used to apply medicines

and characterize wounds to determine where to oper-

ate [14]. Ear scoops were used to dislodge wax or

foreign objects from the ear. They were also used to

apply liquid medicines to the ear by wrapping a piece

of wool around the handle of the scoop, dipping it in

the medicine, and letting the medicine drip down the

pointed end of the handle into the ear. Other sug-

gested uses of the ear scoop include curetting small

areas, pouring liquid medicine into the eyes, and

measuring medicines [5,9].

The materials used to manufacture Roman medi-

cal instruments included copper, bronze, brass, silver,

and gold. Roman smiths incorporated multiple types

of metals into a single instrument design such as the

typical scalpel, which consisted of an iron blade

inserted into a bronze handle. The majority of the

Roman medical instrument finds are composed of

bronze; Hippocrates prescribed the use of bronze for

manufacturing medical instruments in the 4th century

BC and the frequency of bronze instrument finds may

suggest adherence to this doctrine [4,10,12]. It was

essential that the instruments did not break during use

and therefore necessitated an understanding of mate-

rial properties and a high quality manufacturing

process. Functionality would be a key component in

the materials selection and design of medical instru-

ments, but not the only consideration. The metallur-

gist had to imbue the object with a sense of healing

power beyond the human realm. A religious connec-

tion could be established by incorporating elements

of ritual object design into the medical instruments.

For example, the alloy selection of bronze for medical

instruments suggested by Hippocrates may be due to

the long association of the alloy with healing cults

[10]. In a sense, these metal objects transformed the

ancient medical practitioner from an average human

being to a divine artist manipulating the most delicate

material of all Ð human life.

2.3. Roman surgical instrument finds

The largest documented finds of Roman medical

instruments are those found at the sites of Pompeii

and Herculaneum [5,8]. Additional Roman medical

instrument finds have been discovered in military

hospitals and grave sites throughout Britain [15,16].

Regrettably, a large majority of the Roman medical

surgical instrument finds are of unknown prove-

nance [6,7,9,17]. The most recent finding of surgi-

cal instruments and perhaps the most significant

were discovered in 1996 in Colchester, England in

a Doctor's grave at the Stanway site. The Stanway

set dates to the AD 50s and is the oldest known set

of medical instruments from Britain and throughout

the world [18,19].

2.4. The Lehigh University collection

There are a total of 15 Roman medical implements

currently held in the Department of Materials Science

and Engineering at Lehigh University. One (an oli-

vary probe) was purchased in 1995 from an antiqui-

ties dealer and of unknown provenance. Five

(spatulas, probes, and scoops) were purchased in

1997 from a private collection and reportedly found

in Egypt. The set examined here contains nine

instruments. Four of these instruments are scoop or

spoon type instruments and the other five are spatu-

las. This group was purchased in 1998 and reportedly

found along the Thames as part of a large group of

similar probes, scoops, and spatulas.

One scoop and one spatula from this collection

were chosen for metallographic investigations. Fig.

1 shows the objects chosen for investigation before

sectioning. Fig. 2 shows the other seven instruments

in this group not chosen for analysis. There is no

documented archaeological excavation of such a

hoard along the Thames. However, the instruments

in our collection are stylistically similar to Roman

instrument finds dated from the 1st to 4th century

AD [5,8]. In addition, during the metallographic

analyses, which will be discussed below, the depth

Fig. 2. Roman medical instruments in the Lehigh University

collection not examined in this study. This set was reported

to be found in hoard of medical instruments along the

Thames, 1st to 4th century AD.


of penetration of surface corrosion into the object's

base material could only be achieved after a sig-

nificant time of burial. Both of these factors, com-

bined with the alloy composition found by EPMA,

solidify the claim that these objects are from Roman

times. The results obtained for these two instruments

were then compared with a metallographic investi-

gation conducted on a Roman olivary probe by the

authors in 1996 [10].

3. Lab methodology

The objects were sectioned using a low-speed

diamond saw. Each sample was then mounted in an

epoxide resin, ground, and polished using silicon

carbide papers and then alumina powder to a 0.05-

mm finish. The as-polished microstructure was ob-

served using the light optical microscope. The

samples were then etched in a ferric nitrate solution

for times ranging from 2 to 5 s; photomicrographs

were taken in both the as-polished and etched state

using a Leitz metallograph or a Wild A420 Mak-

roskop low magnification metallograph. EPMA was

conducted using a JEOL 733 SuperProbe at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Geology

Laboratory for the scoop and spatula instruments

reported here. EPMA was also conducted for the

previously reported olivary probe using a JEOL 733

SuperProbe at the Department of Materials Science

and Engineering at Lehigh University.

4. Results

4.1. Ear scoop

Macroscopic investigation revealed that the ear

scoop was manufactured as a single solid piece. It is

103 mm long with a 10-mm-diameter bowl (scoop)

contiguous with a cylindrical shaft that served as a

handle. The cross-sectional diameter of the handle is

3 mm and relatively constant throughout the entire

length. Two irregularly shaped 2-mm-wide decorative

bands separate the bowl from the handle. The corro-

sion patina on the handle was a relatively uniform

dark green/black color. The corrosion patina on the

inside of the bowl had patches of light brown and

white-colored corrosion on the dark green/black pa-

tina. Once sectioned, the scoop base metal appeared

to be a light gold/brassy color. The characteristic as-

polished microstructure is shown in Fig. 3. EPMA

results are shown in Table 1. The edge corrosion

forms a layer of relatively uniform thickness around

the entire surface area of the sample. There is no

preferred path of penetration of the edge corrosion

into the sample.

Four main phases characterize this microstructure

as observed in the as-polished state. The primary

phase is the matrix phase, which shows evidence of

coring, varying in color from light yellow to white.

EPMA indicates that the scoop matrix phase is a

copper±zinc alloy with an approximate composition

of 69 wt.% copper±29 wt.% zinc. The second phase

is a faint, gold-colored interdendritic phase. This

phase, labeled `̀ scoop interdendritic'' in Table 1, is

composed of copper, zinc, and tin. The increase in

zinc concentration from the matrix (� 29 wt.% Zn)

to the interdendritic (� 36 wt.%) is an effect of non-

Fig. 3. Characteristic four-phase Roman ear scoop

microstructure, as polished: (a) cored CuZn matrix

phase; (b) CuZn interdendritic phase; (c) needle-like

iron oxides remnant of smelting process; and (d) blocky

lead oxides, 500� .

Table 1

EPMA results for Roman ear scoop

Elemental weight percentage Atomic percentage

Label Cu Zn Sn Pb Fe Cu Zn Sn Pb Fe

Scoop matrix 69.00 28.97 0.38 0.04 0.94 70.10 28.61 0.21 0.02 1.09

Scoop interdendritic 57.50 36.18 3.56 0.04 0.20 60.60 37.07 2.01 0.02 0.24

Scoop dark needles 6.37 3.53 0.01 0.12 85.88 5.92 3.19 0.00 0.03 90.85

Scoop bright inclusion 5.64 2.54 0.48 86.46 0.16 16.08 7.03 0.73 75.63 0.53


equilibrium cooling and the resultant solidification

phenomenon known as constitutional undercooling

[20]. The third phase consists of numerous tiny

blue-gray-colored dendrite-shaped inclusions (den-

drite arm length sizes range from less than 5±20

mm long), randomly distributed throughout the pri-

mary matrix phase. EPMA results (labeled `̀ scoop

dark needles'') show that this is an iron oxide and

could be a remnant of the original ores or slag from

the smelting process. The fourth phase is also blue-

gray in color but morphologically different from the

third phase. This phase consists of blocky and

globular inclusions (up to 5 mm in size) distributed

randomly throughout the matrix. These inclusions

appear very bright in the backscattered electron

(BSE) image and EPMA shows them to be lead

oxides (labeled `̀ scoop bright inclusion''). It should

be noted that the small amounts of copper and zinc

found in the EPMA readings for the third and fourth

phases could be attributed to signal overlap with the

matrix phase due to the small size of the inclusions

relative to the electron beam. Trace amounts of other

elements were found in each phase.

In the etched state, a cast dendritic structure was

revealed (Fig. 4). Only a few areas on the outside

edge near the tip of the bowl show evidence of light

mechanical deformation. Fig. 5 shows the deformed

grains and inclusions in one of these areas.

4.2. Spatula

Macroscopic examination revealed that the spatu-

la was composed of two separate pieces: the spatula

blade and a handle into which a spatula blade was

inserted. The total length of the spatula is 150 mm.

The cylindrical spatula handle/shaft is 103 mm long

with a cross-sectional diameter that varies from 2 mm

at the top of the handle nearest the joint section to 3

mm at the bottom of the handle. Joined to this handle

is a flattened oblong spatula that is 5 cm long and

uniformly 1 mm thick across the entire blade. A light

green patina covers the entire object.

4.2.1. Spatula blade insert

Upon sectioning, the spatula insert base metal

appeared to be a light coppery-gold color. EPMA

results (labeled `̀ spatula insert matrix'' in Table 2)

reveal that the matrix is a tin±bronze with an average

composition of 8 wt.% Sn. Fig. 6 shows an overview

of the spatula and holder joint section. The as-

polished microstructure of the spatula insert exhibits

a cored solidification structure with alternating rows

of copper-rich and tin-rich layers aligned parallel to

the long axis of the spatula sample.

Edge corrosion preferentially penetrates the high-

energy grain boundaries and proceeds along lines of

mechanical deformation as shown in Fig. 7. The

corrosion works down along the lines of mechanical

deformation and is stopped at the less corrosion-

prone tin-rich layers, then changes direction to pre-

ferentially corrode along the copper-rich layers.

There are three morphologically and chemically

distinct phases within the bronze matrix. The first ofFig. 4. Characteristic cast dendritic ear scoop microstructure,

500� , ferric nitrate.

Fig. 5. Transverse section of etched Roman scoop. Note the

deformed inclusions at the outer edge of the bowl section,

500� , ferric nitrate.


these phases consists of numerous small (� 5 to 20

mm) elongated gray inclusions. EDS analyses show

that these are iron copper sulfides. Like the cored

layers, these inclusions are aligned parallel to the long

axis of the blade insert. As shown in Fig. 8, both the

cored layers and the inclusions bend near the end

where the blade insert is joined to the spatula holder.

The second phase consists of blocky gray inclusions

(5±10 mm) distributed randomly throughout the sam-

ple matrix. EPMA shows that this phase is an iron

copper oxide (listed as `̀ spatula insert dark inclu-

sion'', Table 2). Iron and copper only account for 78

wt.% of the alloy; oxygen can be estimated by

difference. The third and final phase consists of two

very small (� 5 to 25 mm), light blue, globular-

shaped phase regions present in the tin-rich layers

of the blade matrix. EPMA readings (listed as `̀ spa-

tula insert bright inclusion'', Table 2) indicates that

this phase composition is 25 wt.% Sn, most probably

resulting from the b (beta)!a (alpha) + g (gamma)

eutectoid reaction at 586°C. This phase is therefore

identified as the g (gamma)-Cu/Sn phase.

The etched specimen reveals a heavily mechani-

cally worked structure. There is an abundance of

mechanical deformation lines throughout the sam-

ple. Annealing twins are present throughout the

microstructure, but the relative concentration of

these is much smaller than the presence of mechan-

ical deformation lines. As shown in Fig. 9, the

cored layers and inclusions are aligned parallel to

the main axis of the spatula and do not show any

sign of a final deformation sequence to shape the

free edges of the spatula insert. This is evidence

that this spatula insert was cast, hammered (result-

ing in the elongated cored dendrites), annealed, and

then further mechanically deformed as the last step

of production.

4.2.2. Spatula holder/handle

Upon examination after sectioning, the spatula

holder base metal appears copper colored. The fol-

lowing observations were noted using the light op-

tical microscope to study the sample in the as-

polished state. There are numerous globular copper

oxide inclusions randomly oriented throughout the

matrix. Although the inclusions were too small to

analyze using WDS, the fact that they are cuprous

oxides is substantiated using light optical microscopy.

Table 2

EPMA results for Roman spatula

Elemental weight percentage Atomic percentage

Label Cu Sn Fe Cu Sn Fe

Spatula insert matrix 91.10 8.33 0.31 94.90 4.65 0.36

Spatula insert bright inclusion 76.00 24.99 0.14 84.74 14.92 0.18

Spatula insert dark inclusion 38.30 3.27 40.13 44.08 2.01 52.55

Spatula holder matrix 100.00 0.06 0.00 99.96 0.03 0.00

Joint particles 85.98 3.83 0.00 97.64 2.36 0.00

Fig. 6. Transverse view of joint section where bronze spatula

blade is inserted into notched copper spatula handle and

secured with lead based solder, 50� , as polished.

Fig. 7. Preferential edge corrosion penetrating along the

mechanical deformation lines and copper rich layers of

bronze spatula insert, 500� , as polished.


Edge corrosion formed a relatively uniform layer

around the entire perimeter of the spatula handle.

The edge corrosion does not preferentially penetrate

the sample at any local area.

EDS analysis found that the spatula holder was a

nearly pure copper. Table 2 displays the WDS results

that quantitatively verify that the sample is a very

pure copper with only a trace of tin.

In the etched state, the microstructure appears to

be typical of a heavily worked structure that was then

annealed and has therefore developed a high density

of annealing twins (Fig. 10).

4.2.3. Joining material

In the as-polished state, the following observa-

tions were noted using the light optical microscope.

A multi-phase region of material presumably to

anchor and join the two members together, appeared

in the gap between spatula insert and handle as

shown in Fig. 11. The material predominantly con-

sisted of a dark gray matrix phase with light gold-

colored angular particles distributed throughout. EDS

results found the dark gray matrix to be lead. Table 2

shows the quantitative WDS analyses for the jagged

gold-colored particles. WDS analysis indicates that

these particles are bronze with a varying composition

range of 86 wt.% Cu and 4 wt.% Sn. Counts of

oxygen were also noted during the WDS analysis of

these particles.

4.3. Roman olivary probe

Macroscopic investigations revealed that the

probe was manufactured as a single piece and when

sectioned the base metal was a gold color. The as-

Fig. 8. Detailed longitudinal view of the fixed end of the

bronze spatula blade where inserted into copper holder. The

bending of the cored layers and inclusion flow suggests the

end was mechanically deformed, 200� , as polished.

Fig. 9. Transverse view of the free end of the spatula blade

insert exhibiting the characteristic heavily mechanically

worked structure. Note that, unlike the fixed end of the

spatula blade, the cored layers remain parallel at the free

end, 100� , ferric nitrate.

Fig. 10. Characteristic cold worked and annealed micro-

structure of the pure copper spatula handle, 100� ,

ferric nitrate.


polished structure revealed heavy cracking in the

center of the probe, edge corrosion penetrating in a

layered form, and inclusions aligned in a circular

pattern. EPMA results show that it is brass with an

average content of 25 wt.% Zn, traces of nickel, and

the balance copper. The etched microstructure re-

vealed a non-concentrically layered heavily worked

structure [10].

5. Discussion

5.1. Proposed manufacturing techniques

It is concluded that the ear scoop was a cast brass

that was slightly mechanically worked at the outside

edge of the bowl. To obtain the average zinc compo-

sition in the alloy, it can be estimated that the

interdendritic phase (� 36 wt.% Zn) accounts for

10% of the total alloy composition (refer to Table 1

and Fig. 3). When this is averaged with the matrix

composition of 30 wt.% Zn, the resultant average zinc

composition in the brass is estimated to be 31 wt.%.

The zinc concentration for this alloy, as well as the

30 wt.% Zn brass olivary probe, is significant in that

it falls within and in the upper end of the range of

17±33 wt.% Zn found in brass alloys manufactured

using the cementation process [21±25]. The earliest

evidence of Roman mass production of brass by the

cementation process occurred in 1st century BC coins

[11,26±28]. Lead was commonly added to improve

the casting properties of the alloy. By the end of the

3rd century AD, the additions of a few percent of tin

and lead are common in the brass, as found in our

alloy [23,27].

The spatula was composed of a heavily worked

copper rod that was annealed after final mechanical

working. The high number of cuprous oxide inclu-

sions suggests that the initial copper rod used was

cast. The bronze alloy spatula blade was originally

cut from a sheet that was cast and then hammered flat

into shape. It is likely that the sheet was then sheared

into smaller sections using a tin shear. The shearing

action would have deformed each end of the spatula

blade. Presumably, the edge that was being inserted

into the joint section could be left in the deformed

sheared state (Fig. 8). To leave the free end of the

spatula in the deformed sheared state would be

functionally unsound, as well as aesthetically unap-

pealing. The free edge of the blade may have been

filed in order to shape the edges and concurrently

eliminate the zone of deformation produced by the

shearing action (Fig. 9). After shearing, the blade was

mechanically worked, then annealed and mechani-

cally worked again as a final manufacturing step. The

blade was secured into the copper handle using a lead

solder. The bronze composition (Table 2) is typical of

Roman bronzes of that era [11,26]. This method of

manufacture of casting and mechanical working of

the spatula is similar to the method of manufacture

found in the metallographic analyses of another Ro-

man spatula of similar form [11]. The chemical

composition of the spatula is similar to the average

chemical composition of a set of spatula probes

analyzed at the British Museum by XRF [9].

The Roman olivary probe was shown to be

composed of layered sheets of brass. The brass

was cast, hammered flat, sheared, rolled into a

cylindrical shape, and then hammered into the final

probe shape. An alternative method of manufacture

may have been that many thin sheets of brass were

hammered over a mandrill and then final formed into

probe shape.

5.2. Suggestions for future research

One of the original ideas of this investigation was

to trace the influence of Roman medical and metal-

lurgical technology on the conquered provinces

through the analysis of medical instruments via alloy

composition, manufacturing technique, and typology.

Cross-comparisons of the stylistic attributes and me-

tallurgical manufacturing technology of medical in-

struments across the Roman Empire, both pre-Roman

and post-Roman invasion, can shed light on the role

of Roman Imperialism in the development of metal-

lurgical techniques throughout the Roman occupied

territories. Investigations with similar scope have

been conducted [17,27].

The set of medical instruments from Stanway,

dated to the early AD 50s, supports the validation

of Roman medical instruments as a possible means of

Fig. 11. Lead-based joining material particles found between

spatula blade insert and holder, 200� , as polished.


tracing Roman influence on metallurgical technology.

The set consists of 13 instruments. One of the pieces,

a bronze scoop, is a definite Roman import; but what

is notable is that the rest of the set is slightly different

from the typical Roman instruments both stylistically

and metallurgically [19]. As Jackson points out, the

majority of the Stanway medical instruments are

single-piece iron instruments and contrast with the

Roman tendency to manufacture single piece bronze

instruments or composite bronze and iron instruments

[19]. It could be that this is a sign of a transition in

metallurgical technology in the area, with local black-

smiths slowly integrating Roman styles into their own

medical instrument design and manufacture. Little is

known of the metalsmiths who produced the Roman

surgical instruments for the militia, or if there even

was a system of centralized manufacture that speci-

fically catered to military supply. Evidence in the

Notitia Dignitatum shows that the Roman legions

were supplied with goods from various arsenals

throughout the Empire [29±31]. If military legions

were supplied with centrally manufactured surgical

instruments, we would expect the materials analysis

of medical instruments provenanced to military sites

to be stylistically, but more importantly, composition-

ally similar.

Though the unknown provenance of these ob-

jects severely limits the ability to make any clear

inferences from this data regarding metallurgical

technology in a specific area of the world, it is

significant to note that variation in surgical instru-

ment design via alloy composition and manufactur-

ing technique does exist. The olivary probe, spatula,

and scoop each have completely different manufac-

turing techniques that involve processes as diverse

as hammering, casting, shearing, rolling, and anneal-

ing. In addition, the alloy composition appears to be

coupled with a manufacturing technique that opti-

mizes the material properties for the specific in-

tended function. It has also been found that some

Roman medical instruments contain dissimilar metal

inlays, plating, and intricate decorative surface treat-

ments [11]. These variations in technique could

suggest localized production and regional specializa-

tion. The presence of Roman surgical instruments in

an area could reflect the level of local metallurgical

technologies as well as the level of integration of

local medicine with Roman techniques.

6. Conclusions

It is not assumed that analysis of a few medical

instruments as performed in the present work can

conclusively determine the level of technological

innovation and integration in the manufacture of

Roman medical instruments. Instead, it is hoped that

this work substantiates the importance of data gained

from metallographic investigations to provide a meth-

odological framework for future work in the field as

more finds become unearthed and are contributed to

the archaeological record.

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The metallurgy of Roman medical instruments