SOCIAL NETWORK AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN MASARAGA, OAS, ALBAY, PHILIPPINES

JEFFREY REYES SAPILLAR

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOLUNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES LOS BAÑOS

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE(Forestry: Social Forestry)

____ 2011

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Table of Contents

CHAPTER I 3

INTRODUCTION 3

Rationale 3Statement of the Problem 10Objectives of the Study 11Significance of the Study 12Limitations of the Study 13

CHAPTER II 14

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 14

Conceptual Framework 14Literature Review 16

Food Security 17Agroforestry System 18Biophysical Variables 18Social Network 23Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change 34

CHAPTER III 39

METHODOLOGY 39

Locale of the Study 39Operational Definition of Terms 43Data Collection and Analysis 44

Data Collection Methods 44Data Analysis 44

LITERATURE CITED 44

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Social Forestry is defined as a branch of forestry that provides relevant

knowledge, technologies and expertise through instruction, research and extension on

community agroforestry. It deals with the study of people and the forest and their inter-

relationship in promoting productive, equitable, sustainable and participatory forestry. It

is also considered as a policy such as the Integrated Social Forestry Program of the

Philippines and Community-based Resource Management Program, consisting of

principles that govern action of a society in relation to forest resource. Social forestry

emphasizes social equity which means equitable distribution of forest resources costs and

benefits through participation of various stakeholders. Social equity is what distinguished

social forestry from other kinds of forestry discipline like environmental forestry where

forest resources have to be managed sustainably in order to share resources equitably

among different sectors of society particularly the poor people (Rebugio 1995).

Agroforestry as a production system is where social forestry plays a vital role.

Agroforestry is the sustainable management of land, that increases its productivity by

combining agricultural crops with forest crops simultaneously or sequentially. It is a

system of production that aims to have more stable, sustainable land use, soil

conservation, increased net income, and risk minimization through diversification of

production. There are several types of agroforestry which include: alley cropping,

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multistorey, boundary planting, windbreaks, improved fallow, and the taungya. There is

specific functionality of such combinations like silvipasture wherein under the tree

canopy such that the presence of trees will provide livestock with the needed shades and

fodders for feeds just like a protein bank. Planting of trees along boundaries of land based

on whatever forms of ownership provide live fence thereby preventing animals from

going astray. In elevated lands, hedgerow planting of pasture grasses or fodder trees for

the protection of soil and water (The Technical Committee on Agroforestry 1995).

Agroforestry production areas are usually located along mountain slopes. At least

seventy percent of lands in the Philippines lie within the watersheds (Lasco et al., 2010).

The Mount Masaraga watershed drains its water through the Bicol River basin, the

longest river in the region and under the Millennium Development Goal (2004), it has an

allocation of 35 million US dollars for its rehabilitation for the year 2005-2010. The

Mount is located in Albay province. Its slopes are open and partially open or denuded

where agroforestry farming is practiced. The Upland Agroforestry Project of Bicol

University (1983-1987) was implemented funded by USAID along the slopes of Mount

Masaraga. In 1992 through an executive order, it has been declared as a critical watershed

for the reason that it requires greater amount of protection against further extraction of

timber and rehabilitation of its degraded natural resources as the cities and municipalities

surrounding it draws water for industrial, irrigation, domestic and recreation purposes

(Executive order no. 80 s. of 1992).

The Philippine archipelago with an approximate population close 90 million

(NSO, 2007) faces the threats from the intense tropical cyclones with drastic changes in

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rainfall patterns which will contribute to serious impacts on the natural ecosystems and

can be translated to further impacts on food security and water resources. The objective

for Integrated Ecosystem-based Management as a national framework for climate change

is to manage watershed ecosystems and multi-polar environments through the river basin

management approach with some notable strategies such as to rehabilitate and develop

watershed resource use improvement and governance improvement and enhance

vulnerability and adaptation assessments. (National Framework Strategy on Climate

Change, 2010).

The watershed areas are at risk of becoming affected by climate change wherein

its services like environmental protection, food production and other related livelihood

will be jeopardized. It is estimated that 20 to 24 million people who are heavily

dependent upon its natural resources. Climate change impacts of the affected stakeholders

are projected to increase with variance in average global temperature and will aggravate

non-climatic stress like poverty and unequal access to resources and food security.

Hence, stronger adaptation measures are deemed necessary. In a study on climate change

in watershed areas and upland farming in the country, it was noted that climate change

could translate to seventeen percent (17%) increase in wet season stream flow which

could lead to more soil erosion and floods and thirty five percent (35%) decrease in

stream flow during the dry season (UNDP- MDG 1656 Project Document, 2005).

Climate change is defined by the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change or IPCC

as “any change in climate overtime whether due to natural variability or as a result of

human activity” (IPCC, 2007, p. 14).

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The location of the Philippines is highly vulnerable to current climate risks as

well as future climate change. Based on the records of Philippine Atmospheric,

Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), an average of 20

tropical cyclones enters the Philippine area of responsibility (NFSCC 2010). These result

to a great loss of lives and damage to property every year. For example, in September

2006, tropical storm “Milenyo” (international codename: Xangsane) caused the death of

184 people, injured 536 people, and 47 people missing. Agricultural damage reached

US$ 83 million (NDCC, 2006).

The risk of meteorological related disasters for the country’s most vulnerable

population is expected to increase because of climate change. This is borne by the

conclusion of International Panel on Climate Change 4th Assessment Report (UNDP-

MDG 1656 Project Document, 2005). Climate variability affects the amount of rainfall

and temperature. Based on the current projections, the expected changes are likely that

temperature will increase substantially and that increase in the trend of precipitation

especially during the wettest months which will probably cause more soil erosions and

floods. The problems in denuded forests and watershed areas will be the decline

productivity of the land and siltation of the downstream as these areas are repository of

silt transported by surface ran-offs and stream flows. Consistent crop yield losses are

expected from climate change if no adaptation measures are put in place ( Salinger et al.

2005: 104).

Natural hazards are those potentially damaging events of geophysical-

hydrological-meteorological and biological origin and it includes rainfall extremes,

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storms, tropical cyclones and hurricanes. Most often included in the definition are the

immediate consequences of the hazard events, e.g. tsunamis, floods, droughts, pests and

landslides Shakya, 2009: 18). While Maures (2005)classified these events as natural

disasters (Maures, 2005: 497). The use of the term disaster is from a sociological or

humanistic viewpoint, where the severity of the natural hazards is dependent upon the

perception of the individual and to what society the individual belongs at the time the

occurrence of such disaster. This follows the Marxist theory, asserting that disasters don’t

kill or strike people the same way. The poor and the oppressed suffer the most,

experienced the worst long term effects, with higher casualties are more likely the result

(Bryant, 2005). The UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction of 2004 defines

disaster as a “serious disruption of the functioning of a community causing widespread

human, material, economic and environmental losses which exceed the ability of the

affected community to cope using its own resources”(UNISDR,2004).

The Medium Term Philippine Development Plan repeatedly mentioned the word

“disaster(s)” many times in its document maybe for the reason that the Philippines is

highly vulnerable to natural disasters especially climate extremes such as tropical

cyclones. For example, in the year 2000, 18,339 lives were lost due to landslides while

PhP 42 million (US$ 0.88 million) worth of property were damaged in 2003 (Lasco

2008).

Albay has three types of climate. The eastern areas experience no dry season with

a very pronounced maximum rain period from December to January, the western areas

have more or less evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year and the central areas

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have no pronounced maximum rain period with a short dry season from November to

January. The province has a yearly average of 20 typhoon ranging from 60 to180 kph.

Average rainfall is 233 millimeters with a lowest is at 130 millimeters in April and the

highest at 389 millimeters during December. Average temperature is 33.15 Celsius high

and 22.60 Celsius low. Albay is one of the most typhoon-prone provinces in the

Philippines. The area is located in the typhoon belt and experiences this hazard at the

average of two major destructive typhoons per year (PAGASA 2000).

Typhoons are violent, whirling windstorms emanating from the Pacific, reaching

a speed of a hundred kilometers or more per hour upon landfall. In the Atlantic or

Caribbean they call these storms hurricanes (Kalman 2002). A typhoon is categorized as

super typhoon when it reaches a windspeed of at least 240 kilometers per hour

(PAGASA, 2000).

In November 2006, Albay was one of the areas hardest-hit by Typhoon Reming

(International name: Durian). Reming was one of the most deadly and destructive tropical

cyclones to ravage the country in recent years. The super typhoon brought 466

millimeters of rainfall, the highest in 40 years. A number of communities in Albay were

immediately buried under tons of rocks and mud during the typhoon. Aside from

Reming, three other major typhoons hit the province in 2006: Tropical Storm Caloy

(Chanchu), Typhoon Milenyo (Xangsane), and Typhoon Seniang (Utor).

Recently, back-to-back super typhoons battered the Bicol Region. Typhoons

Lando (Hagibis) and Mina (Mitag) affected 69,465 families in Region V last November

of 2007. Both typhoons caused flashfloods and landslides (Albay Provincial Disaster

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Coordinating Council. (http://www.albay.gov.ph). The Department of Social Welfare and

Development reported that Albay has the greatest number of damaged houses with

217,774 damaged houses, 114,394 displaced families, 3,235 people injured, 891people

missing and 1,153 people dead. The damage to agriculture has been assessed to be at 3

million US dollars for the provinces of Albay, Camarines Sur and Sorsogon due to

Typhoon Reming (National Disaster Coordinating Council 2007).

Social network theory will be useful in determining the complexity of a particular

social structure by analyzing the (1) flow of resources, (2) material (goods) and (3) non-

material (i.e., services and influence) across the network. By looking at the relationships

within the social structure, household’s knowledge of adaptation options will be revealed.

Social networks play a vital role in (1) enabling knowledge sharing, (2) access to

resources and (3) influence over policy is given critical emphasis. Adaptation activities

should be identified for vulnerability reduction, building adaptive capacity to strengthen

resilience. It has been emphasized that adaptation is a process through which the

communities become increasingly able to make informed choices about their lives and

livelihoods. It provides avenue for sharing experiences and promotion of knowledge. The

creation of opportunities and information exchange flows through the relationships of

actors in the network. Nature and extent of interconnections can be revealed through

social analysis (Ensor and Berger, 2004).

The study will look into an agroforestry community within Mount Masaraga

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Critical Watershed that had been severely affected by typhoon Reming and the effects of

climate change and climatic variability. It will document adaptation options of an

agroforestry community for food security.

Statement of the Problem

The poor communities are the most vulnerable of the effects of catastrophic

disasters like typhoon Reming. The community had suffered from the lost member(s) of

the family, homes were damaged or destroyed. Production areas have been eroded and

destroyed and no crop yield expected for the season and immediately the following

seasons. Hundreds of farm animals and livestock have been washed away. The expected

payment for loans were not realized as production areas have been destroyed by the

floods. Apart from having no or minimal assets or access to credit to fall back after

disastrous typhoons they have limited access to information and service due to its

geographic remoteness. Their agroforestry farming activities are heavily dependent on

the condition of the soil, water and the natural environment which are badly damaged by

typhoon Reming and the climate change. Low production is a consequential effect of the

disastrous typhoons such as soil erosion, poor soil fertility and damage to soil and water

conservation structures. The agroforestry farmers of Oas, Albay had absorbed greater

damage caused by disasters with the nature of their production areas which are located

along mountain slopes prone to soil erosion and land slide. They will become more

vulnerable and marginalized with the effect of climate change and will put them deeper

into poverty.

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Being tagged as highly vulnerable, the Bicol Region has been a recipient of

various disaster-related support from the government, non-government and private

institutions. But sad to note that not all communities can be assisted by these institutions

(local and national) as support may be limited in funds, scope, coverage and duration.

The upland farming communities may be considered those not fully reached and assisted

by the institutions for relief and capital for livelihood assistance on time. It therefore of

interest to know the coping mechanisms of the local community of Balogo, Oas, Albay.

In particular, the study will determine the social relationships in an agroforestry

community. This study seeks to answer the question: How does the social network of

upland farmers facilitate the rehabilitation of their resource base with adaptation options?

Specific questions will also be answered, such as: (1) What are the characteristics of the

agroforestry community as a system?; (2) In what specific manner were they affected

with typhoon Reming and the consequential adaptation for food security?; and (3) The

significant role of social relationships during and right after the disaster?

Objectives of the Study

Generally, the study aims to analyse the social network of the community as an

adaptation strategy to Reming disaster. Specifically, the objectives are to:

1. describe the upland community and its agroforestry system in terms

sociological, economic and biophysical characteristics;

2. describe the adaptive capacity of the community and its agroforestry system for

food security and

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3. analyze the social networks that were critical during and after the disaster in (a)

enabling knowledge sharing, (b) access to resources and (c) influence over

policy is given critical emphasis.

Significance of the study

According to Kates (2000) most research studies and efforts addressing climate change at

this stage are focused on mitigation or preventive action to limit green house gases, rather

than adaptation. A recent view of the current state of climate change research and

analysis in India by Kandlikar and Sagar (1999) provides a concrete example. These

authors found that while India is advanced in terms of climate change research and

analysis with respect to other developing countries, adaptation issues have yet to come to

the front. Authors such as Lorenzoni et al. (2000) and Sharma and Kumar (1998), among

others argue that disproportionately greater attention has been paid to climate change

mitigation than to adaptation measures.

Efforts to address the issue of adaptation to climate change can benefit from a

better understanding of adaptation to current climate and environmental stresses. Thus

documenting adaptation options or coping strategies in the context of climate change and

climatic variability may be of some value to address food security. The Philippine

National Framework Strategy on Climate Change for year 2010-2020 has committed

towards ensuring and strengthening the adaption of our natural ecosystems and natural

communities to climate change. It is also worthy to note that the identification of the most

vulnerable communities/areas, including ecosystems to the impacts of climate change and

vulnerabilities and assessment and management of risk and vulnerability are among the

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components under the National Climate Change Action Plan (Philippine Climate Change

Act of 2009, sec. 13, par. b and d).

Limitations of the Study

The study will look into the vulnerability and adaptation strategies of one

agroforestry community in Oas, Albay located along the footslopes of Mount Masaraga

critical watershed. Qualitative inquiry will be used. An analysis of the social network of

the community existing during and after the typhoon Reming will be investigated,

therefore an accurate contemplation of the past event will be critical on the identification

of the key informants.The reckoning timeline of the study on the social network is one

year from the occurrence of typhoon Reming wherein it was critical as social network

evolve over time. The quality of the study may also depend on the valuable e secondary

data that the researcher may be able to access from private and government institutions

committed to disaster response and recovery program. Oas, Albay is the area of the study

which is considered a hot spot in terms of peace and order, hence, proper protocol should

be observed in gathering primary data.

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CHAPTER II

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the study.

Conceptual Framework and Review of Literature

Climate Change and Climatic Variability

Ruth (2006) argued that steep increases in average temperature serve as a useful

indicator of changes in climate, however, it is only one of the many considerations of

GHG concentrations. Since the disruption of energy balance is neither seasonally or

geographically uniform, effects of climate disruption vary across space. Examples are the

retreat of glaciers during the 20th century (Ruth et al, 2006). This study is to explore the

complex causal relationships between social and agro-ecological systems with effects of

Climate changeand

variabilityMagnitude

and the potential for adaptation

Social systemand

Agroforestry system

Food security

Impacts on

Social networkand

Adaptation

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climate change. During the past 30 years, there has been an on-going debate about

whether global climate changes are occurring, what effects there might be and what if

anything, should there be done to mitigate the causes or adapt to the changes. Though

scepticisms remain, there is remarkable consensus that global climate change is

occurring. This consensus is illustrated by articles published recently in many highly

respected journals. The work of the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change

represents the consensus of the international scientific community on climate change

science (Doering et al 2002)

Ruth (2006) pointed out that a gradual increase in temperature may result in local climate

conditions that are unfavourable to some local species. Changes in species composition

may affect diverse ecosystem features such as soil properties, local food supply and

livelihoods and trigger change in society (Ruth et al, 2006). Asia arguably according to

Shaw (2010) is among the regions of the world most vulnerable to climate change.

Evidence of climate change in Asia is widespread: average temperature have risen from 1

to 3 degree celcius over the last 100 years. Climate change and climatic variability have

and will continue to impact all sectors from national to human health and food production

and ecosystem (Shaw et al, 2010)

According to the IPCC Third Assessment Report, adaptation “has the

potential to reduce adverse impacts of climate change and to enhance

beneficial impacts, but will incur costs and will not prevent all damages.”

Furthermore, it is argued that human and natural systems will, to some

extent, adapt autonomously and that planned adaptation can supplement

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autonomous adaptation. However, “options and incentives are greater for

adaptation of human systems than for adaptation to protect natural

systems” (IPCC 2001: 6-8).

The propensity of systems (e.g., socio-economic systems) to adapt is

influenced by certain system characteristics that have been called

“determinants of adaptation” in the literature. These include terms such

as “sensitivity,” “vulnerability,” “resilience,” “susceptibility” and

“adaptive capacity,” among others. The occurrence as well as the nature

of adaptations are influenced by these. As Smit et al. (2000) point out,

there is some overlap in the concepts captured in these terms. The same

authors argue that sensitivity, vulnerability and adaptability capture the

broad concepts. Definitions of terms that describe system characteristics

that are relevant for adaptation include the following:

Sensitivity: degree to which a system is affected by, or responsive to,

climate stimuli

Vulnerability: degree to which a system is susceptible to injury, damage or

harm

Impact potential: degree to which a system is susceptible to climate

stimuli

Resilience: degree to which a system rebounds, recoups or recovers from

a stimulus

Responsiveness: degree to which a system reacts to stimulus

Adaptive capacity: the potential or capability of a system to adapt to (to

alter to better suit) climatic stimuli

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Adaptability: the ability, competency or capacity of a system to adapt to

(to alter to better suit) climatic stimuli

Building on some of this literature, and on its previous work, the most

recent definitions adopted by the IPCC (2001) are the following:

Sensitivity: the degree to which a system is affected, either adversely or

beneficially, by climate-related stimuli.

Adaptive capacity: the ability of a system to adjust to climate change

(including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential

damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the

consequences.

Food Security

An international conference convened by FAO and WHO in 1992, “Food security is

defined in its most basic form of access by all people at all times to the food needed for a

healthy life.” It argued that to achieve it, three dimensions must co-exist, 1. The necessity

to assure a safe and adequate nutrition of adequate food supply at national and household

levels must be satisfied; 2. A reasonable degree for a stable supply of food throughout

the year and the succeeding years and 3. That each household must have physical, social

and economic access to enough food based on its requirements. That means that each

household must have the knowledge and means to produce or procure its food on a

sustained basis. This is long been considered a basic human right (Hulse 1995,page 8).

Wiebe argued that Food security depends on income from agriculture and thus the quality

and productivity of agricultural inputs such as land and labor. The impacts of increase

agricultural production on the quality of land, water and environmental resources still

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persist. Facing the challenges requires understanding of the biophysical relationships as

well as the choices of farmers (Wiebe 2003). While Sinha taking cognizant of climate

variability, argued that food production in any given year is affected directly by critical

levels of climate variables during the year, hence, the stability of available food is

governed by the inter-annual variability of temperature and precipitation. Food supply

access in different regions by the share of food production, role of cereals in the diet and

political forces acting upon food security system (Sinha 1987).

Agroforestry System

Agroforestry is “a new name for an old set of practices characterized by

deliberately growing trees or woody perennials on the same unit of land as agricultural

crops or animals either in the same form of spatial mixture or could be of temporal

sequence” (Nair, 1993). The World Agroforestry Center defines agroforestry as “a

collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees,

shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land management units as

agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal

sequence.”

Agroforestry can be viewed as a land-use system such as agrisilvicultural system

wherein agricultural crops are combined with woody perennials. The system includes:

alley cropping, multistorey, boundary planting, windbreaks, improved fallow, and

the taungya. Here, specific functionality exists in a combination like livestocks under the

tree conopy such that the presence of trees will provide livestocks with the needed shades

and fodders for feeds just like a protein bank. Planting of trees along boundaries of land

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based on whatever forms of ownership provide live fence thereby preventing animals

from going astray. In elevated lands, hedgerow-planting of pasture grasses or fodder trees

for the protection of soil and water.

In the Philippines, an agroforestry system can be classified according to their

dominant component, that is, agricultural crops, forest trees, and animals. These systems

are classified as agrisilvicultural, silvipastoral, agripastoral or agrisilvipastoral system

(PCARRD, 1995).

Structure. This refers to the spatial and temporal arrangements. Literally,

structure is what one sees on a farm and where each component is located in relation to

the others: boundary, buildings, crops, animals, etc. Often the structure of a farming

system is subject to seasonal variations within or across years particularly with respect to

the temporal arrangement of annual crops.

Function. This refers to input-output relationships. Here, function is a process in

which inputs are introduced, managed, and convened into outputs within a time spectrum,

in order to achieve desired objectives or goals. Function can also be referred to as a

means that something works.

Citing Nair’s explanation (1989; 1993), the structure and function of agroforestry

respectively refers to the: composition and arrangement of the components, both spatial

and temporal; and main role of the components especially the woody components as for

soil conservation and soil fertility improvement (Bishaw and Abdelkadir, 2003).

How a community makes use of their land is dependent upon the structural and

functionality of the environment, both physical and socioeconomic. Cabanilla (1989)

defines community’s land use as “people-environment interactions in a social forestry

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site”. She posits that community’s use of land is defined by culture, wherein such land

use serves as an adaptive mechanism. Using her concept of land use, Cabanilla offers a

method for describing an upland community and agroforestry system from an

anthropological perspective using such factors as: a) location, the fixed spatial

relationships to bodies of water, landforms and climatic regions that affect people’s

production activities; b) soil, pertains to its quality wherein decision making related to

farming are mostly dependent upon; it is important that soil quality is defined from the

farmers’ perspective; c) climate, includes the amount of rainfall directly affecting farm

schedule; d) availability of and accessibility to water sources, and e ) people’s activities

in relation to existing flora and fauna.

Socioeconomic factors. Data on community’s population is reflective of the state

of environment. Individual population traits include age, sex, educational attainment, size

of household, sources of income, size of farms, production of crops/livestock, affiliation

to organizations, and participation to community’s activities.

Biophysical Variables

Sustainability has consistently been a part of the definition of agroforestry. The

sustainability attributes of agroforestry are based mainly on soil productivity. Other

beneficial effects are soil erosion control and addition of organic matter etc. However at

present there is no quantitative measure for sustainability. One way is to calculate the

Total Factor Productivity of the system over a definite period of time but until such time

that these criteria and indices for biophysical and socio-economic characteristics will be

fully developed, one has to contend with qualitative statements about sustainability of an

agroforestry. The lack of quantitative parameters expressing sustainability is not an

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indication whether or not a system is sustainable considering that the value of

agroforestry in terms of sustainability has universally been accepted. The protection or

service roles like soil and water conservation is one of the function of agroforestry as a

land-use system while the identification and description of the type and nature of the

components pertain to the structure of agroforestry (Nair, 1993).

According to Groenfeldt (1989) the methodology may include collecting local

secondary data sources, visual evaluation of the landscape, interview with key informants

and farm visits in determining biological characteristics which include the elevation,

potential growing period and soils while the socio-economics, credit facilities, land tenure

and agricultural marketing structures.

Alavalapati and Mercer(2004) has almost similar view. In their study of the

environmental services in the adoption of agroforestry, its effects to soil conservation and

collection of fuelwood collection from public forests as a function of on-farm tree

planting using an ordered probit regression models in Eastern Indonesia. They had drawn

data from household production theory to conceptualize agroforestry as an aggregation

of investments from land, labor to money that potentially generates on-site and off-site

environmental services. The optimal household production of environmental services

depends on the prices of the commodity and production inputs and factors affecting

preferences. What the study considered critical in its evaluation is the highlighting of the

importance empirical analysis. The non-parametric analyses supports the hypothesis.

They concluded that the numerical results should be treated as just an indicative of the

impacts and not as precise estimates. It is believed that the qualitative offers the structure

approach for viewing levels of environmental services as the outcome of choices made.

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Table 1. 29 MOST INTENSE TYPHOONS OF BICOL REGION, PHILIPPINES from 1947-2006

Name Pd. of Occurrences  Highest Wind Speed Recorded             (in km/hr.)

Distance from Naga City in km.)

 1.  STY REMING (Durian) Nov. 26 - Dec. 1, 2006                   320             15 – SOUTH 2.  STY SENING (Joan) Oct. 11 - 15, 1970                   275             DIRECT HIT 3.  STY ROSING (Angela) Oct. 30 - Nov. 4, 1995                   260            40 – NORTH 4.  STY ANDING (Irma) Nov. 21 - 27, 1981                   260             30 – NE 5.  STY LOLENG (Babs) Oct. 15 - 24, 1998                   250            35 – NNE 6.  STY SISANG (Nina) Nov. 23 - 27, 1987                   240            30 – SW 7.  STY SALING (Dot) Oct. 15 - 20, 1985                   240            70 – NORTH 8.  STY HERMING (Betty)  Aug. 07 - 14, 1987                   240            70 – SSW 9.  STY YAYANG (Vera) Nov. 04 - 07, 1979                   240            90 – NE10.   TY HARRIET Dec. 28, 1959 - Jan. 02, 1960                   225            DIRECT HIT11.   TY TRIX Oct. 16 - 23, 1952                   215             22 – NORTH12.   TY UNSANG (Ruby)  Oct. 21 - 26, 1988                   215            100 – NE13.   TY WARLING (Orchid) Nov. 17 - 27, 1983                   205                180 – NE14.   TY WELMING (Emma) Oct. 31 - Nov. 08, 1967                   205            20 – SW15. STY YOLING (Patsy) Nov. 17 - 20, 1970                   200            90 – NORTH16. STY DINDO (Nida) May 13 - 19, 2004                   185            117 – ENE17. STY KADING (Rita) Oct. 25 - 27, 1978                   185            90 – NORTH18.   TY HUANING (Ruby) Jun. 22 - Jul. 02, 1976                   185            70 – NE19.   TY MILENYO (Xangsane) Sep. 25 - 30, 2006                   180            30 – SW20.   TY DINANG (Lee) Dec. 23 - 28, 1981                   175            60 – SOUTH21.   TY YONING (Skip) Nov. 03 - 12, 1988                   175                          150 – SW22.   TY MONANG (Lola) Dec. 02 - 07, 1993                   170             35 – NORTH23.   TY DIDANG (Olga) May 12 - 27, 1976                   150            200 - NORTH24.   TY FRAN Dec. 27, 1950  - Jan. 01, 1951                   150            30 – NORTH25.   TY JEAN Dec. 22 - 29, 1947                   150             DIRECT HIT26.   TY UNDING (Muifa) Nov. 14 - 21, 2004                   130            5-10 – EAST27.   TY KONSING (Ora) Jun. 23 - 25, 1972                   130            20 – SW28.   TY BEBENG (Vera) Jul. 12 - 16, 1983                   130            30 – SW29.   TY SALING (Dan) Oct. 06 - 13, 1989                    120            15 – SW

Note: The highlighted links on each name are individual tracks. All data are provided courtesy of the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), except for the individual tracks which is provided by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center, Hawaii (JTWC) and Unisys Weather Processor - Typhoon & Hurricane Data.  Legend:  STY - Super Typhoon TY - Typhoon TS -  Tropical Storm ** -  Undetermined/To Be Verified Revised:  Wednesday, 11 June 2008 (http://www.typhoon2000.ph/25mostb.htm)

Typhoons are violent, whirling windstorms that emanate from the Pacific,

reaching a speed of a hundred kilometers or more per hour upon landfall. In the Atlantic

or Caribbean they call these storms hurricanes (Kalman, 2002). A typhoon is categorized

as super typhoon when it reaches a windspeed of at least 240 kilometers per hour

(PAGASA, 2000).

23

As shown in Table 1, the PAGASA report of most intensive typhoons, in

November 2006, Albay was one of the areas hardest-hit by Typhoon Reming

(International name: Durian). Reming was one of the most deadly and destructive tropical

cyclones to ravage the country in recent years. The typhoon brought 466 millimeters of

rainfall, the highest in 40 years. A number of communities in Albay were immediately

buried under tons of rocks and mud during the typhoon. Aside from Reming, three other

major typhoons hit the province in 2006: Tropical Storm Caloy (Chanchu), Typhoon

Milenyo (Xangsane), and Typhoon Seniang (Utor). Recently, back-to-back super

typhoons battered the Bicol.

Social Network Studies

A social network is described as a set of relationship, containing a set of objects

called a node and a description of relations between or among them. Such relationships

may be directional, symmetrical or non-directional or even multiplex. Relationships

might be beyond the sharing of attribute or being at the same place at the same time,

flows and exchanges can be indispensable in network theory (Kadushin, 2001).

Relationships may be direct and indirect, examples of which are power and interests

(Ensor and Berger, 2004).

The terms “nodes” and kinds of “relationship” are newly applied in social science,

as Kadushin explains. But provides a different form of social relationship structure. The

level of analysis, i.e., individuals, organizations, or nation, a node represents each level

and the path between two nodes is represented by relationships. Similar to Bird (2007),

nodes also represent individuals or “actors”. Nodes make up a network that is based on

“social familiarities ranging from casual acquaintance to close familial bonds.” Kadushin

24

adds that a network must not only be about a list of people or organizations but also

information that connects them.

Social network is akin to social connection of Robert D. Putnam (2000), which he

describes as withering among Americans of today in his book, Bowling Alone as against

the old-time American society bowling in leagues. Bowling Alone presents the demise of

the social network/connection and the rise of social distintegration. This means that

people of today socialize less with friends and families. Putnam, a professor in Harvard

University, based his conclusions from his about 25-year study which involved more than

500,000 people employing direct interviews.

Ensor and Berger (2004) have another way of describing what a social network is

coming from the climate change perspective. It is, accordingly, “vital in the connection

between various elements of adaptation, drawing focus, on the relationships and can be

visualized like web connecting diverse individuals and institutions, directly or indirectly.”

Social network can also be described by typologies. There are three types of

networks: ego-centric system, socio-centric system and open system (Kadushin, 2001).

Ego-centric network is connected to a single node or individual. An example of an ego-

centric network is “my good friends”. Socio-centric networks are “networks in a box”,

which is theoretically, within a closed system, e.g., workers in a factory. In contrast to the

close system networks, the open system networks are boundless, hence, they are difficult

to study.

The social network theory proposes that the “attributes of individuals are less

important than their relationships and ties with other actors within the network.” In other

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words, existing social relationships and ties are more significant than the characteristics

of the individuals of a particular community. Jaafar etal. (2009), citing Kadushin (2004)

defines the social network theory as a social science concept that discusses the connection

and relationship in a social structure that it emerged in the late 1990s in attempt to “find

something that might connect people in their groups or communities.”

As social network theory is relationships-focused, types of relationships are

provided by some authors, namely: strong ties and weak ties, by Granovetter (1982),

cited by Kadushin (2001); Granovetter (1983); bonding social capital and bridging social

capital, by Putnam (2000), cited by Bird (2007); and preference-based social capital and

cooperative social capital, by Mobius, et. al. (2004).

Strong ties and weak ties. A relationship may either be weak or strong. A kind of

relationship such as “acquaintance” is considered weaker than “close friends”

(Granovetter, 1982 as cited by Kadushin, 2001).

To Bird (2007), weak ties is also mere “acquaintance”, where there is less social

involvement. Weak ties relationship, as Bird (2007) hypothesized leads to shallow

relationships or no relationships at all. He explored whether megachurches foster

spectator religion as compared to smaller churches.

Granovetter (1982) considers an individual he calls Ego in strong weak ties as

having collection of close friends who are in close communication with each other and

having a resemblance formation of densely knit clump of social structure. On the other

side Ego has collections of acquaintances and few know each other, however, these

acquaintances also positively have close friends thereby forming a closely knit clamp of

26

social structure but different from Ego’s. The weak ties bridged the gap between the two

densely knit clumps of close friends. He asserts that individual having few weak ties will

have poor access to information from distant part of the social system thus confined to the

locally available information mainly from his close friends placing him in a

disadvantaged position, unknowing of updates in job openings. There will also be

difficulty in letting such individual participate in political affairs since such memberships

in the organizational movements are mainly recruitment from friends which will result in

isolation of most of the individuals. In a larger perspective, this will resemble a social

system with insufficient weak ties disarray and lack coherence.

Granovetter further argues that weak ties have a special role in a person's

opportunity for mobility-that there is a "structural tendency for those to whom one is only

weakly tied to have better access to job information one does not already have.

Acquaintances (weak ties), are more prone to move in different circles than oneself.

Those to whom one is closest are likely to have the greatest overlap in contact with those

one already knows, so that the information to which they are privy is likely to be much

the same as that which one already has.

In Granovetter’s study of recent job changers, showed that job information

obtained by professionals, technical and managerial workers were made possible by the

weak ties (27.8%) than strong ties (16.7%). Other researches in his review of literature

such that of Langlois has similar result wherein Langlois studied a large sample of 2,553

men and women in Quebec provincial government branch where they tried to make

formal the recruitment system, however, a remarkable 42.7% of the individuals in the

sample got their jobs through personal contacts. Administrative and managerial positions

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35.5% using weak ties while strong ties at 15.8%.The unusual advantage of weak ties is

its greater capacity to bridge and individuals consider it with high regard. Weak ties

among occupational groups are able to connect to social circles different from one’s own

individual.

Bonding social capital and bridging social capital. As cited by Bird (2007) and

Putnman (2000) argue strong ties of friendship or kinship is bonding capital. Networking

capital considers the relationships outside the immediate group between people of

different backgrounds but sharing common interests. This includes the vertical

relationships such as those between communities and their governing elites. Networking

capital is heavily dependent on trust and reciprocity, wherein positive behavior is

expected and replicated by the members of the network. Existence of destructive behavior

may lead to breakdown of the relationships.

Morais (1980) studied the relationships in some lowlands in the Philippines using

the following types:

Real kinship. This type of relation has attributes of family with bilateral structure

affinal and consanguneal relations. It is a personal alliance system wherein seniority is

the basis for authority and respect. There is strong sentiment of attachments, solidarity,

loyalty and responsibility. Mutual aid and reciprocity is high. Denial or refusal of

assistance does not terminate relationships. Distant and close kin may be given priority in

certain economic terms like patronage of commercial enterprises. Kin who live near to

one another interact more and have foundation of trust and loyalty making possible the

economic cooperativism and other reciprocal relationships.

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Ritual kinship. It is a dyadic bond contracted between two persons in 3 ways

through religious ceremony and sponsorships like baptism, confirmation and marriage.

Expected from him is to care for the godchild or giving gift in certain occasions like

birthdays and Christmas seasons or providing a job, though the duties and obligations are

not compulsory with the nature of only occasional bonding. Ritual kin are rarely close kin

often are friends, distant kin or market exchange partners normally belonging to upper

class than oneself. It intensifies existing relationships creating alliance.

Debts of gratitude/Utang na loob. It is a dyadic contract not dependent on any

occasion but a personal or private contract. It is a debt of prime obligation to another

person for a favor of certain magnitude he or she has done in which it cannot be repaid

with materially. It may be solicited or unsolicited means of distributing resources from

high to low including vertical direction like the landlord-tenant relationships where the

farmer owes the landlord debt of gratitude for the use of a piece of land though a share of

portion of harvest is given by the farmer during harvest.

Market exchange partner/Suki. It is also a dyadic bond in commercial context.

The exchange of goods and services, retailer-supplier relationships. As regular customer

there can be an extension of credit based on trust and good character. The relationship is

friendly but is restricted to its commercial context.

Patron/client relationship. It is the type of relationship which is utilitarian in

character and also a dyadic relations. Parton is one who lends or gives a rent land or

service to another who may be his client. At certain point a patron may be ask to become

ritual kin. Landlord-tenant relationships may also be exemplified in the relationships

where one enters into a personal contract to use a piece of land and give a share in the

29

production. In some instances there is a sense of gratitude and obligation. Patrons in

return garner political support though considered as dormant repayment.

Friendships/Magkaibigan. The friendship type of relationship pervades many

other relationships with high in affective as well as instrumental content. Friendship is aa

matter of choice as an alternative to kinship and not predicated on utang na loob nor

exchange favors. Friendship is based in willingness to help one another, camaradarie,

trust, confidence and faith in one another. There is also self-disclosure because of the

loyalty and solidarity. It has several categories like bestfriend and barkada.

Brieger (2004) notes that social relationships studies employ a case study type of

research given a particular time and place. Case studies on network analysis are

exemplified by the works of Morais (1980), McCabe (2007), Bird (2007) and Wilson et

al (2008), however, not limited to ethnographic work but likewise applied statistical

techniques. This section discusses how the social network concept has been applied in

researches as bases for the conceptualization of the present study. Emphases are on the

themes where social network concept is applied as a framework for analysis, research

methodology and relevant indicators used.

Morais’ work described and analyzed the content, structure, function, process and

variation of various dyadic (relationships between two individuals) and polyadic

(relationships among individuals) personal relationships in a lowland Philippine town. He

discussed relationships, i.e., real kinship, ritual kinship, friendship, market exchange

partnerships, patron/client bonds and special debts of gratitude and the roles in allocating

scarce resources. The mutual definition of these relationships serves as the framework for

30

analysis. Apart from case studies, Morais used participant observation, intensive

interviews with key informants and extensive questionnaire dealing with 119 men and

women. Respondents’ attitude towards mutual aid, child-rearing values, and other

concepts was dealt with using Likert’s five-point scale method. Data analysis applied

frequencies, cross tabulations, analysis of variance and t-tests. Studies reveal that close

relationship and close friendship came out as core relationships serving as structural

anchors. Also, sentiments and reciprocity were found out as important initiators and

validators of all of the relationships discussed.

The work of McCabe (2007) focused on friendships among multi-racial students

to examine the racial inequalities in college graduation rates. It basically employed

survey and focus group discussions. It examined the peers’ influence on students’

academic achievement and racial identity development using both quantitative and

qualitative research methods. Quantitatively, ego-centric network data coming from 68

students, i.e., characteristics of respondents’ friends and relationships among the friends,

was used to compare network density. Qualitatively, using the NetDraw software (part of

the UCINET Package), the study explored the processes through which networks are

formed and the pathways through which information travels at a predominantly-white

university. The study concludes that based on students’ perceptions, experiences and

friendship networks, there is mutually-reinforcing nature of students’ identities,

associations and organizational affiliations. Also, it validated numerous previous study

results that “friends and peers are indeed key to achieving academic and social success

for many students, particularly students of color on a predominantly-white campus.” In

addition, it concludes that organizations can help as well as hinder students’ identity

31

work.” McCabe further concludes that participation in organizations creates dense

networks for some, but not all, students. This process depends on students’ perception of

the campus environment and their efforts to craft networks that feel home-like.”

With Bird’s (2007) study of religion, he was keen to understand the spiritual

vitality of largest-attendance churches in the U.S.A. using social network analysis (SNA)

with the rational choice theory. Bird employed both the quantitative and qualitative

research methods. He utilized secondary data, a survey of __ people, key informant

interview and focused group discussions. Some results were: a) social ties are vitally

important regardless of whether weak or strong. The tie was acting as a relational bridge

though strong ties developed more quickly in non-mega church; and b) expectations to

participate were noted by interviews, participation only in worship service is considered

hollow and hypocritical.

Wilson et al. (2008) used SNA as a technique in a program evaluation purposely

to measure social capital and to identify experts within the organization. SNA is used to

assess the structure of a network, focus on the individuals or the network as a whole.

SNA as a tool seeks to answer questions such as: “Who are the important actors? Does

the network map correspond to the number of connections that actors are expected to

have? What is the general level of linkage of the network and how does it compare to

other networks? Is this a cohesive network that implies coordination?”

SNA is a tool to understand whether and how information flows from participants

to others in the network. It is an assessment to understand whether effects extend via

communication beyond individual reach of the program. It involves comparing

communication networks before and after the program and determines the effectiveness

32

of program communication. Two concepts, namely, centrality and density, were used in

the evaluation.

Centrality. Centrality refers to the important person/s in the network and is

located strategically in the network, a concept of Wasserman and Faust (1994) as cited by

Wilson (2008). It measures the degree, closeness and betweenness. Actors who are

mostly connected to others are the basic idea of degree centrality and determined by

adding up a number of direct ties of an actor to all other actors. It is a measure of actor

activity as actors with high degree centralities are said to be the active ones. Closeness

centrality is how an actor can get in touch quickly with others in the network. With high

closeness of an actor means that such actor is efficient in communicating information or

opinions throughout the network. While betweenness centrality is that actors who are

situated between many others are central actors in the network. Such actors in the

position can control interactions of others they are situated between and are said to be

gatekeepers. This is a measure of the indirect links among actors in the network. Those

with high betweenness is under the surface of the network.

Density. Density refers to the number of ties present in the network divided by the

number of possible ties. The value of which ranges between 0 and 1 the higher value

indicates denser network while the lower the value indicating sparse network. The density

varies depending on the size of the network (Wasserman and Faust 1994)[ Wilson 2008].

It is thought that communication is better in dense network where information flows

faster.

Social network theory was also applied in a housing industry study in Malaysia by

Jaafar et al (2009). The study argues that private housing developers and construction

33

industry- actors, i.e., contractor, consultant, and suppliers, are interrelated, and the former

need the support of the latter to complete a housing project. Using the social network

theory, it particularly explored the selection mechanism used by the private housing

developers in selecting the right construction actors by sending, through postal service, a

total of 600 postal self-administered questionnaire by the respondents. The methodology

resulted to a 9% non-response percentage, a limitation of such kind of research method.

The study reveals that social factors were given mediate priority in consultant and

contractor selection. However, non-social factors were more dominant in material

supplier’s selection. Before starting a housing project, private housing developers get

more advice from their strong ties (family, relatives, close friends) in selecting the most

suitable construction industry actors. During and later the housing construction, private

housing developers get more advice from weak ties (individuals from the same industry

and their acquaintances). Results mean that private housing developers place their

personal trust more on the strong ties providing information related to contractors,

consultants and suppliers.

As Ensor and Berger (2004) note, applying social network theory will be useful in

determining the complexity of a particular social structure by analyzing the (1) flow of

resources, (2) material (goods) and (3) non-material (i.e., services and influence) across

the network. By looking at the relationships within the social structure, household’s

knowledge of adaptation options will be revealed.

Ensor and Berger further explains that the role played by social networks in (1)

enabling knowledge sharing, (2) access to resources and (3) influence over policy is

given critical emphasis. Adaptation activities should be identified for vulnerability

34

reduction, building adaptive capacity and strengthening resilience. They emphasized that

‘adaptation is a process through which the communities become increasingly able to

make informed choices about their lives and livelihoods”.

Social network provides avenue for sharing experiences and promotion of

knowledge. It plays a vital role in enhancing adaptive capacity and resilience. The

existence of relationships is the focal point in the study of networks otherwise there is

nothing to analyze as it is the relationships that link actors that is central than the

individuals themselves. The creation of opportunities and information exchange flow

through the relationships of actors in the network. The nature and extent of

interconnections can be revealed through social analysis (Ensor and Berger, 2004).

Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change

Adaptive capacity is the “ability of the system to adjust to climate change

(including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damage, to take

advantage of the opportunity or cope with the consequences” (IPCC, 2001, p. 6). It has

been noted that the causes why poor sectors of the community are the most vulnerable to

the bad effects of the existing changing climate. These are: no or minimal assets, too

much reliance on natural resources, and limited access to information and services. A

study climate change adaptation of some poor communities. Accordingly, the poor

communities are the most vulnerable of the bad effects of climate change because they

have: a) have no or minimal assets or access to credit to fall back after a catastrophic

event when repair of damaged farms; b) minimal knowledge or opportunity in learning

new skills to adapt to changes in the environment like adoption of new livelihood

technologies and no capital to change way of life; c) have heavily relied on the natural

35

resources as main source of livelihood such as farming, fishing and husbandry by

pasturing in the field (such activities’ production is heavily dependent on the condition of

the soil, water and natural vegetation which are normally badly damage in times of

calamity like typhoons and torrential rains brought about by climate change, and d)

limited access to information and services with the geographic remoteness of the

community (such communities are along steep slopes or rugged terrains or flooded areas

of low-lying coastal areas (Ensor and Berger, 2004).

The authors note the following attributes of a community’s adaptive capacity: a)

accumulation of assets and skills – “a prerequisite to adaptation”, b) increasing the range

of livelihood that requires the utilization of assets, c) learning and the ability to

experiment and innovate, that is, undertaking farm trials with institutions in place as

support – the “most adaptive societies” Here, knowledge linked to educational

backgrounds and experience through practice is vital factor in committing the resources

into diversity of utilization and production, and d) diversifying livelihood options or

having alternative production strategies to address the uncertainties of the effects of

climate, thus, being resilient. Resilience is the ability to absorb shocks, like safety nets

such as insurance against crops damaged. Resilience and adaptive capacity are

intertwined because both reduce vulnerability. Improving adaptive capacity is equated to

building resilience.

Maddison’s (2006) study adds another attribute vital to having farmers’ adaptive

capacity, that is, education, which is based on a perception among ten African countries.

An important finding of the study reveals that the more educated and more experienced

farmers determine their adaptive capacity. Such farmers believe that climate has already

36

changed. The majority of those who felt that climate has changed made at least one

adaptation, though, such adaptation does not mean that those adaptations are appropriate.

Ensor and Berger cited studies about communities’ adaptation to climate change,

in Pakistan and Peru, are noted to have attributed to through building of relationships.

Case 1. In Pakistan (Sindu, 2009), people were unaware of the scientific

dimensions of climate change, however, in the study area, people have that worldview

that their local climate has changed that lead to the changes in their livelihoods. Notable

changes are increased intensity and length of summers and winters. Community

mobilization is a continuing activity in a community-based project. People were in the

lead in the identification, design and management of project activities, gaining

recognition and eligibility in receiving funding. Regular festivities and gathering like

meetings for discussions were held and support for education. People parliament was

organized as an avenue in resolution of conflict and disputes. It also acts as policy review

and promoted public accountability. The assimilation of knowledge mobilization and

organization was a continuous process with commitment and readiness to work taking

cognizance to the existing nodes social relationships. Relationship building was

integrated, allowing synergies and building trusts to bring different stakeholders together.

Adaptation to climate change is a new concept for development professionals and

organization and based on project experience there was a need for the staff to work to

build capacities before they can be of service to communities. However, the gathering of

local knowledge was found to be an excellent starting point for holistic understanding of

the communities’ perceptions of weather and weather patterns and changes. To have an

37

understanding of the role of the season in local culture and how they would determine

livelihood activities and insights into the vulnerability of climate change.

Case 2. In Peru (Torres, 2009) has a wide range of ecological zones having an

interior tropical rainforest, mountainous range of Andes with flowing glacier waters

along rivers. What is marvelous is that people are aware of the environment and their

information is reliable. Significant climatic changes being experienced by its people.

Awareness raising strategies include workshops, exchange visits, discussions and

conferences and meetings. Through awareness raising, the project built a capacity

building, able to package project proposals and were submitted for appropriate funding.

Decentralization of local planning process in Peru facilitated the channeling of budget.

The peasant organization of farmers called the Ayllus is considered the key strength of

the mountain community. Ayllus, a pre- Columbian form of social organization

comprises group of families who have a degree of kinship and live in the same locality

where a system of reciprocity in farm work exists called ayni. A group helps one family

on condition that they will reciprocate when requested. They work on communal lands

though they have individual parcels of land and own their own houses. There are other

organizations like farmers’ groups, local government and cooperative associations.

Another thing was they organized community committees for risk management which

aim to confront threats as a result of drastic climate change. Having roles like information

dissemination for possible actions to prevent and recovery from extreme events.

Mitchlik and Espaldon (2008) assessed the vulnerability of selected farming

communities in Batangas, Philippines based on a behavioral model of agent’s adaptation.

The study indicates the advantages of having social networks. Social networks among

38

relatives and neighbors serve as reliable source of information and credit for farmers in

times of crop failures. Social interaction, in particular, is important in making decisions to

adapt to climate change. In a behavioral model, the process begins with farmers’ keen

observation of the social and biological environment that allows them to receive

information. It suggests that farm decisions are based on economic benefits and social

connectivity and that social network will play an important role in reducing

vulnerabilities of farmers.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the locale of the study, research design, respondents of the

study, data collection methods, and data analysis and interpretation to be used in this

study.

Locale of the Study

The study will be conducted in Barangay Balago, Oas, Albay. The biggest among

the 54 barangays of Oas, Barangay Balogo is located at the northeast part of the

municipality (ARC report, 2000). It is approximately 8 kilometers from Oas town proper

and most accessible to public transport via Polangui, its neighboring municipality. Balogo

is bounded on the east by barangay Balinad, Polangui, Albay. The barangay sits right at

the foot of Mt. Masaraga which has been declared as a critical watershed under RA 80,

39

series of 1992. In 1983 the Bicol University and the Department of Environment and

Natural Resources ( then Bureau of Forestry) entered into a 25-year Memorandum of

Agreement primarily for the use of the 800.0 hectare watershed reservation as a

laboratory of the University for instruction and research purposes. With funding support

from the USAID, the Bicol University initiated the Upland Agroforestry Development

Program in 1983 until 1987 in several baranagays surrounding the Mount Masaraga

watersheds, including Balogo.

Figure 2. General base map of the municipality of Oas, Albay, the Philippines.

Balogo is located in north eastern part of the municipality (Source: Oas CLUP 2008).

Albay has three types of climate. The eastern areas experiences no dry season

with a very pronounced maximum rain period from December to January, the western

areas have more or less heavily distributed rainfall throughout the year and the central

40

areas have no pronounced maximum rain period with a short dry season from November

to January. The province has a yearly average of 20 typhoon ranging from 60-180 kph.

Average rainfall is 233 millimeters with a lowest at 130 millimeters in April and the

highest at 389 millimeters during December. Average temperature is 33.15 Celsius high

and 22.60 Celsius low. Albay is one of the most typhoon-prone provinces in the

Philippines. The area is located on the typhoon belt and experiences this hazard at the

average of two major destructive typhoons per year.

Figure 3. Climate map of the municipality of Oas, Albay, the Philippines (Source: Oas CLUP 2008).

.

41

Albay is one of the most typhoon-prone provinces in the Philippines. The area is

located on the typhoon belt and experiences this hazard at the average of two major

destructive typhoons per year.

The barangay has been an Agrarian Reform Community since 2000 after it underwent

procedures on the classification based on DAR Memorandum Circular no. 02, series of

2000. The total land area under ARC is approximately 1,155 hectares which is subdivided

into agriculture (66.77%), timberlands (32.82%), residential and the remaining,

institutional, commercial and road right of ways (0.61%). There are 150 farmers who are

recipients of land titles under CARP law.

Based on Soil Report 22 of 1962, the soil of Mount Masaraga is of the Tigaon

series. This soil has a steeply to rolling mountainous relief and is well to excessively

drained externally while internal drainage is poor. Erosion has been active on clean

cultivated areas. It is severely eroded hence recommended that lower slopes should be

carefully terraced (Aristorenas, 1962).

Balogo has a population of 4,194 (2131 males and 2063 females) as of August

2002 comprising 774 households with an average family size of 5. Labor force in the

ARC is 2,714 within the 15-65 age bracket. The ARC has 261 houses built with light

materials, 212 units with semiconcrete and 301 units are considered concrete. Majority of

the households with enjoy the service of electricity provided by the Albay Electric

Cooperative wherin 66% of the households enjoy the service. Water systems emanate

from springs coming from Mt. Masaraga servicing almost 50% of households.

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The barangay has a barangay hall, a health center with an assigned nurse and 5

barangay health workers. It has two elementary schools (West and East) and a national

high school. There are two existing peoples organizations, namely Balogo multipurpose

cooperative and Agrarian Reform Community Development Cooperative.

Major crops grown are rice, corn, vegetable and coconut. Poultry and other

livestocks are raised. Tilapia fingerling production also exists as source of income.

Market centers are Oas town proper approximately 8 km, Polangui approximately 7 km.

and Ligao City approximately 10 km..

Majority of households are farm workers and laborers, both skilled and unskilled.

There are professionals employed in government and private institutions. Also, there are

contract workers abroad. Others are operating public utility vehicles.

Operational Definition of Terms

Agroforestry is a system viewed as part of social forestry. It is defined as

sustainable management of land, which increases their productivity which combines

agricultural crops with forest crops simultaneously or sequentially. It is a system of

production technique that aims to have more stable, sustainable land use, soil

conservation, increased net income, and risk minimization through diversification of

production. (The Technical Committee on Agroforestry 1995).

Climate change is “any change in climate overtime whether due to natural

variability or as a result of human activity” (IPCC, 2007, p. 14).

43

Characteristics of social forestry community refers to the anthropological,

socioeconomic, historical and ideological aspects of a community and the structure and

function of an agroforestry system.

Socioeconomic factor describes the individual population trait such as age, sex,

educational attainment, size of household, sources of income, size of farm, production of

crops, production of livestock, affiliation to organizations, and participation to

community’s activities.

Disaster- is a “serious disruption of the functioning of a community causing

widespread human, material, economic and environmental losses which exceed the

ability of the affected community to cope using its own resources”. The UNISDR of 2004

Relation to respondent defines the existing relationship of the important person

with the respondent, i.e., real kinship, ritual kinship, debt of gratitude, market exchange

partner, patron/client relationship, friendships.

Resilience refers to three conditions that enable social or ecological system to

bounce back after a shock. The conditions are: ability to self-organize, ability to buffer

disturbance and capacity for learning and adapting (E.Tompkins et al. 2005)

Vulnerability- refers to the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable

to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and

extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate

change and variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive

capacity (Climate Change Act, 2009, sec. 3.a)

44

Data Collection and Analysis

Data Collection Methods

The agroforestry community will be described based on its biophysical, socioeconomic,

and agroforestry systems’ structural and functional characteristics. Secondary data shall

be collected from various institutions and shall be validated on the ground thru

interviews, using key informants and focused group discussions. Field observations and

case study techniques will be done. The agroforestry aspects of the community will be

described on a community map indicating important features of the community. As social

forestry is defined by the people and the kind of environment they live in and existing

relationships, the study will be focused on their vulnerabilities to typhoon Reming, their

consequent adaptation for food security, agroforestry systems.

Social network is another concern of the study. It will identify the respondent

farmers’ important social actors in and outside of the community. This objective will be

analyzed by the most number of mentioned social actors in the community, reasons of

importance and existing relationships. Further analysis will be on the effect of both local

community adaptation and social relations to the characterization of the whole social

forestry community.

1. Review of secondary data.

Department of Agrarian Reform- names of recipients and instruments of land

titles under CARP.

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Department of Environment and Natural Resources- development framework for

the Mount Masaraga Watershed, rehabilitation projects within the watersheds,

agroforestry projects implemented, available maps.

Philippine Atmospheric and Geophysical and Astronomical Administration- data

on rainfall, temperature, typhoon history.

Department of Agriculture- report on typhoon damage, extension program for the

municipality including barangay Balogo, relief assistance extended after typhoon Reming

Department of Social Welfare and Development data on relief assistance,

feeding programs, food for work

Local Government Office of Barangay Balogo- data on demography, plans and

programs, assisting NGOs, CLUP

1. Focus group discussion. Group discussions will be conducted on agroforestry

farmers regarding on changes they have observe regarding climate change or

variability, effects on their farms and farming strategies or adaptations if any for food

security .

2. Key informant interview. Interviews with key informants will be done. Key

informants are those persons who could share direct experience on agroforestry

farming systems that is unique to the community like the bayanihan system among

groups farmers for the development and protection of crops. Person who are

considered as informal leader in the facilitation of the agroforestry activities and in

the barangay in relation to decision making and access to resources in times of

calamity and disasters.

46

Data Analysis

Necessary data will be analyzed qualitatively. The vulnerability of the agroforestry

community will be assessed through their exposure to climate hazards, their social

network and adaptation options and the determination which among those options are

effective in addressing food security.

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