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Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM)
An ISO 9001:2008 certified Institute
Post Box No. 357, Nehru Nagar
Bhopal
Indigenous Knowledge in Practice
Confirmation of Climate Change and its effects
through Practitioners’ Knowledge related to
Agriculture
Submitted to
State Knowledge Management Centre on Climate
Change (SKMCCC),
Environmental Planning & Coordination Organization (EPCO)
Paryavaran Parisar
Bhopal
Project Report
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1. Introduction
The terms indigenous knowledge, traditional knowledge, local knowledge and ethno-
science (or people’s science) have been used interchangeably to describe the knowledge
system of an ethnic/rural group that has been generated locally and experientially. This
type of knowledge has many dimensions, including culture, religious, linguistics, botany,
zoology, craft skills and agriculture and is derived from direct interaction between humans
and the environment. Reijntjes (1992) points out that indigenous folk wisdom often
involves understanding of lunar and solar cycles, astrology, and meteorological and
geological conditions and especially, a holistic world view in which farming communities
believe that nature is given by a supernatural power to be handled with care. As a result
numerous rituals accompany farming activities, and maintaining the quality of natural
resources is considered vital. Farming is not merely “production” it is a way of life. The
knowledge of farming practices have evolved and are continued since 6000 years
(Feldman, 2001). The evolution of knowledge of crop cultivation in India was in harmony
with nature and natural settings. The fact can not simply be denied that the planetary
positions and cosmic happenings influence the crop farming activities. The knowledge of
astronomical events linked with cultivation practices supports in scheduling activities for
crop production. The strength of peasant (farmer’s) knowledge is based not only on
intensive observation but also on experimental learning. In fact, Chambers (1983) argues
that farmers often achieve a richness of observation and a fineness of discrimination that
would be accessible to western scientists only through long and detailed measurement
and computation.
Over the past century, rapid global changes in rural environments have occurred. The
modernization has increased abundant capital resources, increased energy consumption,
technological innovations, and cultural factors have fuelled agricultural growth in industrial
countries. This resulted in increasing agricultural output which has been transferred to
developing countries. However, even in the rapid change in modernization, number of
traditional agricultural practices and knowledge systems still exist. These systems exhibit
important element of stability and embeddedness because these are well adapted to the
environment with realization of local resources and tend to optimise utilization of natural
resources. Traditional knowledge for cultivating agricultural crop is strongly tied to local
culture. All around the world, people have been living in perfect harmony with nature. This
is quite true in case of the Indian Agriculture System.
The crop cultivation in India is primarily based on the traditional knowledge passed on
from generation to generations. The knowledge of cultivating crops with age old practices
prevailed quite before the modern theory and practice of Agriculture. The basic
component of any country’s knowledge system is its traditional knowledge. It
encompasses the skills, experiences and insights of people, applied to maintain or
improve their livelihoods through adoption and adaptation of such knowledge practices.
The traditional knowledge systems are based on wisdom, experience, often tested over a
long period of use, adapted to local culture and environment, dynamic, emphasize on
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minimizing the risks rather than maximizing the profits. The documentation of various
stages of practice based traditional knowledge would help develop package of practices of
cultivation of agriculture crop. It is imperative to document the traditional knowledge of
crop cultivation and establish a correlation that the climate change has its effect on
shifting/deviation of agriculture activities. In India, the traditional agriculturists have
established practice based linkages with astrological events for deciding various
agricultural activities.
Climate change and climate variability as a phenomenon is affecting all land based
activities including agriculture. The current scientific exploration in to climate change has
immense evidences and research expressions. This study aims to document the peoples’
utlity perspective (practical knowledge) and develop a language for communication that
accommodates the age-old traditional crop cultivation practices in consonance with
cosmic happenings. The attempt would also be made to record the crop farming practice
and strive to develop scientific base to understand the effects of climate change on
agriculture.
2. Objectives
Documentation of Indigenous or traditional Knowledge based package of practices
of crop cultivation or agriculture practices in the agro-climatic zones of Madhya
Pradesh.
To understand the perceptions and practice based knowledge of peasant/farmers
on climate change and its effects on agriculture
To develop and evolve a proletariat language to communicate occurrence of
climate change and its effects.
To develop IK based long-term guidance document for stable agriculture.
3. Literature review
The term “Agriculture” could be defined as the Science and Art of farming including
cultivation of the soil for production of crops and rearing of the livestock to provide food,
wool, and other products. The traditional knowledge of crop cultivation and scientific
innovations requires blending for development of package of practice for crop cultivation.
Science and technology have always been an important part of growth and development
plans. Often the expertise developed in diverse societies and cultures is discounted and
ignored. Referred to as indigenous or traditional knowledge, this is a knowledge system
distilled from generations of practical work anchored in rural and tribal communities. It is
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different from the modern system of empirical, lab-based science - but is equally valid and
efficacious.
3.1 Traditional Knowledge and Agriculture in India
The Indigenous/local knowledge may be defined in various ways. Some authors consider
Indigenous Knowledge or local knowledge (Dei et al 2000, Semali and Kincheloe 1999).
Whereas others used the combined form i.e. Indigenous/local knowledge (Flora 1992,
Kloppenburg 1991, Warren et al 1995). There is no standard definition of indigenous
knowledge (IK). However, there is a general understanding as to what constitutes
Indigenous Knowledge. Broadly, it is variously regarded as ethno-science, folk knowledge,
traditional knowledge, local knowledge, people’s knowledge, among others. Warren
(1987) defined IK as a local knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society.
According to Rajasekaran (1993), Indigenous Knowledge is the systematic body of
knowledge acquired by local people through the accumulation of experiences, informal
experiments and intimate understanding of the environment in a given culture.
Furthermore as Maurial (1999) states “Indigenous knowledge is local because it is the
result of the quotidian interactions in indigenous people’s territories”; or in Dei et al. (2000)
words, “indigenous knowledge and practices are those acquired by local people through
daily experience”. To Haverkort and de Zeeuw (1992), Indigenous Knowledge is the
actual knowledge of a given population that reflects the experiences based on traditions
and includes more recent experiences with modern technologies. It is also described as a
non-conventional body of knowledge that deals with some aspects of theory, but more of
the beliefs, practices and technologies developed without direct inputs from the modern,
formal, scientific establishment; in this case, towards the management of farms
(Chambers et al., 1989; Gilbert et al., 1980). Indigenous Knowledge has, therefore,
evolved through “unintended experimentation”, fortuitous mistakes and natural selection
by farmers, and arises from the practical judgment and skill needed to survive in a fragile
soil system (Aina, 1998; Moss, 1988) by a number of environmental challenges (Adedipe,
1983; Adedipe, 1984). What is clear from all of these perspectives is that, over centuries,
farmers are knowledgeable about their resources and the environment in-so-far as these
govern their farming practices, and cultural heritage (Kumar, 2010).
Traditional wisdom relating to agriculture dates back around 6,000 years when the first
set of plants were domesticated by humans. This wisdom has since been evolving
through accumulated experiences in dealing with situations and problems, and has been
recorded and channelled down the generations. Our ancient literature, which was most
likely composed between 6,000 BC and 1,000 AD contains a lot of information on
agriculture. This includes the four Vedas, the nine Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, Sutra
literature, the Sushruta Samhita, the Charaka Samhita, the Upanishads, the epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata, the 18 Puranas, and texts such as the Krishi-Parasharas,
Kautilya’s Arthashastra, the Manusmriti, Varahamihira’s Brhat Samhita, the Amarkosha,
the Kashyapiya-Krishisukti and Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda. Kautilya’s Arthashastra deals
with the agriculture of his time; Vrikshayurveda provides information on how to combat
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plant problems through various traditional practices and utilising available resources. Even
in the poems of Ghagh (Kahawaten), one comes across descriptions of agro-
management, timing and forecasting of weather, and crop yields
(http://infochangeindia.org/agenda/agricultural-revival/an-evolutionary-view-of-indian-agriculture.html).
Traditional agriculture is believed to have been sustainable. This stimulates conservationists to analyze and, if possible, benefit from the wisdom of indigenous knowledge; at least what has remained from it or can still be remembered by local people. The reason for such a search is clear: world population is steadily increasing; poverty is growing and natural resources are degrading (Barkin, 1995). The 550 millions of the 1,370 million hectares of global arable lands have suffered degradation as a result of non-sustainable cultivation (GLASOD, 1991; DCID, 1993). The advent of the concept of sustainability in Indian agricultural scenario has invoked
interest on indigenous knowledge that has the element of use of natural products to solve
problems pertaining to agriculture and allied activities. Indigenous Knowledge are based
on experience, often tested over a long period of use, adapted to local culture and
environment, dynamic and changing, and lays emphasis on minimizing the risks rather
than maximizing the profits (World Bank, 1998). A number of different terms are in use
covering the broad area of Indigenous Knowledge, and it is appropriate to understand
different meaning they convey and also to clarify what is to be understood by “Indigenous
Knowledge”. It is inherently valuable, revered as within a cosmological framework. The
essence of indigenous cosmology, and the meaning of agriculture from an indigenous
perspective is to make the Earth “happy and fruitful” and to enhance the balanced
wellbeing of humanity in mind, body and spirit, in harmony with the cosmic spirit world
underlying nature.
In indigenous cosmology just as seed is imbued with sacred significance and medicinal
herbs are understood holistically and synergistically so too are different food items
understood as involving diverse qualities. Shiva (1991) observes that Green Revolution
strategies are unable to make meaningful assessment of total crop yield in diverse mixed
rotational system and that the notion of yield conversion into a single measure misses the
distinctive function of different crops in diet and ecosystem (Willett, 1993).
Indigenous knowledge is the information base for a society, which facilitates
communication and decision-making. Indigenous information systems are dynamic, and
are continually influenced by internal creativity and experimentation as well as by contact
with external systems (Flavier et al. 1995). It is the basis for local-level decision in
agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural resource management, and a
host of their activities in rural communities (Warren, 1991).
Indigenous knowledge is not confined to tribal groups or the original inhabitants of an area
of any country. It is not even confined to rural people rather. Any community possesses
indigenous knowledge, Rural or Urban. This is also called “Local Knowledge” and
“Traditional Knowledge”.
People have an intimate knowledge of many aspects of their surroundings and their daily
lives. Over centuries people have learnt how to grow food and preserve and to survive in
difficult environments. They know what varieties of crops to plant, when to sow and weed,
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which plants are poisonous, which can be used for control of diseases in plants, livestock
and human beings. They know very well how to maintain the environment in harmony.
The Indigenous knowledge has developed from understanding and documenting the
processes in nature. An iteration of practices over time has led to products and processes
that are based on sound scientific principles.
Across the globe, farmers, craftsmen, and healers have carefully observed the phases of
the moon, especially while planting, harvesting, or collecting plants. Gaius Plinius
Secundus, or Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), was a well known author and respected
naturalist who wrote Naturalis Historia, the most comprehensive study of natural history to
survive from the Roman Empire. During his life (he died suddenly during the eruption of
Mt. Vesuvius), he advised Roman farmers to pick fruit at the full moon for the market, as it
would weigh more, and pick at the new moon for personal consumption, as that fruit would
store better. Pliny also recommended that lumber trees be cut at the new moon Zurcher,
2000). Following this practice, King Louis XIV passed a royal order during his reign that
felling of wood should only occur during a waning moon (the period of time after the full
moon) between the falling of leaves and the new growing season.
The distinction between indigenous and Western/scientific knowledge can present
problems for those who believe in the significance of indigenous knowledge for
development (Agrawal, 2015). Agrawal (2002) used term “Scientisation” to refer the three
processes of particularization, validation and generalization. In the context of indigenous
knowledge, these three process can collectively be seen as the basis for establishing the
truth content of a particular indigenous knowledge based practice. In this sense,
scientisation can also be seen as being identical to “truth-making”. All efforts to make
indigenous knowledge useful to development must run the gamut of these three
processes. Scientisation of indigenous knowledge helps it to emerge as fact.
Traditional agriculture is often considered a step or stage between the local hunting-and-
gathering livelihood pattern, which tend to provide communities with subsistence level of
food. Whereas, the modern agriculture practices, use mass-production of food for global
distribution. Therefore, traditional agriculture practice developed a balance between
meeting our present needs, conserving natural resources, and protecting the environment
for the benefit of future generations (Jeeva, 2006). National Mission for Sustainable
Agriculture (NMSA) identified 10 key dimensions for promoting suitable agricultural
practices, which would be realized by implementing a Programme of Action (PoA) that
covers both adaptation and mitigation measures through four functional areas, namely,
Research and Development, Technologies, Products and practices, Infrastructure and
Capacity building. While recognizing the role of modern technologies and research in
promoting sustainability of agriculture production this Mission also emphasizes on need to
harness traditional knowledge and agricultural heritage (GoI, 2013).
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3.2 Climate change scenario
The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), which is one of the eight
Missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) seeks to address
issues regarding ‘Sustainable Agriculture’ in the context of risks associated with climate
change by devising appropriate adaptation and mitigation strategies for ensuring food
security, equitable access to food resources, enhancing livelihood opportunities and
contributing to economic stability at the national level (GoI, 2010).
Rio declaration on Environment and Development under the Principle 22 states that the
Traditional people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in
environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional
practices. States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests
and enable their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development
(http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm).
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warned that warming by 2100
will be worse than previously expected, with a probable average global temperature rise of
1.80 C to 40 C and a possible rise of up top 6.40 C (IPCC, 2007). As temperatures continue
to rise, the impacts on agriculture will be significant (Doering, 2002).
Uncertainty in agricultural productivity under climate change scenario can be the result of either plant level disturbance through direct effect of a change in temperature, atmospheric CO2 etc., or indirect effects at the system level, through shifts in nutrient cycling, crop–weed interactions and other biotic stresses (Fuhrer, 2003). Understanding the key dynamics that characterize the interactions of elevated CO2 with changes in climate variables, with ecosystem remained a priority for quantifying the impacts of climate change on agriculture. The quantitative knowledge of nutrient inputs and weed interactions with shift in climate variables is still unclear (Tubiello et al. 2007) although few Free-Air Carbon Dioxide Enrichment (FACE) experiments have some quantification values. There is an upward shift in the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration from 280 ppm in 1800 to the current value of around 380 ppm, and is expected to nearly double to 700 ppm by the turn of the 21st century (Houghton et al. 2001) and as per our current understanding, crop growth will be influenced by this change of CO2 concentration, besides crop tissue quality, specifically enhancement in tissue C/N (Kimball et al. 2002). FACE experiments conducted elsewhere in the world indicated that neither a resource-based conceptual model nor a plant functional type conceptual model is exclusively supported, but species identity and resource availability were important factors influencing the response of ecosystems to elevated CO2 (Nowak et al. 2004). Many researchers expected that elevated CO2 to increase belowground C that will, in turn, enrich microbial C, but Zak et al., (2000) could not find any consistency in this trend. Capturing the benefits of carbon fertilization effect on crop growth and carbon sequestration potential of soil under elevated carbon di oxide, decline in of soil fertility (Kumar et al. 2011) and its restoration under high temperature and low moisture availability should be among the most important priorities towards climate change adaptation (Patra et al. 2012).
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Agriculture is crucial for ensuring the food and livelihood security of the country and hence
it is important that this sector becomes resilient to increasing climatic variability and
changes. A resilient agricultural production system is the pre-requisite to sustain
productivity in the event of extreme climatic variability. Although Indian farmers have
evolved many coping mechanisms over the years, these have fallen short of an effective
response strategy in dealing with recurrent and intense forms of extreme events on the
one hand and gradual changes in climate parameters including rise in surface
temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, increase in evapo-transpiration rates and
degrading soil moisture conditions on the other. The need of the hour is, therefore, to
synergise modern agriculture research with the traditional wisdom of the farmers to
enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change (GoI, 2010).
Many communities, notably traditional peoples, already hold context-relevant knowledge
and strategies for addressing climate change risks. Recent observations, studies and
research suggest that many farmers cope with and even prepare for climate change,
minimizing crop failure through increased use of drought-tolerant local verities, water
harvesting and carbon sequestration, extensive planting, mixed cropping, agroforestry
practices, opportunistic weeding, wild plant gathering and a series of other traditional
farming systems and food production techniques. These practices point to a need to
reevaluate traditional technology and approaches as a key source of information on
adaptive capacity centered on the selective, experimental and resilient capacities of
farmers in dealing with climate change (Dey and Sarkar, 2011).
Climate change may introduce new weed species complexes as Martinez-Ghersa et al. (2000) opined that many weed populations arise as a result of the evolution of wild plant colonizers through selection and adaptation to continuous habitat disturbances and pose a multitude of challenges for managing invasive weed species (Kriticos et al. 2003) in the human managed crop ecosystem. Climate change causes extinctions and alters species distributions of flora and fauna, and exerts inescapable impacts on various antagonistic and mutualistic interactions among species (Tylianakis et al. 2008) on the earth, and weeds are no exceptions. These unwanted plant species, in cultivated and uncultivated fields exhibit a significant threat to the biodiversity of crop production systems which interfere with the biodiversity of cultivated crop ecosystem. However, very little attention has been paid to the imbalance created to biodiversity by those plants in a rapidly changing climate (Crossman et al. 2011). Those weed species that inhabit either disturbed habitats (Cray et al. 2013).i.e., agricultural or undisturbed habitats are characterized by self-sown behaviour with exorbitant growth; multiple resistance to biotic and environmental stresses; high reproductive capacity, multiple dispersal and survival mechanisms; able to survive under wide environmental conditions and/or several competitive strategies pose serious limitations to crop production. The changing climate variables may either increase distribution range of weed species in response to a change in atmospheric temperature or allow some non-potent weeds to dominate weed management strategies. Patterson (1995) predicted that climate change would certainly broaden the arable weed species, for example, Datura stramonium, a potential weed in Maize which needs high temperature for profuse growth (Cavero 1999) would become a competitive candidate under the climate change regimes while warm temperature regimes augmented the abundance of Heiracium aurantiacum L. in Australia (Brinkley and Bomford 2002) through accelerated growth, reproduction and multiplication.
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The opinions of Rosenzweig and Hillel (1998) that rising temperature and CO2 levels could make crop plants less competitive with weeds and a decade later by Wolfe (2008), that weeds would benefit more than cash crops from increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide, was found to be true, as Amaranthes retroflexus produced more seeds under Barley cropping, albeit growth of Barley as well as the weed was reduced (Hyvonen 2011) at southern Finland. Certainly Amaranthus retroflexus seed production would be proportional to an increase in temperature. Thus under high temperature scenario, the competitive ability of Barley to compete with Amaranthus retroflexus was found to be lessened. The reverse may also hold good with a reduction in weed abundance as a result of climate change. A damage niche concept was introduced by McDonald et al. (2009) to refer to the suite of factors under which specific weed species are judged problematic to the production of crops, stating that both precipitation and temperature are likely to define the boundaries of the damage niche for Chenopodium album L., a summer-annual weed in maize. Obviously, it was not a major competitor to maize under the warmer conditions of the Southern U.S. It is risky to predict which species will ‘win’ and ‘lose’ in high CO2 conditions on the basis of their photosynthetic pathway or their CO2 response in the absence of other species (Dukes and Mooney, 1999) since dormancy cycles observed in some species are known to be regulated mainly by soil temperature in temperate environments where water is not seasonally restricted (Batlla et al., 2004) irrespective of their CO2 response. High temperatures during the summer could result in dormancy relief, and low temperatures during winter can induce secondary dormancy. This behaviour of weeds might pose serious limitation in farming in the future. Ziska et al. (2003) pointed out the possibility of an increase in atmospheric CO2 during the 20th century might have been a factor in the selection of Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense (L.), field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis L.), leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.), perennial sow this (Sonchus arvensis L.), spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa Lam.), and yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.). However, it was concluded that a number of significant impacts associated with temperature and carbon dioxide, the interaction between these abiotic parameters, invasive biology and agricultural productivity remains, inadequately characterized (Ziska et al. 2011). From a weed management perspective, C4 weeds (as two third of the world’s worst weeds follow C4 pathway) would flourish under the climate change scenario and would pose serious limitation to crop management and productivity. It is a well-known fact that weeds interfere with crop growth and limit yields by competing for available resources and weed management is one of the greatest recurring expenditure for farmers. It is speculated that increased water availability in the soil would alter the competitive balance between crops and some weed species, intensifying the crop-weed competition pressure. Research conducted elsewhere indicated that a rise in temperature benefits C4 species, but not the rising carbondioxide levels.
The data on agriculture production at the global and national levels, across many
countries and a variety of crops and eco-systems indicate that climate change has not so
far seriously affected yield and gross production. In a study of maize, wheat and rice
production across 188 nations over a period of 40 years, Hafner (YRS) showed that, with
respect to these data-sets, there has been an overall rise in agricultural production. A
decline in production occurred only in about one-sixth of the data-sets. Hafner concluded
that the National crop data sets that showed yield growth greater than 33.1 kg/ha/yr had
much greater yields than those that showed slowing yield growth, demonstrating that yield
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growth is not being limited by general physiological constraints to crop productivity. There
is some evidence of the impact of ongoing climate change on agriculture through its
impact on crop phenology and associated farm management practices. The evidence for
this comes largely from European data.
Whether the corresponding intensification of various crop management and land-use
practices, extrapolating along current trends, will be sustainable without having adverse
consequences for ecosystems remains unclear. Such negative consequences could occur
independently of climate change, though it is also possible that they are exacerbated by
climate change or that they lead to greater vulnerability to climate change. In North West
India, a decrease in yield may take place under irrigated conditions as a result of the
significant decrease in rainfall during the monsoon season due to climate change.
Reduction in crop duration may occur at all locations in the country due to increase in
temperature associated with the build-up of atmospheric greenhouse gases.
With regard to yields, Lobell et al. (2009) show, from a meta-analysis of a wide range of
case studies, that the gap between potential and actual average yields vary widely,
ranging from 20 percent to 80 per cent of yield potential. Licker et al. (2010) attempt to
calculate global yield gaps by comparing the yields of 18 key crops in different locations
with similar climatic conditions. They conclude that there is still substantial scope globally
to close yield gaps under current climatic changes.
Lobell and Field (2007) reviewed that some studies have also attempted to determine
whether ongoing climate change is having an impact on agriculture, while accounting for
the fact that such impact may be masked by the effects of other variables when
considering gross production or yield.
All the above documented knowledge is difficult for the Indian farmer to understand and
devise corrective measures. Thus it is necessary to correlate these findings with the
traditional knowledge and practices they use and help them understand the climate
change and its effects.
3.3 Need for integrating Indigenous Knowledge and modern package
of practices for crop production
Agriculture probably comprises the largest collection of indigenous practices worldwide.
Farmers and pastoralists grew crops and kept animals in the humid, boreal, arid or
temperate locations, developing production systems that were well adapted to these
locations and the gradual development of these systems to respond to changes in the
environment. Many of these systems were sustainable only under “low-input–low-output“
regimes (Aluma, 2004). The indigenous knowledge are acquired by local peoples through
daily experience (Kumar, 2010). The indigenous knowledge evolves in consonance with
the cosmic /environment knowledge.
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The modern Knowledge or understanding of the holistic/Spiritual cosmological dimension
of Indigenous Knowledge is limited. However, there is nonetheless very wide consensus
on its existence. That Indigenous Knowledge is multi-dimensional or systematic is
generally agreed. The Indigenous Knowledge or the Traditional Knowledge cannot be
prevailing with-out the cosmic understanding. This dimension is widely implied, but not
universally incorporated in many views of Indigenous Knowledge. Nevertheless, alluding
to alternative epistemologies, cosmologies, world views, Values, and beliefs
acknowledges that “other“ Knower’s and processes of Knowing, and ways of
understanding and being in the world exist. The problem is that the knowledge may be
based on unique epistemologies, philosophies, institution and principle, which differ from
modern scientific tenets. In some culture, the insights are tied to mystical or
incomprehensible to western scientist.
Beyond these two areas of consensus, differences in interest and perception intervene.
These may limit the Indigenous Knowledge to less than its holistic totality, and away from
its cosmology, and also away from perspectives allied with indigenous movement.
Essentially, people focus on dimensions of Indigenous Knowledge that they are
comfortable with (Willett, 1993).
4. Study area: approach and methods
The Indigenous Knowledge of agriculture referred to as Traditional Knowledge but considering farmers of all age group it is better to refer to it as traditional practice of agriculture system or crop cultivation. The documentation of knowledge and understanding of holistic / spiritual cosmological dimensions of traditional knowledge in agriculture is limited. The bearers of such knowledge need to be recognized, valued and appreciated. So that the Traditional practices of crop cultivation can be preserved, transferred, or adopted and adapted elsewhere. The identification of local community knowledge is of foremost importance. 13 villages from Chhindwara, Balaghat, Sehore, Vidisha, and Raisen districts of Madhya Pradesh were selected for the study. The districts were selected to cover major crop regions of Madhya Pradesh i.e. Wheat; Rice and Wheat-Jowar (Table 1). The State of Madhya Pradesh is divided into five crop zones and 11 Agro-climatic regions. The district-wise classification of crop zone selected for the present study are summarized below -
4.1 Rice zone
Oryza sativa, it is believed, is associated with wet, humid climate, though it is not a tropical plant. It is probably a descendent of wild grass that was most likely cultivated in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas. Another school of thought believes that the rice plant may have originated in southern India, then spread to the north of the country and then onwards to China. The crop zone, spread over the district Balaghat in the Madhya Pradesh and falls in Chhattisgarh plain agro-climatic region. The climate is wet and humid in general. The soil
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type is Red & Yellow (Medium). The precipitation range of the agro-climatic region of Chhattisgarh plain is 1200 to 1600 mm.
4.2 Wheat zone
The Wheat (Triticum aestivum) crop zone spans across 10 districts of Madhya Pradesh namely Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Sehore (Partly), Raisen (Partly) Bhopal, Sagar, Damoh, Vidisha, and Guna (Partly). The rainfall range is from 1200 to 1600 mm. The soil type of the agro-climatic regions namely Vindhya Plateau and Central Narmada Valley are categorized as medium black to deep black. The agro-climatic region covered during the present study i.e. Vindhya Plateau under the wheat crop zone.
4.3 Wheat – Jowar
The Wheat-Jowar (Triticum aestivum - Sorghum vulgare) crop zone covered by
Bundelkhand, Gird region and Satpura Plateau agro-climatic zones spread in Gwalior, Bhind, Morena, Sheopur-Kalan, Shivpuri, (except Pichore, Karera, Narwar, Khania-dana Tehsil), Guna (except Aron, Raghogarh, Chachoda Tehsil) Ashoknagar, Chhattarpur, Datia, Tikamgarh, & Shivpuri (Partly), Chhattarpur, Datia, Tikamgarh, & Shivpuri (Partly), Betul & Chhindwara districts. The climate is semi-arid and soil is light alluvial, mixed red / medium black; shallow black (Medium). The area receives rainfall as low as 800 mm to 1200 mm in Betul & Chhindwara and 1400mm in Chhattarpur, Datia, Tikamgarh, and partly in Shivpuri districts. Table 1: Study sites
District Crop / Zones
Agro-climatic Regions
Villages
Chhindwara Wheat-Jowar
Satpura Plateau Gadagarh, Partapur, Raiyarao, Khamtara, and Pathara in Chhindwara
Balaghat Rice zone Chhattisgarh Plains Thanegaon & Sikandra
Sehore Wheat zone Vindhya Plateau Amajhiri & Tankpura
Vidisha Wheat Vindhya Plateau Saloos
Raisen Wheat Vindhya Plateau Amapani, Bhadner & Baroda
The demographic features of the studied villages are provided in Table 2. Table 2: Village profile and population of selected villages of the study
District/ Name of village
No. of House-hold
Population Farmers Agricultural labourers
(no.)
Literate
Persons Male Female Persons
Male Female
Chhindwara
Khamtara 173 848 435 413 91 227 340 228 112
Raiyarao 213 949 483 466 99 92 383 230 153
Gadagarh 78 393 204 189 24 137 190 120 70
Pathara 31 151 72 79 26 13 68 33 35
Partapur 198 906 472 434 44 61 313 206 107
Balaghat
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Thanegaon 737 3101 1494 1607 573 652 2188 1172 1016
Sikandra 563 2527 1236 1291 1728 938 790
Sehore
Amajhiri 392 2442 1244 1198 347 55 1243 755 488
Tankpura 48 320 188 132 48 18 217 146 71
Vidisha
Saloos 148 936 520 416 107 450 749 438 311
Raisen
Amapani 56 261 459 397 31 19 134 76 58
Bhadner 146 762 390 372 146 70 427 274 153
Baroda 145 735 415 320 80 71 410 272 138
Table 3 and 4 depicts the area under crop cultivation in Kharif and Rabi seasons in the selected villages. Table 3: Cropped area under different crops in Kharif season
District / Village
Name of crop & area in ha. Total
Rice Maize
Arhar Tilli Kodo Kutki
Udad Soyabean
vegetable Ropa Broadcast
method
Chhindwara
Partapur 9 1.0 8 - 2 17 8 10.6 - 55.6
Gadagarh 22.5 3.0 28.5 2.5 2.0 25.15 8.95 10.0 - 102.6
Pathara 28.02 8.94 14.18 2.1 0.4 19.59 7.12 6.16 - 86.51
Khamtara 54.11 2.2 38.41 - - - 13.14 12.15 - 120.01
Raiyarao 68.42 - 48.25 - - - 11.43 13.45 - 141.55
Balaghat
Sikandra 255.84 5.0 < 1 3.809 2.90 - - - - 267.55
Thanegaon 373.42 < 1 3.216 2.593 - - - - 379.23
Vidisha
Saloos 14.6 - - - - - - 208 10.2 232.8
Sehore
Tankpura - - 1 0.5 - - - 42 - 43.5
Raisen
Bhadner 4.03 - 88.2 34.1 - - - 8.06 6.2 140.5
Badoda 05.3 - 22.5 48.9 - - - 16 12.1 104.1
Amapani 2.01 - 20.16 30.2 - - - - - 52.37
Table 4: Cropped area under different crops in Rabi season
District / Village
Name of crop & area in ha. Total
Wheat
Gram
Masur
Matter
Dhaniya
Rajgara
Rice Udad
Alsi Mustard
Groundnut
Chhindwara
Partapur 9 20 2 2 - - - - - 1 - 34
Gadagarh 21.5 18.5 3 2.5 - - - 1.5 - 47
Pathara 22.7 9.1 2.8 4.7 0.3 0.2 - - - 0.4 - 40.2
Khamtara 23.4 20.2 4.2 4.7 4.4 - - - 4.7 - 61.1
Raiyarao 34.4 28.6 14.6 5.6 1.2 4.1 - - - 4.6 - 93.1
Balaghat
Sikandra 35 18.1 - 0.9 0.8 - 24.6 1.5 18.4 1.9 20.6 121.8
Thanegaon 59.4 22.2 - 0.9 - - 22.5 1.8 56.5 1.1 5.7 170.1
Vidisha - -
Saloos 217 5.8 - - - - - - - - - 222.8
14
Amapani village, Raisen
Farming community in Gadagarh, Chhindwara
Sehore
Tankpura 36.0 3.9 1.0 - - - - - - 0.5 1.0 42.4
Raisen
Bhadner 149.1 14.1 - - - - - - - - - 163.2
Badoda 120.9 22.5 - - - - - - - - - 143.4
Amapani 41.1 11.2 - - - - - - - - - 52.3
In order to collect data/information on traditional practices of crop cultivation Focus Group Discussions (FDGs) were organized in selected villages for identification of traditional crop cultivators. It was observed in FDGs that the group of farmers were mixture of individuals with possession of traditional knowledge, traditional practitioners and persons with no knowledge of traditional crop cultivation practices. The farmers practicing traditional crop farming were key informants for the study. Villages selected for the present study, were predominantly belongs to population of Schedule Tribe and Schedule Caste. The Tankpura in Sehore is a forest village. The population of Tankpura were comprises of 88% SC, 8% ST and 4% OBC category. The villages identified in Chhindwara were also predominantly inhabitants of tribal community. The scheduled tribe population of selected villages in Chhindwara were 98% in Gadagarh; 97% in Khamtara; 22% in Partapur; 87% in Raiyarao and 97% in Pathara. Similarly, the population of Amapani in Raisen were inhabited 100% by Bhil community. The Badodra and Bhadner villages inhabited by heterogeneous community group. The Saloos village in Vidisha majorly comprised of Kaul tribes, who were settled in village during the year 1980-82. Other community in Saloos comprised of 8 families of Muslim, 3 families of Thakur, and 8-10 families of Patel community. The crop farming activities are vulnerable to the climate change or climate variability. On the other hand this provides ample opportunities for the adaptation measures. The farmers in India closely monitor the changes taking place in climate and natural resources to undertake farming activity. It is observed that the most of the farming community were not conversant with the statistics and technical terms related to climate change but they fairly understood the consequences of climate change in their own way. The farmers in the study area strongly believe that the decrease
from the standard expected crop production might be due to the climate variations. This can be further corroborated by traditional agriculture practices and
15
Fig. 2: Temperature (Max) during Vishkha Nakashatra (07-19 Nov) in Balaghat
for the period 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Vishkha Nakashatra (07-19 November)
Tem
p (
Max)
in d
eg
ree c
els
ius
1981
1991
2001
2011
meteorological data. A simple understanding of climate consequences and the adaptation strategy adopted by farmers were worked-out. This would facilitate in integrating the traditional belief to astrological events with a blend of scientific knowledge / principles.
5. Results and Discussion The study is focused on the cultivation of conventional cereal crops, as the traditional practices coupled with cosmological dimensions is being practiced for cultivation of Rice and Wheat, major food gain crops of Kharif and Rabi seasons. The farmers in Madhya Pradesh are still largely involved in cultivation of conventional crops. Agricultural production is sensitive to weather and thus directly affected by change or variations in climatic conditions. The farmers in the study area were of the opinion that the effect of climate change can be visualized by the erratic rainfall, extreme temperatures which result in reduction of crop yield, damage to crop and sometimes even the failure of the crop. The most detrimental effects of climate variations may be visualized even to an extreme situation that sometimes the farmers are not able to sow the crop due to deficit or extremely heavy rains. The condition is not restricted to the time of sowing of crop but it affects the crop at all stages. The short gestation period of agricultural crop requires specific climatic conditions for
proper growth and development. The climatic variations at any stage may result
adversely. In order to establish the effects of climate variations on crop production, the
activities undertaken by the farmers for cultivation of conventional crops were analysed
and corroborated with the meteorological data and scientific facts.
The major crop farming activities were recorded to establish the fact that the climate
change is affecting the crop cultivation in the state of Madhya Pradesh.
5.1 Kharif season crop
5.1.1 Rice crop zone
(Balaghat)
The crop cultivation activities of
Kharif season starts from the 1st
June (Jyaistha month) with the
ploughing (soil working) activity.
The ploughing agricultural field
starts in Nav Tapa. The peasants
believe that the agricultural field
must be ploughed and soil
exposed for 2-3 days may reduce
the harmful Keet and Kide (insect
pests). The belief of the traditional
peasant could be ascertained
from the fact that the period of
Nav Tapa is considered as nine
16
Rice ropa ready for showing in the field
Rice ropa just before initiation of tilliring stage
hot days of that particular year, which starts when the Sun transits through the Rohini
Nakshatra i.e. 25 May in every year.
The 2nd and or 3rd June may be
considered as last lap of the Nav
Tapa period and as a traditional
practice of ploughing of agricultural
field allow the exposure of soil for 2-
3 days of hot spell.
The peasant observes Amawasya,
Ramnavmi, Pula Amawasya as day
of discouragement for the ploughing
activity. They also considers Bhadra
as un-auspicious for the crop
cultivation
The variation in climate is being
observed in general but it is important for agricultural activities which are primarily based
on the climate. The analyses of meteorological data for the period from 1981, 1991, 2001
and 2011 for Balaghat reveals that the temperature during the Nav tapa were lower for
most of the Nav Tapa days in the year 2011 with compare to the Nav Tapa period of the
year 1981 (Fig. 1). On the other-hand the temperature for the other period of the year
showing increasing trend as analysed for the Vishakah Nakshatra, a period from 2-19
November (Fig 2). The temperature in Nav Tapa portrays a situation of climatic
variability over a period of time and if the situation continues it may have severe
consequences.
5.1.1.2 Phasal bona/ Ropa or Chhidkwa Paddhati (Crop sowing / direct seed
sowing or rice ropa transplanting
The seed sowing activity starts from the 15-25 June as informed by the farmers of the
region. The rice can be sown Beej
Chhidakwa (broadcast method) or
through raising nursery and transplant
ropa in the filed. The direct seed sowing
with broadcast method was cost and
time effective. Whereas the ropa
method of rice cultivation requires
labour and adds not only the cost of
cultivation but requires time specific
intervention as described by the
peasants of the area. Looking to the
uncertain monsoon rains, most of the
peasants adopted to cultivate rice through ropa transplanting method in Balaghat district.
The adaptation of seed sowing methods facilitate for management of rice plant in nursery
in the event of erratic rainfall. The adaptation of raising nursery for rice crop is an
important step for cultivation of rice. The adaptation of the ropa method for rice
cultivation may be considered as adaptation strategy for climate variations. The
17
Fig. 3: Rainfall in June month in Waraseoni, Balaghat
4-Jun
10-Jun
16-Jun
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
4-J
un
5-J
un
7-J
un
16-J
un
19-J
un
20-J
un
21-J
un
22-J
un
23-J
un
24-J
un
25-J
un
26-J
un
27-J
un
28-J
un
29-J
un
30-J
un
10-J
un
11-J
un
12-J
un
14-J
un
16-J
un
17-J
un
22-J
un
23-J
un
26-J
un
27-J
un
28-J
un
30-J
un
16-J
un
17-J
un
18-J
un
19-J
un
20-J
un
23-J
un
24-J
un
26-J
un
27-J
un
1980 1991 2010
Year
Ra
infa
ll in
mm
28-May
30-May
1-Jun
3-Jun
5-Jun
7-Jun
9-Jun
11-Jun
13-Jun
15-Jun
17-Jun
Rain fall in mm
Fist day of rain
in June
thumb rules described by the peasants for transplanting the ropa in the field that the ropa
must be transplanted in agricultural field after 15 days of seed sowing, a crop stage prior
to initiation of Peeke Phutna (tillering) stage. The traditional method of seed sowing
though broadcast method is limited to some pockets only. In the study area the broadcast
method of seed sowing were not recorded in Raiyaroa in the year 2014, whereas in
Partapur, Gadagarh, Pathara and Khamtara the area under broadcast method of seed
sowing were recorded as 1 ha, 3 ha, 8.94 ha and 2.2 ha respectively. Considering the
Bhopal and Jabalpur division of Madhya Pradesh for rice cultivation through Chhidkwa
and Ropa method. The adaptation of Ropa method for rice cultivation showing increasing
trend from the year 2006-07 to 2011-12 in all the districts in Jabalpur and Bhopal division
(Table 5).
Table 5: Rice cultivation area in hectares under Ropa and direct seed sowing
(Chhidkwa - Seed Broadcast) method in Bhopal and Jabalpur division of Madhya
Pradesh
District
Year
2011-12 2006-07
Ropa (ha) Seed
Broadcast (ha) Ropa (ha)
Seed Broadcast (ha)
Jabalpur 6265 65972 3086 61098
Katni 21287 72928 14280 94943
Balaghat 213442 42075 207125 41527
Chhindwara 2307 15835 595 19962
Seoni 86736 33406 83963 35431
Mandla 44479 81363 29834 84234
Narsinghpur 7409 4679 7200 6405
Bhopal 337 123 22 577
Sehore 10831 558 1372 0
Raisen 28614 88 10189 2180
Vidisha 0 829 0 571
Rajgarh 0 468 0 967
The climate variation, if any, could be ascertain considering the two aspects of crop
sowing in case of rice cultivation i.e. the time of seed sowing and the transplantation of
ropa. The seeds of rice
were sown in Mrigshira
Nakshatra which means
prior to 21 June. The Sun
enters Adra Nakshatra
from 21 or 22 June every
year and prior to this
period Sun traverses from
Mrigshira Nakshatra. The
daily rainfall data of India
Meteorological
Department (IMD) for the
Balaghat region depicts
that the area received
18
monsoon showers between 4th or 6th June in the year 1980, 1981, whereas area received
first rainfall in the month of June in 1991 and 2010 on 10th June and 16th June
respectively. The quantum of rainfall on above dates varied from 1.7mm in 1980, 1mm in
1991 and 21.4mm in 2010 (Fig. 3). The rice crop enters in tillering stage after 16-18 days
from seed sowing.
The peasants in Thanegaon in Balaghat informed that the delayed monsoon is playing a
crucial role in reduction of rice production, if the area does not receive adequate rains to
transplant the seedlings of rice and the Peeke Phutna (tillering) stage has reached in
nursery stage of rice cultivation. This will not only require high number of nursery raised
rice seedlings (Ropa) but also reduce the crop productivity. The germination conditions for
rice require that the seeds of rice must absorb water and be exposed to a temperature
range of 10–40°C. This breaks the dormancy of the seed. In was observed that the June
month is most suited for rice cultivation in Balaghat region but deficient rainfall in June
2014 & 2015 adversely affected rice cultivation. While establishing the simple and robust
principle the analysis of 2009 and 2015 (Table 6) for rice cultivation suggest that the ideal
conditions for seed sowing need to be adjusted and carried-out from 19th June onwards in
the transition period of Moon in Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra. The peak seed sowing time
observed in 2010, as prevailing crop cultivation activity, must observe the cosmic
happenings for stable agriculture. As the traditional rice crop sowing period started from
10th June. However, the area received rains from 16th June when Moon was in Magha
Nakshtra. In the year 2015 while data collection from Thanegaon and Sikandra villages in
Waraseoni block of Balaghat observed that the rice seedlings in nursery were just at
tillering stage and not transplanted in the field till 03 July 2015. It means the seed sowing
in nursery was undertaken during 8-10 June 2015. The transplanting of Ropa after tillering
stage may require more seedlings per acre and the production of rice would also get
adversely affected. The seedlings were actually transplanted in field from 20th July 2015
onwards. The Moon transition from Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra commenced on 24th June
2015, this may be considered appropriate time for seed sowing activity so that the
transplanting of Ropa may be undertaken from 20th July onwards as was observed in
Balaghat. This can be attributed to effects of climate variability on rice cultivation.
The vegetative growth of rice crop requires a specific condition that the plant must be
submerged in water at the time of Peeke Phutna (tilliering) stage and drained periodically
for proper vegetative growth. The peasants expressed that in case of transplantation of
Ropa the agricultural field must be worked to create mud like condition and level the field
for uniform transplanting by maintaining row to row and plant to plant distance. With the
setting of rice crop in agricultural field in earlier days, as a traditional practice, 8-10 days
after tillering stage the flooded water in agricultural field were drained from the agricultural
field for proper growth of the crop. The fields were subsequently filled by the monsoon
rains. Currently, the practice is prevailing but due to erratic rainfall and climatic variability
the field not completely drained as informed by the farmer.
19
Table 6: Variation in seed sowing period in Kharif season for Rice in Balaghat from the year 2009 to 2015
Year
Month
June
July
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2009 34 35 36 38 35 36 36 36 37 38 36 35 36 36 35 36 37 37 36 37 36 36 36 32 34 34 31 29 27 27 27 28 29 28 27 25
Rain 0 0 0
0 8 1 1 4 71 118 12 28 8 19 14 18 25
*
2010 36 36 36 35 35 36 35 35 36 37 37 36 37 36 36 28 27 29 32 32 31 33 33 33 34 34 34 32 32 33 31 29 28 27 27 28 27
Rain 0 1 0 1 37 12 7 1 2 5 0 2 0 2 3 0 4 11 5 20 29 32 33 39
*
2011 36 36 35 36 35 35 34 35 30 30 33 35 32 30 29 29 28 28 27 28 29 25 24 24 26 27 28 30 30 30 31 26 28 28
Rain 1 2 1 1 3 0 0 1 0 0 2 32 17 12
13 17 27 40 6 6 14 17 91 8 4 1 6 3 7 12 77 17 6
*
2012 39 38 36 36 36 37 34 34 37 35 36 37 35 34 31 31 29 31 28 30 27 26 30 31 30 27 31 32 31 34 33 34 31 31 29 28 27
Rain 1 0 1 1 1 2 4 5 14 64 27 32 11 10 13 2 0 8 82 1 0 4 0 3 1 14 13 17 18 23
*
2013 37 36 36 36 37 37 36 36 34 32 34 31 28 30 29 25 28 30 31 33 32 32 30 29 29 27 27 28 28 29 27 27 27 28 29 30 32
Rain 0 1 1 1 0 2 4 1 3 9 11 27 13 17 49 4 10 4 1 1 6 19 17 25 7 16 4 7 22 9 4 17 3 0 3 11
*
2014 39 39 38 39 40 40 40 40 40 39 39 36 37 36 35 35 35 33 31 32 32 34 34 34 35 35 34 35 34 35 35 35 35 33 32 30 31
Rain 1 2 0 0 2 3 3 15 5 8 6 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 1 3 4 5 9 5
*
2015 40 37 38 37 37 38 37 37 37 38 38 34 32 33 32 33 35 34 34 34 32 28 28 27 27 21 31 31 31 31 30 32 31 33 32 30
Rain 0 1 1 0 0 1 6 9 4 1 2 1 1 4 16 35 58 32 16 4 9 1 2 7 11 8 7 5 3 1 9
*
Source: http://www.worldweatheronline.com/waraseoni-weather-history/madhya-pradesh/in.aspx
* Seed sowing favourable Nakshatra starting from Rohini, Mrigshira, Punarvasu, Magha, Uttara Phalguni, Chitra, Swati, Anuradha, Uttara Shadha, Dhanishtha, Uttara Bhadrapada
Legend
Seed sowing period
Moon traverse from Nakshatra Suitable for seed sowing*
20
Fig. 4: Relative humidity (%) in the month of September in
Balaghat for the year 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
September
1981199120012011Calculated Av Relativ e Humidity
Weed infestation in Agricultural field in Amapani in Raisen
The water management in rice crop is very important. The flood like situation and
prolonged submerged rice plant in water may result in crop damage or stunted growth. On
the other hand methane emission rates are highly sensitive to water management.
Periodic drainage of rice field results in a significant decrease in methane emissions. Yagi
and Minami (1990) reported a decrease in methane emission rates as a result of a mid-
season drainage in Japanese rice fields. Sass et al. (1992) found that a single mid season
drain reduced seasonal emission rates by 50 per cent (from 9.27 g/m2 to 4.86 g/m2). In
addition, multiple short periods of drainage (2-3 days) approximately every three weeks
during the growing season reduced methane emissions to an insignificant amount (1.15
g/m2) without decreasing rice grain yield. Yagi et al. (1996) compared a continuously
flooded plot with constant irrigation with an intermittently drained plot with short-term
draining periods several times during the rice growing season. Total seasonal methane
emission rates during the cultivation period were 14.8 g/m2 and 8.6 g/m2 for 1991 and 9.5
g/m2 and 5.2 g/m2 for 1993 in the continuously flooded and intermittently drained plots,
respectively.
The peasants informed
that they observe the
crop grown in the
agricultural field very
closely and the
developments of crop
in good condition make
them satisfy or
otherwise if the crop is
not growing normally.
The Dang / Kharpatwar
and Keet Niyantran
(Pest & diseases)
control measures were
performed after
establishment of rice crop i.e. around forty days. The peasant expressed that the Keet
infestation of pests like Tana Chhedak (stem borer), Bhura (Brown) Mahu and disease like
Patti Sikudna (wrinkle of leaf) etc have increased drastically in rice since a decade or so in
the area. This might be due to high
temperature and humid climate that
creates favourable environment for the
pest and diseases. A traditional
practice of tying the rice seedlings
controls the insect attack in rice as
revealed by the peasants of the area.
From a weed management perspective,
C4 weeds (as two third of the world’s
worst weeds follow C4 pathway) would
flourish under the climate change
scenario and would pose serious
limitation to crop management and
productivity. It is a well-known fact that
21
weeds interfere with crop growth and limit yields by competing for available nutrients and
water. The analysis of relative humidity in the month of September for the year 1981,
1991, 2001 and 2011 reveals that the relative humidity in the year 2011 was higher than
the calculated average relative humidity for the above mentioned period (Fig. 4).
Crop harvesting (Phasal Katai) undertaken during the Ashvini or Kartika (September or
October) month depending on the variety of the crop. Crop harvesting during Panchak is
discouraged in the area.
5.1.2 Wheat crop zone (Sehore, Raisen and Vidisha)
The peasants of the study area of wheat crop region of Madhya Pradesh revealed that the
erratic rainfall particularly from last 4-5 years, disturbed the condition for cultivation of
Soyabean in Kharif season. In Raisen, one of the study areas of Wheat crop region, the
farmers cultivated rice in 4.03 ha. in Bhadner, 5.3 ha. in Baroda village and 2.01 ha in
Amapani village in Kharif season in the year 2014. Although the area under rice was very
low but the region is not conventionally known for rice cultivation. The shift in crop
choice may be attributed to climate change consequences than the economic or other
reasons, as revealed by the peasants of the region.
Very peculiar observation was communicated by the peasants of Sehore and Raisen
region on second time seed sowing in same field in the same season. Crop damage and
failure of Kharif crop in the event of erratic rainfall conditions and prolonged high moisture
in agriculture field and the farmer decides to sow crop second time in the same field
during that particular season, the crop productivity may be reduced. This could be
substantiated from the scientific angle that the crop grown second time on the same
agriculture field competes’ with the germinated weeds with first crop and subsequent
weeds. General rule, if weeds emerge before or at the same time as the main crop, they
severely reduce crop yield. However, if the crop emerges before the weeds, its yield is
barely reduced by competition (www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5).
Aakhatiz is considered as auspicious day for initiating activities for crop cultivation. The
planets Sun and Moon are in favourable positions on Aakhatiz and bring prosperity for the
work initiated on this day. The traditional peasant starts ploughing activity from Aakhatiz.
Boni (Seed Sowing)
Boni starts for Kharif season in the Vidisha, Raisen and Sehore from 15 June to 15 July. A peculiar observation was shared by the peasants of the Sehore and Raisen that they do not observe the Amawasya and Poornima for ploughing the agricultural field in Kharif season. The reasons for not observing the Poornima and Amawasya period for crop cultivation in Kharif season could be established from the meteorological data. Traditionally the peasants consider Amawasya for not ploughing the agricultural field. The
Panchak – Panchak is refers as the transit of Moon from Aquarius sign to Pisces sign covering five
Nakshatras namely Dhanishta, Shatabhisha, Purva, Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati. The transit of Moon would
be completed in five days. The five days period of Moon transit is considered as Panchak.
Aakhatiz is the third day after Amawashya in the month of Vaisakh (April or May)
22
reason might be the understanding that the planet Sun moves towards Dakshinayan from the month of June which continues till the Makar Sankranti i.e. upto January. The movement of Sun in Uttarayan and Dakshinayan brings seasonal variations. The decision of not ploughing on Amawasya might be due to the alignment of Sun and Moon with respect to Earth in some position not suitable for seeds. The analysis of temperature on the Poornima and Amawasya day for the growing season from April to July and September to November of Raisen and for all the Amawasya and Poornima days for Sehore and Vidisha during the period 2009 to 2015 (Table 7 to 9) depicts temperature variation on Poornima and Amawasya days during the Uttarayan and Dakshinayan movement of Sun. Temperature difference at 11:30 hrs and 23:30 hrs on Amawasya day during the Dakshinayan period of Sun were high particularly during the September, October and November months for most of the years from 2009 to 2015, except for the year 2013 for Sehore. The temperature variation at 11:30 hrs and 23:30 hrs, in case of Raisen and 14:30 hrs and 23:30 hrs in case of Sehore and Vidisha reveals that temperature on Amawasya were higher than the Poornima days for the same month i.e. September, October and sometimes November. The temperature variation observed as 2-30C higher on Amawasya days during the Dakshinayan movement of Sun. Analysis of temperature reveals that wide variation between the day and night temperature on Amawasya might be the reason for not ploughing the agricultural field. This may be further investigated and compilation of temperature data based on the Sun and Moon transit would facilitate in understanding the climate change consequences.
The farmer’s belief and tradition not to observe the Poornima and Amawasya for
cultivation of Kharif crop may be based on the assumptions of temperature variations due
to traverse of Sun to Uttarayan and Dakshinayan.
Traverse of Moon from Rohini, Mrigshira, Punarvasu, Magha, Uttara Phalguni, Chitra, Swati, Anuradha, Uttara Shadha, Dhanishtha, Uttara Bhadrapada is considered as favorable. Compilation of meteorological data from the period 2009 to 2015 and traverse of Moon from various Nakshatras depicting the pattern of Moon traverse. As a thumb rule it can be suggested that 8-9 days before Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra and 3-5 days after Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra may be considered as favourable time for seed sowing. This could be established through experimental trials. Traverse of Moon may be ascertained from the regional Panchang, the present study suggests some experimental trials for developing some simple but robust principles for crop farming that might bring stability in the agriculture.
The observations based on the Sun and Moon, which is visible by naked eye may bring
tangible observations in the era of climate change. Soyabean germinates between 15-
300C but beyond 380C growth of Soyabean retards. Although Soybean is relatively
resistant to low and very high temperatures but growth rates decrease above 35°C and
below 18°C (http://www.fao.org/nr/water/cropinfo_soybean.html). The analysis of
temperature data from the 2009 to 2015 for Raisen, Vidisha and Sehore region (Table 10-
12), shows that the average maximum temperature after seed sowing in the year 2012
and 2014 were as high as 360C. While temperature from 39-440C during 8:30 to 17:30 hrs
on 30 June 2012. Whereas maximum 460C temperature was recorded during 14:30 to
17:30 hrs on 1st July 2012. The temperature recorded was as high as 450C at 14:30 hrs
on 2nd and 4th July 2012 in Raisen (Table 10). Likewise high temperature during last week
of June and first & second week of July adversely affected crop in 2012 & 2014 in Sehore.
The excess rain in 2011 and 2013 destroyed the Soyabean crop in the region. High
23
maximum temperature from 39-410C prevailed during 11:30 to 14:30 hrs on 21, 22 July
2012. Whereas Max. 440C recorded during 11:30 to 14:30 hrs on 23rd July 2012. The
Soyabean is sensitive to high temperature and water logged condition during the growth
period. Very scanty rainfall in 2014 adversely affected Soyabean crop in 2014. In the year
2015 high temperature 40-420C recorded on 14, 15 and 17th July 2015 and 22, 23rd July
2015 in Sehore. Similarly, in Vidisha high temperature during last week of June and first &
second week of July adversely affected crop in 2012 & 2014. While excess rain in 2011
and 2013 destroyed the Soyabean crop in the region. High maximum temperature from
39-460C prevailed during 11:30 to 14:30 hrs on 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 June 2010. Whereas
Max. 460C recorded during 11:30 to 14:30 hrs on 29th June 2010. In the year 2014
temperature (Max) recorded from 41-440C from 11:30 to 17:30 hrs on 29, 30 & 31st July
2014 in Vidisha.
The Soyabean crop was adversely affected by the climate change consequences in the
study area for last 4-5 years. The peasants of the study area are now shifting Kharif crop
from Soyabean to Rice and Maize. The analysis of seed sowing time and the traverse of
Moon from fixed Nakshtra can be considered for experimental trials (Table 10-12). In the
year 2014 in Sehore the seed sowing was delayed and undertaken in last week of July (also confirmed from secondary sources-nmoop.gov.in/23-25% 20July %20by% 20%2 0M_Dutta%
20MP% 20 visit). The Moon traversed from Uttara Shada Nakshatra on 4th July 2014.
24
Table 7: Variation in temperature on Poornima and Amawasya day at 14:30 hrs and 23:30 hrs during the Dakshinayan of Sun in Raisen from the year 2009 to 2015
Month 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
P A P A P A P A P A P A P A
April 8 12 15 10 11 14 6 -1 7 7 8 9 6 7
May 9 8 15 4 7 10 7 6 7 7 4 5 -4 5
June 8 8 11 6 0 3 8 1 2 2 5 4 6 5
July 10 4 6 1 4 3 3 6 5 4 12 5 5 3
Sept 6 7 9 6 1 0 9 5 11 9 7 9 7 8
Oct 4 12 7 9 9 10 10 13 11 2 10 13 7 9
Nov 11 1 9 11 11 10 10 11 5 11 11 13 8 9 P - Temperature difference during Dakshinayan of Sun on Poornima, A – Temperature difference during Dakshinayan of Sun on Amawasya Table 8: Variation in temperature on Poornima and Amawasya day at 11:30 hrs and 23:30 hrs during the Uttarayan and Dakshinayan of Sun in Vidisha from the year 2009 to 2015
2009 2009 2010 2010 2011 2011 2012 2012 2013 2013 2014 2014 2015 2015
UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD
P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A
2 12 3 4 11 6 6 6 13 14 1 5 10 8 1 3 8 7 3 4 10 11 5 0 9 5 3 3
9 12 6 6 13 12 1 5 9 12 1 5 8 9 5 6 6 9 11 9 9 9 7 8 4 9 7 5
7 11 4 7 12 15 5 6 12 14 10 8 6 7 9 13 6 7 11 2 10 9 10 9 6 3 7 8
9 12 14 8 10 12 9 9 11 10 11 12 7 -1 10 11 6 7 11 11 8 9 11 13 3 7 7 9
9 8 10 1 4 11 7 11 7 3 10 9 4 6 10 9 5 2 12 12 6 5 12 13 4 5 8 9
8 8 11 9
9 10 0 3 9 9 3 1 10 11 2 4
9 5 4 9 11 5 5 9 9
10
11
13 12 4
3
5
4
P – Poornima, A – Amawasya; UTD – Temperature difference during Uttarayan of Sun; DTD – Temperature difference during Dakshinayan of Sun
25
Table 9: Variation in temperature on Poornima and Amawasya day at 11:30 hrs and 23:30 hrs during the Uttarayan and Dakshinayan of Sun in Sehore from the year 2009 to 2015
2009 2009 2010 2010 2011 2011 2012 2012 2013 2013 2014 2014 2015 2015
UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD UTD DTD
P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A
10 10 4 1 11 6 7 2 12 9 5 4 8 8 1 1 7 5 0 1 10 11 4 -1 7 6 5 2
5 9 4 5 11 10 0 3 7 9 1 2 6 8 5 4 5 9 9 7 7 8 6 8 6 6 2 3
8 9 4 7 9 13 4 4 10 12 0 7 5 7 7 11 5 7 9 6 9 7 9 7 5 4 7 7
7 12 12 11 9 7 8 8 10 8 9 9 6 8 9 8 6 6 8 10 7 7 9 13 6 6 8 8
6 6 8 1 4 10 6 8 8 3 9 8 2 5 7 6 5 0 11 9 7 6 9 12 2 5 8 9
10 5 7 3 12 7 1 3 8 7 5 2 8 8 1 3 8 4 5 7 7 4 5 8 8
7 8 0 9 4 P – Poornima, A – Amawasya; UTD – Temperature difference during Uttarayan of Sun; DTD – Temperature difference during Dakshinayan of Sun
26
Table 10: Variation in seed sowing period in Kharif season for Soyabean in Raisen from the year 2009 to 2015
Year
Month
June
July
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
2009 Temp 35 35 37 37 36 36 37 37 35 36 34 35 34 30 30 27 29 29 28 30 30 32 32 32 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 28 26 26 26 26 26
Rain 1 1 1 0 3 25 1 24 3 14 5 25 8 0 2 28 17 25 46 31 50 49 35 1 26 12 39
*
2010 Temp 32 25 28 32 36 35 35 35 34 35 35 35 36 34 33 33 33 33 31 30 28 29 27 28 27 27 27 27 28 28 26 28 29 29 27 30 29
Rain 3 71 0 0 1 1 1 1 6 4 2 2 1 25 12 16 91 31 36 17 11 6 7 23 14 19 23 13 11 13 26
*
2011 Temp 32 31 32 31 31 29 29 26 25 27 25 26 25 26 25 27 28 29 29 30 30 29 30 28 27 26 26 28 28 29 28 27 28 27 27 26 25
Rain 14 7 2 5 16 44 21 108 178 4 10 17 100 13 338 1 5 6 1 2 17 20 21 32 8 6 43 35 34 23 13 54 13 31 2 19 32
*
2012 Temp 32 31 32 33 29 32 33 32 33 32 33 33 33 33 34 39 37 36 33 32 29 28 28 27 28 26 29 31 31 30 29 30 31 31 29 31 31
Rain 2 9 4 4 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 1 1 14 24 2 7 21 23 22 2 2 13 13 16 4 1 6 0 18
2013 Temp 31 28 28 27 28 32 32 32 30 30 29 25 28 28 29 29 29 27 28 26 26 28 30 30 29 28 26 28 28 27 28 29 29 29 28 28 27
Rain 29 53 4 6 0 2 1 1 11 23 211 15 0 9 6 19 60 33 1 0 2 7 13 15 3 45 36 38 2 47 13 14 22 28 10 5
*
2014 Temp 36 36 35 35 36 35 34 33 33 34 34 35 35 36 35 35 35 35 34 34 33 33 31 37 36 36 36 36 36 33 32 30 28 30 29 29 29
Rain 1 3 6 2 9 2 2 0 1 2 2 4 1 0 3 14 17 91 20 22 8 12 6
*
2015 Temp 34 33 35 37 37 36 36 33 31 29 26 30 31 30 32 32 31 32 32 31 31 30 30 31 30 30 28 28 30 33 33 31 30 28 28 28 29
Rain 15 3 0 2 28 6 11 20 13 3 21 11 10 8 3 2 12 11 19 4 5 2 7 1 9 34 20 22 17
*
Source: http://www.worldweatheronline.com/search-weather.aspx?q=raisen
+ Average temperature in 0 C (rounded-off) and rainfall in mm
++Peak sowing period of Soyabean as revealed by farmers and checked from the secondary sources. * Seed sowing favourable Nakshatra starting from Rohini, Mrigshira, Punarvasu, Magha, Uttara Phalguni, Chitra, Swati, Anuradha, Uttara Shadha, Dhanishtha, Uttara Bhadrapada
Legend
Seed sowing period
High temperature recorded after seed sowing
Moon traverse from Nakshatra Suitable for seed sowing*
27
Table 11: Variation in seed sowing period in Kharif season for Soyabean in Sehore from the year 2009 to 2015
Year
Month
June
July
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2009 temp 36 35 36 35 35 36 36 37 37 36 38 35 34 35 32 33 32 29 26 37 30 31 28 30 30 32 32 32 26 27 27 27 26 26 27 28 25 25
Rain 0 1 1 4 4 1 5 39 6 4 0 11 16 20 7 1 26 21 13 23 42 65 54 49 20 2
*
2010 temp 38 39 38 39 31 27 30 34 37 38 35 33 34 34 34 34 35 32 32 32 32 32 32 29 28 29 26 27 27 28 27 27 28 28 26 28 29 28
Rain 8 19 0 1 0 8 1 1 0 0 7 3 1 1 2 1 28 7 19 66 45 27 12 17 2 5 14 32 26 23 13
*
2011 temp 37 36 36 35 31 30 32 30 31 29 29 26 25 26 25 25 25 25 24 27
27 29 29 29 29 28 29 28 26 25 26 28 28 28 28 26 27 27
Rain 0 4 1 6 6 1 3 1 71 23 96 45 3 5 16 120 9 149 2 6 10 4 2 9 31 10 21 1 9 11 24 19 35 13 70 12 17
*
2012 temp 34 34 32 32 30 29 30 31 28 30 31 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 32 34 35 35 32 31 28 27 28 27 28 26 29 31 30 29 28 29 30 30
Rain 1 2 20 15 15 4 1 18 0 0 0 0 4 15 0
1 2 43 8 7 7 6 21 # 1 0 2 6 7 7 2 2
*
2013 temp 30 31 30 33 30 28 27 27 29 32 31 31 27 28 27 24 26 27 28 28 29 27 28 26 25 28 30 29 29 27 26 27 27 26 27 28 29 28
Rain 20 7 10 13 32 12 6 7 0 6 3 8 19 29 # 9 0 5 3 7 30 6 3 1 3 3 11 2 3 28 28 28 1 43 16 7 15
*
2014 temp 38 36 36 35 35 36 35 34 36 34 33 32 32 33 33 34 35 35 35 34 34 34 33 33 33 33 32 35 35 34 34 35 34 32 31 28 29 30
Rain 1 1 1 0 0 5 4 0 8 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 1 6 0 0 2 0 2 15 14 62 12 14
*
2015 temp 35 30 30 33 32 33 33 35 36 35 35 31 30 29 26 29 30 31 32 31
31 31 31 30 29 29 29 30 29 29 27 28 29 32 32 30 31 27
Rain 11 48 4 4 5 5 4 0 0 4 45 1 4 18 2 5 0 6 8 5 0 1 1 1 2 13 5 17 4 1 0 8 31
*
Source: http://www.worldweatheronline.com/search-weather.aspx?q=sehore
* Seed sowing favourable Nakshatra starting from Rohini, Mrigshira, Punarvasu, Magha, Uttara Phalguni, Chitra, Swati, Anuradha, Uttara Shadha, Dhanishtha, Uttara Bhadrapada + Average temperature in
0 C (rounded-off) and rainfall in mm
Legend
Seed sowing period
High temperature recorded after seed sowing
Moon traverse from Nakshatra Suitable for seed sowing*
28
Table 12: Variation in seed sowing period in Kharif season for Soyabean in Vidisha from the year 2009 to 2015
Year
Month
June
July
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2009 37 35 35 35 35 36 37 37 36 36 37 37 35 36 34 35 34 30 30 28 29 29 28 30 30 32 32 32 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 28 26 26
Rain 1 1 1 1 0 3 23 1 24 3 14 5 25 8 0 2 28 22 17 25 46 31 50 49 35 1
*
2010 36 37 37 38 32 25 28 32 36 35 35 35 34 35 35 35 36 34 33 33 33 33 31 30 38 29 27 28 28 27 27 27 28 28 26 28 29 29
Rain 3 71 0 0 1 1 1 1 6 4 2 2 1 25 12 16 91 31 36 17 11 6 7 23 14 19 23 13
*
2011 37 37 37 36 32 31 32 31 31 29 29 26 25 27 25 26 25 26 24 27 28 29 29 30 30 29 30 28 27 26 26 28 28 29 28 27 28 27
Rain 2 3 14 7 2 5 16 44 21 107 178 4 10 17 100 13 337 1 5 6 1 2 17 20 21 32 8 6 43 35 34 23 13 54 13 31
*
2012 35 35 34 33 32 31 32 33 29 32 33 32 33 32 33 33 33 33 34 35 37 36 33 32 29 28 28 27 28 26 29 31 31 30 29 30 31 31
Rain 0 1 2 4 2 9 4 4 10 1 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 1 1 14 24 2 7 21 23 22 2 2 13 13 16 4 1 6
*
2013 31 32 32 34 31 28 28 27 28 32 32 32 30 30 29 25 28 28 29 29 29 27 28 26 26 28 30 29 28 26 28 28 27 28 29 29 29 28
Rain 12 9 5 1 29 53 4 6 0 2 1 1 11 23 211 15 0 9 6 60 33 1 0 2 7 13 15 3 45 36 38 2 47 13 14 22 28
*
2014 40 37 37 36 36 36 35 35 37 35 34 33 33 34 34 35 35 36 35 35 35 35 34 34 33 33 31 36 36 36 36 36 36 33 32 30 28 30
Rain 1 1 2 1 3 6 2 8 9 0 2 2 0 0 1 2 2 4 1 0 3 14 17 91 20 22
*
2015 36 32 31 34 34 33 35 37 37 36 36 33 31 29 26 30 31 30 32 32 31 32 32 31 31 30 30 31 30 30 28 28 30 33 33 31 30 28
Rain 5 29 4 3 15 3 0 2 28 6 11 20 13 3 21 11 10 8 3 0 2 12 11 19 4 5 2 7 1 9 34
*
Source: http://www.worldweatheronline.com/search-weather.aspx?q=vidisha
* Seed sowing favourable Nakshatra starting from Rohini, Mrigshira, Punarvasu, Magha, Uttara Phalguni, Chitra, Swati, Anuradha, Uttara Shadha, Dhanishtha, Uttara Bhadrapada + Average temperature in
0 C (rounded-off) and rainfall in mm
Legend
Seed sowing period
High temperature recorded after seed sowing
Moon traverse from Nakshatra Suitable for seed sowing*
29
5.1.3 Wheat – Jowar crop zone (Chhindwara)
The peasants in the area expressed that the ploughing/soil working is not done on
Amawasya, Pula ki Amawasya. The tradition of not ploughing on Amawasya is age-old
phenomenon and communicated orally from generation to generation. The attempt has
been made to understand the scientific reason considering the meteorological data (Fig. 9
& 10). The interpretation would be the same as discussed in the ploughing activity of
Raisen, Vidisha and Sehore.
The erratic rainfall and climatic conditions playing crucial role in cultivation of Soyabean in
the Kharif season. The favourable condition for Soyabean cultivation has changed hence
the peasants in the area drastically reduced area under Soyabean cultivation since last 4-
5 years. The peasant started cultivation of Maize in Kharif season instead of Soyabean
crop. The Maize is C4 plant and withstand in warmer weather. The cultivation of Maize
crop might be an adaptation strategy for climate change. The Beej Bowai (Seed
sowing) of Maize started from the 15 June and Beej Bowai last upto first week of July. The
peasants perform crop management activities like weeding or any soil working activity on
Poornima or 1 or 2 days prior or afterwards Poornima. The harvesting of crop on
Amawasya or during the Panchak is not exercised.
5.2. Rabi season
5.2.1 Wheat zone – Sehore, Raisen and Vidisha
5.2.1.1 Khet Jutai (Ploughing)
The tradition of not ploughing on Amawasya for the Rabi crop is prevailing in the region
and the majority of peasants or the traditional practitioners’ are not ploughing agriculture
field on Amawasya. This could be substantiated by the scientific reason that the moon’s
gravitational force on earth causes downward movement of water on earth. Earth is a
large gravitational field, influenced by both the Sun and Moon. The tides are highest at the
time of the new and the full Moon, when Sun and Moon are lined up with Earth. Moon
pulls the tides in the oceans, it also pulls upon the subtle bodies of water, causing
moisture to rise in the earth, which encourages growth. The ploughing on Amawasya
would adversely affect the soil moisture retention of earth. On Amawasya the influence of
moon on planet earth is low/ minimal. Looking to the astrological events, it can be
established that the ploughing on Amawasya may affect hygroscopic water and soil
biological activity adversely. The traditional practice of not ploughing agricultural field
on Amawasya could be considered as adaptation strategy for maintaining soil
moisture and enhancing biological activity in agricultural field. The practice of not
ploughing on Amawasya may be attributed to the modern concept of conservation tillage
or no-tillage. The adaptation of no-tillage or conservation tillage would Improves water
infiltration, reduction in soil erosion and many more. But the most powerful benefit of no-
tillage is improvement in soil biological fertility, making soils more resilient. Tilling is used
to remove weeds, shape the soil into rows for crop plants and furrows for irrigation. This
leads to unfavorable effects, like soil compaction; loss of organic matter; degradation of
soil aggregates; death or disruption of soil microbes and other organisms including
mycorrhiza, arthropods, and earthworms (Preston Sullivan, 2004). The traditional
30
practice of not ploughing agricultural field on Amawasya could be considered as
adaptation strategy for maintaining soil moisture and enhancing biological activity
in agricultural field.
The soil working or weeding operation through Bakhar or other locally developed
instruments also executed by observing the Poornima. As this would not only serve the
purpose of weeding operation but also facilitate to conserve soil moisture.
5.2.1.2 Boni (seed Sowing)
As observed in Vidisha the seed were sown during 15-16 November to first week of
December, whereas in the study region of Sehore the seed were sown from 20 October to
5 November. The seed sowing in Raisen commence between first week of November to
forth week of November. The peasant in study area of Raisen expressed that they avoid
seed sowing during Chitra Nakshtra. The Sun transits through Chitra Nakshatra from a
period during 11-24 October. The seed sowing dates varies from region to region. The
peasant observes Sun transit for deciding the dates of seed sowing. The peasants in
Raisen informed that they observe Swati Nakshtra for undertaking seed sowing activity.
The Sun transits from Swati Nakshtra commence during 26 October to 6 November for
every year. In order to study the effects of climate change if any, the analysis of
meteorological data on maximum temperature during Swati Nakshatra (a period from 24
October to 06 November) in Raisen, wheat crop zone of Madhya Pradesh reveals that the
max temperature is showing increasing trend from the year 1974 to 2011 for that
particular period (Fig. 5).
5.2.1.3 Beej Bowai gahrai (Seed sowing depth)
The peasants from Sehore and Raisen districts revealed that the seed sowing depth have
decreased from 6-8 inch to 4-5 inch. The reason they have given is that earlier we have to
protect the seeds from the birds and kept the seed depth high. Presently, the bird
population has decreased drastically in the region. Brown et al., (2003) studied that the
seed sown at deeper depth reduces the number of seeds removed by birds and mice.
Birds suffer from climate
variability effects in every part of
the globe. Scientists have found
declines of up to 90% in some
bird populations, as well as total
and unprecedented reproductive
failure in others. A status report
compiled by WWF, reviews
more than 200 scientific articles.
It finds a clear & escalating
pattern of climate change
impacts on birds around the
world, suggesting a trend
towards major bird extinction
from global warming.
Seed sowing depth is the key management factor for uniform rapid germination,
emergence and establishment. Depth is particularly important in varieties with short
coleoptiles. The Coleoptile is the pointed protective sheath covering the emerging shoot
31
and the radicle in monocotyledons. The scientific reason for decrease in seed sowing
depth could be the fact that the core of our Earth is actually hotter than the surface of the
Sun (www.extremetech.com). The earth is a bad conductor of heat; for this reason, the
water of a spring is cool even in the hottest weather. The conclusion could be drawn from
the fact that the earth is a bad conductor of heat because its particles are not continuous.
The heat conducted best by continuity of matter (www.chestofbooks.com). Hence, the air
temperature regulates the surface temperature of earth. The surface temperature of earth
is increasing due to variations in climate. Presently, we are experiencing the transition
period of climate change and for slight rise in temperature are facilitating the seed
germination but if the temperature continues to rise further the tropical region may face
problems even in germination of seeds and establishment of seedlings.
The seed sowing depth for the plants of Poaceae family depends on the length of
Coleoptile. Seed sowing depth must be less than the Coleoptile length. Rebetzke et al.
(2001) studied that the Coleoptile length was significantly greater at the coolest
temperatures and smallest at the warmest temperature. An increase in soil temperature
was commonly associated with significant reduction in coleoptile length. Coleoptile length
was significantly (P<0.05) greater at the coolest temperatures (11 and 15°C) and smallest
at the warmest temperature (23°C) (Rebetzke et al., 2001, 1999). The reduction of seed
sowing depth may be attributed to the warmer climate and as an adaptation
strategy for the seed sowing of Wheat.
5.2.1.4 Beej Ankuran (Seed germination)
During the study the farmers expressed that the seed germination period reduced from 7-
8 days to 5 days. Seed germination depends on soil temperature and moisture, the
improved irrigation facility (conserved soil moisture from earlier crop) & increasing temp.
May result in early germination. In stubble trials, it was found that long coleoptile Wheat
emerged 30% faster with respect to short coleoptile Wheat under 6 t/ha of stubble (NSW
Department of Primary Industries, February 2008).
5.2.1.5 Sichai (Irrigation, if any)
The irrigation facility is the mail constraint for wheat cultivation as informed by the
peasants of Raisen, Sehore and Vidisha districts. However, wherever the irrigation is
available the peasants follow a cycle of 20-25 days for irrigation of wheat crop after the
seed showing and subsequent stages of wheat growth.
Moon’s gravitational pull influences moisture in soil on earth. Planting following moon is an
idea as old as agriculture, based both in folklore, but there are scientific ideas to back it
up. Amount of moisture is highest in soil during the full moon period and tests have proven
that seeds/ plant will absorb the most of the water at the time of full moon. The water
management in wheat crop considering the phases of Moon could be a viable option for
production of wheat crop. The development of technological package in consonance with
the phases of moon could be an added advantage for minimizing the quantity of water by
increasing water use efficiency by the plants.
32
Irrigation is one of the best mitigation measures to cope-up with the climate
consequences. Irrigation could be one of the most important for assured crop production.
The irrigation facilities are fast expanding in India but to cover the entire agricultural area
under irrigation would take considerable time. The practice of crop cultivation in
consonance with astronomical events may be an option for crop cultivation. There is
scientific evidence that the gravitational pull influences moisture in soil, planting crop
following moon is an idea as old as agriculture, based both in folklore, but there are
scientific ideas to back it up. Amount of moisture is highest in soil during the full moon
period, and tests have proven that seeds/ plant will absorb the most water at the time of
full moon. The irrigation in consonance with the moon phases may result in utilization of
water by crop to the fullest.
5.2.1.6 Phasal Katai (Crop harvesting)
Peasants in all the study area of Raisen, Vidisha and Sehore express that the crop
harvesting is not undertaken during the Panchak. However if the situation arises to
perform the crop harvesting exercise during the Panchak, the crop harvesting initiated
before these days in small portion of crop field. The days discouraged to undertake crop
harvesting as observed by the peasants were Tuesday and Wednesday. The observation
of Moon phases would be an option for undertaking crop harvesting. As per the
astronomical readings the Krishan Paksha is considered suitable for crop harvesting. The
day Amawasya is particularly more suitable for the crop harvesting. Gaius Plinius
Secundus, was well known naturalist, who wrote Naturalis Historia, the most
comprehensive study of natural history, advised farmers to pick fruit at the full moon for
market, as it would weigh more, and pick at the new moon for personal consumption, as
that fruit would store better (Cole and Balick (2008).
5.3 Crop cultivation activities and corroboration with Moon and Sun
transit
Crop cultivation practices were evolved in-consonance with the nature and natural
settings. The wisdom of traditional farmers is crucial in development of package of crop
cultivation practices. The fundamental components of crop cultivation with time frame like
ploughing, seed sowing, crop management, and crop harvesting could not be ascertained
without the thorough understanding of cosmic happenings. The influence of Sun and
Moon were adequately addressed for developing crop cultivation practices but the
language of communication is very simple and sometimes hard to believe by the scientific/
modern community. An attempt has been made to understand the effects of Sun and
Moon transits on crop cultivation (Table 6 to 10). In order to establish the effects of climate
variability various agricultural activities were analyzed irrespective of technology
improvements and modern equipments used to perform these activities. The modern
techniques and equipments are being developed to facilitate the ease of performing these
activities. The age-old package of practice of crop cultivation fairly provides opportunity to
accommodate the modern tools and techniques for crop cultivation. The basic or
prominent understandings of crop cultivation with emphasis cosmic happenings were
studied.
33
In Balaghat, a rice crop zone of Madhya Pradesh, as discussed in section 5.1.1 of result
and discussion the report that affected the seed sowing method and most of the peasants
of the area adopted rice cultivation through ropa method owing to climate variability.
Balaghat is situated in the Chhattisgarh Plain agro-climatic region and receives relatively
early monsoon rains with respect to the other parts of Madhya Pradesh. The peasants
ideally plough their agricultural fields in last lap of the Nav Tapa i.e. in between 31st May to
3rd June. Seed sowing in the year 2005, about a decade ago was undertaken during 15-
25 June, a peak seed sowing period as revealed by the farmers. Whereas about five
years ago i.e. in 2010, the seeds were sown during 10-20 June. The average maximum
temperature shown increasing trend from 38.20C to 39.70C from the year 2005 to 2010.
However, the average minimum temperatures during the seed sowing period were more
or less the same i.e. 25.50C and 25.40C in 2005 and 2010. Considering the Moon transit
and seed sowing with a focus on Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra for rice cultivation the
favourable situation for seed sowing in 2014 was spotted on 7th July and for the year 2015
on 24th June, the day of Moon transit through Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra. Likewise shift in
seed sowing in Balaghat had happened but the farmers adopted ropa method to adjust
the climate variability. The transplantation of ropa which was supposed to be undertaken
in the first week of July was delayed. However, the transplanting the seedlings in field
were performed during 20-23 July 2015. The tillering stage of rice has initiated in nursery
stage of rice seedlings. This may result in reduction in rice crop production. However, in
the year 2016 the favorable situation might commence from 13th June. The transit of Moon
in Nakshatra results in shift in the scheduling the crop cultivation practices. There is a
need to observe the cosmic happenings and experimentation of the same would facilitate
in establishing the principles based on the practitioners’ knowledge for stable agriculture.
Crop harvesting time depends on the physiological maturity of the crop. The peak crop
harvesting time as revealed by the farmers commenced during 25-30 October in the year
2005 and 20-25 October in the year 2010. The average maximum temperature in the year
2005 and 2010 at the time of crop harvesting were 27.50C and 30.20C respectively (Table
13). The transit of Moon during the crop harvesting period based on the principles of
astrology suggests that all the Nakshatra were suitable for crop harvesting except the
transition of Moon in Uttara Phalguni that comes on the last day of the crop harvesting
time in both the years 2005 and 2010.
34
Table 13: Crop cultivation activities and corroboration of the same with the meteorological data and transit of Moon & Sun in
Balaghat for the 2005 and 2010
Year Year
2005 2010
Activity Activity
Ploughing Seed sowing in nursery (Peak time)
Transplanting of Ropa**
Crop harvesting Ploughing Seed sowing in nursery
Transplanting of Ropa**
Crop harvesting
Period 31 May to 3 June
15-25 June 5-10 July 25 - 30 October 31 May to 3 June
10-20 June 5-8 July 20-25 October
Month Vaishakh Jyeshtha Jyeshtha Ashwini Vaishakh 2 Vaishakh 2 Ashad Ashwini
Sun Transit Rohini Mrigashira Punarvasu Swati Rohini Mrigashira Ardra Chitra
Moon transit
Purva & Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati, Ashwini
Uttara Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mool, Purva & Uttara Ashadha, Shravan
Mrigashir, Ardra Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha
Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara Phalguni
Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashira
Ashwini, Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashir, Ardra Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara Phalguni, Hasta
Magha, Purva & Uttara Phalguni, Hasta
Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara Phalguni
Av Max Temp.
0C
39.8 38.2 27.9 27.5 42.5 39.7 30.5 30.2
Av Min Temp. 0C
26.1 25.5 22.8 16.3 27.3 25.4 22.8 14.6
Rainfall in mm, if any
No rains* Rains on 7th
June & 21
st June
onwards
Rains from 1-5 July & 8
th July
onwards
No Rains No rains No rains Rains on 16th
June & onwards
No Rains
* Area received rains (9.3 mm) on 30 May during transit of Moon in Satabhisha Nakshatra ** Climate change adaptation strategy followed by farmers
35
Major crop cultivation activities for wheat in the Raisen and Chhindwara districts were
arranged based on the transit of Moon and Sun from various Nakshatras (Table 14 to 17).
Raisen is situated between 220 04’ N Latitude and 780 58’ E Longitude and the
Chhindwara district lies between Latitude 230 21’ N and Longitude 770 49’ E. Seed sowing
in the year 2005, a decade ago was undertaken during 30 Oct to 15 Nov in Raisen district
whereas in Chhindwara the seed sowing activity were undertaken during 1-15 October (15
days in first fortnight of October). This corroborated with the Hindu calendar, the date
corresponds in Ashwini & Kartik month in Raisen and Bhadrav & Ashwini month in
Chhindwara. The Sun transited through Swati Nakshatra during the peak seed sowing
period in Raisen whereas Sun transited through Hast & Chitra Nakshatra in Chhindwara
area. The Moon transit for both the regions were started from Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra.
The Uttara Phalguni Nakshatra is said to be fixed Nakshatra and seed sowing during this
Nakshatra has been considered as favourable with respect to the principles of astrology.
Almost same situation for seed sowing was observed in Raisen area during 2010-11 rabi
season except in Chhindwara the seed sowing started from Ardra Nakshatra in 2010-11.
The average maximum temperature were higher in seed sowing period during rabi season
of 2010-11 with compare to average maximum temperature of 2005-06 for both the
regions i.e. Raisen and Chhindwara. The Sun transit at the time of crop harvesting were
through Satabhisha & Purva Bhadrapada for 2005-06 and 2010-11 in Raisen and
Chhindwara except in Raisen for 2010-11 period. The Sun transit though Purva
Bhadrapada in 2010-11 in Raisen area.
Likewise the Moon transits were varied but most of the transits of Moon were favourable
except Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati, Rohini and Punarvasu during the crop harvesting in
Raisen. Whereas in Chhindwara the crop harvesting time and Moon transits were
favourable except the transit of Moon from Vishakha, Satabhisha and Purva Bhadrapada
in 2005-06. The average temperature were higher during crop harvesting in 2010-11 with
compare to average temperature in 2005-06 season for both Raisen and Chhindwara
districts.
Table 14: Crop cultivation activities and corroboration of the same with the
meteorological data and transit of Moon & Sun in Raisen for rabi season (2005-06).
Year 2005-06
Activity
Seed sowing Irrigation1 Irrigation2 Irrigation3 Crop harvesting
Period 30 Oct to 15 Nov 20 Nov 5 Dec 15 Dec to 30 Dec 15-25 Jan 2006
1-10 March 2006
Month Ashwini & Kartik Kartik & Aghan Aghan Paush Phagun
Sun Transit Swati Anuradha & Jyeshtha
Jyestha, Mool & Purva & Ashadha
Uttara Ashadha
Satbhisha & Purva Bhadrapada
Moon transit Uttara Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mool, Purva & Uttara Ashadha, Shravan, Dhanishta, Satabhisha, Purva & Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati, Ashwini, Bharni
Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mool, Purva Ashadha
Rohini, Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara, Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mool
Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara, Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Vishakha, Anuradha,
Purva & Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati, Ashwini, Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu
Av Max Temp. 30.40C 29.6
0C 24.9
0C 25.8
0C 29.5
0C
Av Min Temp. 15.4 0C 15.7
0C 10.8
0C 11.07
0C 14.6
0C
Rainfall (mm) No rains No rains No rains No rains No rains
36
Table 15: Crop cultivation activities and corroboration of the same with the
meteorological data and transit of Moon & Sun in Raisen for rabi season (2010-11).
Year 2010-11
Activity
Seed sowing irrigation Crop harvesting
1 2 3
Period 5 Nov to 15 Nov 25 Nov 5 Dec
20 Dec to 30 Dec 15 Jan to 25 Jan 2011
15-20 March 2011
Month Ashwini & Kartik
Anuradha & Jyestha
Aghan Paush Phagun & Chaitra
Sun Transit Swati & Vishakha Kartik Jyestha & Mool
Uttara Ashadha
Purva Bhadrapada
Moon transit
Uttara Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mool, Purva & Uttara Ashadha, Shravan, Dhanishta, Satabhisha
Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Vishakha, Anuradha
Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati, Ashwini, Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara, Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra
Purva & Uttara, Bhadrapada, Revati, Ashwini, Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara, Phalguni, Hasta
Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara Phalguni, Hasta
Av Max Temp.
0C
28.2 24.9 Data Not Available 25.4 37.1
Av Min Temp. 0C
17.8 9.5 Data Not Available 6.5 14.9
Rainfall in mm, if any
Rains on 29-31 Oct & 5th and 7th Nov 2010 (Av rainfall 14 mm)
No rains No rains No rains No rains
Table 16: Crop cultivation activities & corroboration of the same with
meteorological data and transit of Moon & Sun in Chhindwara for rabi season
(2005-06)
Year 2005-06
Activity
Seed sowing Irrigation 1 Irrigation 2 Crop harvesting
Period 1-15 Oct 22 Oct 5 Nov 16 Nov to 30 Nov 20 Feb to 10 March 2006
Month Bhadav & Ashwini Ashwini Kartik Magha
Sun Transit Hast & Chitra Chitra & Swati Vishakha & Anuradha
Satabhisha & Purva Bhadrapada
Moon transit Purva & Uttara Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mool, Purva & Uttara Ashadha, Shravan, Dhanishta, Satabhisha,
Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara, Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha
Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara, Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Vishakha
Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara, Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Vishakha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mool, Purva & Uttara Ashadha, Shravan, Dhanishta, Satabhisha, Purva Bhadrapada
Av Max Temp. 0C 29.1 Data gap Data gap 27.8
Av Min Temp. 0C 20.8 Data gap Data gap 14.8
Rainfall Rains on 22-25 Sept Data gap Data gap Rains on 1 March (17.2 mm)
37
Table 17: Crop cultivation activities and corroboration of the same with the
meteorological data and transit of Moon & Sun in Chhindwara for rabi season in the
year 2010-11.
Year
2010-11
Activity
Seed sowing irrigation Crop harvesting
1 2
Period 1-10 Oct 22 Oct 1 Nov 16 Nov to 26 Nov 25 February to 5 March 2011
Month Ashwini Ashwini Kartik Magha & Phagun
Sun Transit Hast Chitra & Swati Vishakha & Anuradha
Satabhisha & Purva Bhadrapada
Moon transit Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva & Uttara Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati Vishakha
Revati, Ashwini, Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha
Purva & Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati, Ashwini, Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigashira, Ardra, Punarvasu & Pushya
Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mool, Purva & Uttara Ashadha, Shravan, Dhanishta, Satabhisha, Purva Bhadrapada
Av Max Temp.
0C
28.3 26 25.1 31.3
Av Min Temp. 0C
23.3 19.6 20.4 13.6
Rainfall in mm, if any
Rains on 3 Oct (3.4 mm)
Rains on 22 & 26 Oct (Av rainfall 3.3 mm)
Rains on 17 & 18 Nov (Average rainfall 19.2 mm)
No rains
5.4 Overall scenario of agriculture in Madhya Pradesh
The overall agricultural production fundamentally depends on the area sown and the per hectare productivity. The changes in area or productivity influence the agricultural production accordingly. Division-wise cropped area for the State of Madhya Pradesh under Wheat can be depicted from the Fig. 6. The actual production of Wheat in the year
2008-09 was lower than the calculated average production of Wheat between the years 2008-09 to 2011-12 for the State of Madhya Pradesh. The overall productivity of wheat
38
increased from 2008 to recent years in Madhya Pradesh (Govt. of MP, 2014). The decomposition analysis reveals that the crop production area under Wheat cultivation has decreased in Rewa, Anuppur, Dindori and Betul Districts. While the increased productivity were recorded almost all districts except in Narsinghpur, Damoh and Ratlam in the year 2012. The increase in average production may be due to various reasons like improved variety of crop or other technological inputs. But the changing climatic conditions may also influence the crop production in earlier or transition period of climate change. The area selected for the study particularly Harrai block of Chhindwara, the majority of farmers are involved in crop cultivation using oxen and local technology. Traditionally the area comes under the crop zone of Wheat-Jowar. Earlier in Kharif season the farmers were involved in cultivating the Maize that taken-over by Soyabean. Recently, the farmers of the region shifted to cultivation of Maize again and from last 2-3 years the area under Maize has increased. Maize is C4 plant and withstands in warmer weather. The shift to Maize from Soyabean cannot be only due to economic reasons but can be attributed to some observations and practice of farmers. The farmers strongly considered that the crop change was due to climate variations. Research conducted elsewhere indicated that a rise in temperature benefits C4 species, but not the rising carbon dioxide levels (Ramesh, 2015).
Fig. 13: Wheat production in rainfed condition in Divisions of M.P.
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
Jabal
pur
Sag
ar
Rew
a
Sha
hdol
Bho
pal
Indo
re
Ujja
in
Cha
mbal
Gw
alio
r
Hos
hang
abad
Division
Pro
du
cti
on
in
mete
ric t
on
nes 2011-12
2010-11
2009-10
2008-09
Average
In rainfed condition the calculated average wheat production was higher then the actual
production of wheat in the year 2008-09. This might be due to the transition period of
climate change. The little warmer climate may result in accelerated photosynthesis but
after reaching the threshold the declination of crop yield can not be ruled-out.
7
39
Fig. 15: Change in area under Wheat and Gram cultivation from the year 2008 to 2012 in Jabalpur and
Bhopal division of Madhya Pradesh
-70
-20
30
80
130
180
230
Jabal
pur
Kat
ni
Bal
agha
t
Chh
indw
ara
Seo
ni
Man
dla
Nar
sing
hpur
Bho
pal
Seh
ore
Rai
sen
Vid
isha
Raj
ghar
h
Th
ou
sa
nd
ha
Area under Gram cultivation in ha 2008
Area under Wheat cultivation in ha 2008
Area under Gram cultivation in ha 2012
Area under Wheat cultivation in ha 2012
Change in area under Gram
Change in area under Wheat
The practice of sowing local (desi) variety of Wheat depicting decreasing trend from the
year 2009-10 for most of the districts (Fig. 8). However, the use of local variety of wheat
has shown increasing trend for the Vidisha districts of Madhya Pradesh.
8
9
40
The Wheat and Gram are the principle crop of the Jabalpur and Bhopal division. The area
under cultivation of Gram is showing decreasing trend in all the districts of the divisions
except the Rajgarh district.
The analysis of area under the cereal crops Wheat and Rice in the Jabalpur and Bhopal divisions of Madhya Pradesh reveals that the area under cultivation of rice is increasing even in the wheat region of Madhya Pradesh. Although the rice is a Kharif season crop and wheat is crop of Rabi season. The analysis of change in area under wheat and rice cultivation in wheat crop region can be depicted from fig. 10 to 12. The area under rice cultivation in the districts of Jabalpur and Bhopal divisions of Madhya Pradesh is showing increasing trend in Hoshangabad, Raisen and Sehore. Likewise the area under wheat cultivation in rice crop region were showing increasing trend in Balaghat, Mandla, Shahdol, Sidhi and Umaria. These districts traditionally fall under the rice region. The climatic conditions for the Wheat and Rice are quite different particularly in the rainfall pattern, intensity and span of monsoon rainfall. The change in area under the cultivation of rice in wheat zone may be attributed to the erratic rainfall pattern. The significant change in area under the wheat cultivation could be attributed to the attributed to the erratic climatic conditions.
6 Conclusion The crop cultivation completely depends on the weather conditions. The minor variation in weather at any stage of crop development i.e. from the vegetative growth to maturity of crop will adversely affect crop production. The sensitivity of crop towards the climate variations may be well judged from the age-old traditional practices of crop cultivation particularly in the State of Madhya Pradesh. The period of Nav Tapa is considered as nine hot days of that particular year, the traditional practitioners of crop cultivation believe that the ploughing during the Nav Tapa may result in controlling pests and diseases. However, the temperature in Nav Tapa portrays a situation of climatic variability over a period
41
of time and if the situation continues it may cause climate change consequences in future. The analysis of meteorological data for the period from 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011 for Balaghat reveal that the temperature during the Nav tapa were lower for most of the Nav Tapa days in the year 2011 than in 1981. On the other hand, temperature for the other period of the year showing increasing trend as analysed for the Swati Nakshtra period from 24 October to 6 November and Vishakha Nakshatra, a period from 7-19 November for Balaghat and Raisen districts. Likewise the average relative humidity for the year 2011 was higher than the average relative humidity for the year 1981 in the month of September. The variation in climate showing increasing trend for the temperature and the relative humidity at the important time period of crop cultivation portrays the variability of climate and the situation prevails this may result in climate change consequences. The crop sowing time is an important step in successful cultivation of crop. The time of
seed showing for the Kharif crop traditionally comes during the Mrigshira Nakshatra i.e. a
period during 9-22 June. The daily rainfall for the Balaghat region depicts that the area
received monsoon showers between 4th or 6th June in the year 1980, 1981, whereas the
area received first rainfall in the month of June in 1991 and 2010 on 10th June 16th June,
respectively. The variation in rainfall pattern adversely affects sowing of seeds directly in
the field. The farmers visualized the same and started cultivation of rice through
ropa method. This could be attributed to adaptation strategy for climate variations.
The management of water in rice crop is very important. The flood like situation and prolonged submerged rice plant in water may result in crop damage or stunted growth. On the other hand methene emission rates are highly sensitive to water management. Periodic drainage of irrigated rice results in a significant decrease in methane emissions. Multiple short periods of drainage (2-3 days) approximately every three weeks during the growing season reduced methane emissions to an insignificant amount (1.15 g/m2) without decreasing rice grain yield. The traditional practice of water drainage in rice field is adversely affected by the erratic and unpredictable rains. The farmers reduced water drainage practice in rice cultivation at a very less frequency due to the fear that the field may or may not be filled by rain water again particularly during the vegetative growth of rice. The pest and diseases infestation have increased due to the high temperature and high
relative humidity during the crop cultivation. Considering a weed management
perspective, C4 weeds (as two third of the world’s worst weeds follow C4 pathway)
would flourish under the climate change scenario and would pose serious
limitation to crop management and productivity. It is a well-known fact that weeds
interfere with crop growth and limit yields by competing for available resources and weed
management is one of the greatest recurring expenditure for farmers. It is speculated that
increased relative humidity and temperature alter the competitive balance between crops
and some weed species, intensifying the crop-weed competition pressure. The increased
weed infestation shows the climate variations as observed to establish effects of climate
change in the study area.
The traditional practices adopted by the farmers in the study area are based on the
Nakshatra of Sun traverse. The Sun traverses in each Nakshatra is more or less fixed for
the year. But the traverse of Moon changes Nakshatra in approximate 24 hours time.
42
Weeding operation just one day before Poornima (Poornima was upto 7:30 am
on 2 July 2015) in Harrai block Chhindwara
Looking to the climate variations it would be worthwhile if traverse of Moon may also be
observed for expected results which would be in consonance with the nature. On the day
of Akhatij the both the Sun and Moon are in beneficial position and the traditional crop
farming lined up from the day of Akhatij may be useful for crop cultivation. The day of
Akhatij comes during the Shukla Paksha and it is suitable for ploughing the agricultural
field. A strategy based on the traditional practices for crop cultivation is appended in
Annexure I. The traverses of Moon and suggested agricultural activities are provided in
the Annexure II. The compilation is based on the astronomical principles.
The lunar phases influence gravitational pull on moisture in soil, planting following moon is
also useful. Amount of moisture is highest in soil during the full moon period, and tests
have proven that seeds/ plant will absorb the most water at the time of full moon.
43
Weeding operation just one day before Poornima (Poornima was
upto 7:30 am on 2 July 2015) in Harrai block Chhindwara
Annexure - I
Suggested strategy based on crop cultivation activities for stable agriculture
Agriculture of modern era, crop production and transportation are major contributors of greenhouse gases. Dr. Rattan Lal, Professor of Soil Science at Ohio State University, has calculated that over the last 150 years, 476 billions of tonnes of carbon has been emitted from farmland soils due to inappropriate farming and grazing practices, compared with ‘only’ 270 Gt emitted from of burning of fossil fuels. A more frequently quoted figure is that 200 to 250 Gt of carbon have been lost from the biosphere as a whole in the last 300 years. Agriculture is directly responsible for 14 per cent of total greenhouse gas emissions, and broader rural land use decisions have an even larger impact (http://www.worldfuturecouncil.org/2326.html). The agriculture is also considered as one of
contributing factor to climate change. The traditional practices followed for crop cultivation in India were not effectively documented considering all the aspects of traditions and often communicated orally from generations to generations and that too in a very simple way considering the cosmic events. Sometimes these are hard to accept for the scientific communities. In the race of commercialization of agriculture and modern crop cultivation practices, the age-old traditional practices of crop cultivation gradually lost the significance. Thus, the documentation of adaptation measures based on traditional practices for crop cultivation is need of the hour. Globally, there is wide recognition that climate change adaptation should be integrated with national development to enable coherence and synergy with the sustainable development of a country (Adger, Agrawala et al. 2007, Huq and Ayers 2008, Butler, Suadnya et al. 2014). This is because climate change adaptation is connected to local cultural, environmental, political, economic and development contexts (UNFCCC 2006, Butler, Suadnya et al. 2014). The strategy for stable agriculture must include the efficient crop production practices
coupled with the no or minimum activities that adversely affect the climate. In India this
could be started through incorporating the good traditional practices prevailing for crop
cultivation.
Conservation or no- tillage in practice
Tillage is used to remove weeds,
shape the soil into rows for crop plants
and furrows for irrigation. This leads to
unfavorable effects, like soil
compaction; loss of organic matter;
degradation of soil aggregates; death
or disruption of soil microbes and other
organisms including mycorrhiza,
arthropods, and earthworms (Preston
Sullivan, 2004). The conservation or
no till improves water infiltration,
reduces soil erosion. The most
beneficial effect of no-tillage is
improvement in soil biological fertility,
44
making soils more resilient. During the present study, it is observes that the ploughing or
soil working in agricultural fields are not undertaken on Amawasya. The traditional
practice of not ploughing agricultural field on Amawasya could be considered as
adaptation strategy for maintaining soil moisture and enhancing biological activity
in agricultural field. This could be further investigated at the research stations and Krishi
Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) at State level so that a firm scientific base could be built based on
the traditional practices in addition to adaptation of modern technologies of crop
cultivation.
Selection of crop/ variety
The crop selection is an important factor for the success of crop cultivation. The traditional
farmers in the region fairly know and undertake adaptation measures to tackle the climate
variations. The farmers in Chhindwara revealed that they sow Gram instead of Wheat in
Rabi crop if the area receives less rains in the monsoon period. The implementation
of such knowledge needs to be inculcated and some robust techniques to judge the
climatic variations must be appreciated. Likewise change in crop from C3 to C4 plants as
in case of Soyabean to Maize in Kharif season would be a wise decision to withstand
adverse climate.
The crop variety selection is particularly important for the crop of Dicotyledon (legume)
and Monocotyledon (Poaceae). The crop of legume family has added advantage of fixing
atmospheric nitrogen in soil. The incorporation of legume crop either on alternate year or
with the crop of Poaceae would be an effective strategy for agricultural crop production in
addition to maintenance of soil fertility.
Seed sowing depth / seed germination
Sowing depth is the key management factor for uniform rapid germination, emergence
and establishment. The farmers in the study area revealed that owing to reduced bird
population in the area, the seed sowing depth has reduced. Seed sowing depth is
particularly important in varieties with short Coleoptiles. There is a need to bring scientific
orientation of farmers. The experiments
of determining the length of Coleoptile
for the crops of Poaceae i.e. Wheat
and Rice may be conducted at
agricultural farm level for optimum seed
germination and development of crop.
The thumb rule for determining the
seed sowing depth for the crop of
Poaceae would be the seed sowing
depth must be less than the Coleoptile
length. The farmers can determine the
length of Coleoptile and seed sowing
depth by their own through conducting
small scale experiments on agricultural
field. The adaptation of such strategy may induce the chances of excellent crop
establishment that withstand the adverse climate conditions. The seed emerged with
protected emerging shoot would withstand the strong winds. While the Dicotyledon
(broadleaves) crop the seeds must be planted approximately at a depth of 1.5 times the
45
size of the seed. In case of dryer regions where the soil moisture is low, plant seed at
depth of 2-2.5 times the size of seed.
Earth is in a large gravitational field, influenced by both the Sun and Moon. The tides are
highest at the time of the new and the full Moon, when Sun and Moon are lined up with
Earth. Moon pulls the tides in the oceans, it also pulls the subtle bodies of water, causing
moisture to rise in the earth, which encourages growth. Gravitational pull influences
moisture in soil, planting following moon is an idea as old as agriculture, based both in
folklore and superstition, but there are scientific ideas to back it up. Amount of moisture is
highest in soil during the full moon period, and tests have proven that seeds/ plant will
absorb the most water at the time of full moon. Considering lunar phase, if the seed
germinates in ideal moon influence would get sufficient water for accelerated vegetational
growth. It is recommended in most of the agriculture practice based on Lunar phases that
seed sown 48 hours prior to full moon may result in good germination.
Crop Management
The control of pest and diseases are of paramount importance for production of
agricultural crop. The combination of adaptation and mitigation options would be an
effective strategy for crop cultivation. Irrigation would be an effective mitigation option for
climate variations but the cost and amenities required to developing such facilities are
high and time tacking. Although, the area under irrigated agricultural field in India are
expanding fast. The irrigation in wheat is crucial and the research on irrigation at different
stages of crop growth is established. But the adaptation of a strategy with lunar phases
would result in proper utilization of irrigation water.
The uses of chemical fertilizers have increased in all the study sites. The crop cultivators
revealed that the infestation of weeds have increased manifold which, resulted in use of
weedicide with high doses. The use of organic fertilizers and organic means of controlling
pest and diseases have reduced substantially. There is a need to sensitize the farmers
regarding the residual effects of inorganic fertilizers and chemicals.
The farmers in Balaghat revealed that if the cultivation of rice taken-up through
transplanting of ropa than the ropa must be transplanted before the initiation of tillering
stage. The adaptation measures to plant the rice ropa before the initiation of tillering
would not only increase the rice production but also reduce the cost of cultivation
as the number of ropa required for covering per acreage of field would be less. Likewise
the tying of rice seedlings protects the crop against stem borer. This could be established
or otherwise by conducting experiments.
The control of pest and disease during the Krishna Paksha would result in effective pest
and disease control.
Crop harvesting
As discussed in above para the moon influences the sap in the plants, with the waxing
(Shukla Paksha) of the moon, the earth exhales. During the waxing moon, the sap in the
plants rise, the force first goes into the growth above ground. Thus, it is recommended to
46
undertake all activities with plants that bear fruit above ground during a waxing moon.
With the waning (Krishna Paksha) of the moon, the earth inhales and the sap primarily
goes down toward the roots. Thus, the waning moon is a good time for pruning,
multiplying, fertilizing, watering,
harvesting, controlling parasites
& weeds.
The suggested period of crop
harvesting would be during the
waning moon period. The
farmers may adopt a strategy
for seed sowing to harvesting in
such a way so the crop maturity
time would coincides with the
period of waning moon. The
adaptation of crop harvesting
period based on the moon
phases would not only produce
good quality seeds but the
harvested crop may be
prevented from the attack of
Ghun (weevil) as revealed by
the farmers in Saloos village of
Vidisha. The harvested crop traditionally mixed with Neam leaf and preserved in
constructed big earthen container locally named as Vindi. As discussed earlier the
earth/soil is bad conductor of heat. The grain containers made out of soil may be effective
option, than the other grain containers made-up of Tin or other metal, for heat
transformation and creating conditions for adversely affecting the climate. The strategy for
promoting making earthen containers for grain storage at household level should be
encouraged.
Vindi – Grain container in Saloos village of Vidisha
47
Annexure II
Table 5: Suggested crop cultivation activities in consonance with transit of Moon
from the Nakshatra
Activity Transit of Moon from the Nakshatra
Ploughing Rohini, Mrigashira, Punarvasu, Pushya, Magha, Purva Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra,
Swati, Vishakha, Anuradha, Mool, Dhanishta, Satabhisha, Uttara Bhadrapada,
Revati
Seed sowing Rohini, Mrigshira, Punarvasu, Magha, Uttara Phalguni, Chitra, Swati, Anuradha,
Uttara Shadha, Dhanishtha, Uttara Bhadrapada
Crop harvesting Bharni, Kritika, Mrigashira, Ardra, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva Phalguni,
Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Jyeshtha, Mool, Purva Ashadha, Shravan, Dhanishta
Storage Adra, Ashlesha, Jyeshtha, Ashwini, Chitra, Swati, Rohini
48
Annexure III
Limitations of the study
The research project fairly touched on the fundamental premise of crop cultivation
activities that formed the basis for evolving crop cultivation practices of present form. The
tools and techniques for crop cultivation may change with the advancement of technology
but the development of crop cultivation techniques and traditional practices would remain
sacrosanct. It seems that the erratic rainfall and temperature variations disturbed the
farmers confidence for undertaking the crop cultivation particularly from the last five years.
The traditional farming practices are sinking day by day, it is high time to restore the
confidence of the farmers and practice the age-old traditions for crop farming and blend
them with modern knowledge to not only make the cropping stable but also contribute in
reducing the climate change impacts. The traditional practices need to be tested in field
conditions to describe the best package of practice of crop cultivation.
The establishment of climate variability and climate change requires series of data
particularly the meteorological data. The meteorological data were sought from the India
Meteorology Department (IMD), Pune from the year 1974 to 2014. There were some data
gaps for some of the districts and raingauge stations of Madhya Pradesh. The analysis for
the districts were undertaken where the data supplied by the IMD were consistent.
49
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