PASSENGER CARS

Copyright© 2017 Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc. All rights reserved

1 Introduction　

Despite an economic downturn in some emerging countries due to drops in crude oil prices or poorer ex-change rates, the strong economic recovery in North America and Western Europe, as well as the increase pace of market expansion in China due to measures to stimulate demand, have resulted in an overall growth of the 2016 global automobile market compared to the pre-vious year. In North America, sales continued to decline in the passenger vehicle category, but exhibited strong growth in the light truck category, which includes SUVs. In terms of total demand, continued growth in Canada stood in contrast to a slowdown and leveling off of growth in the United States. In China, a significant rise in sales of Chinese brand vehicles spurred the growth of the market as a whole.In the 2016 Japanese automobile market, the effects of

the April 2015 increase of the mini-vehicle tax rate con-tinued to make itself felt with a decline in sales of mini-vehicles declined, but this was countered by higher sales of ordinary passenger cars stemming from the introduc-tion of new models, resulting in a very small overall mar-ket growth.

2 Production, Sales, and Exports　

2. 1. Production in Leading Manufacturing CountriesThe production of passenger cars by major countries

around the world was 72.11 million vehicles, an increase of 5.1% over the previous year. China, with a growth rate of 15.5% representing a major expansion of approximate-ly 3.3 million additional vehicles, led global production (Table 1). In contrast, production in Brazil shrunk by 11.9% over the previous year, representing a decrease of 240,000 vehicles. In North America, where the rise in de-mand is centered around the light truck category, which encompasses SUVs, the previous year’s drop in produc-tion in the passenger vehicle category remained pro-

nounced this year.The ranking of passenger vehicle production by manu-

facturer stayed the same as in 2015, with the Hyundai Group’s South Korean production, Toyota Motor Corpo-ration’s Japanese production, and the Volkswagen Group’s German production occupying the top three ranks (Table 2). They were followed by BMW’s German production, Daimler’s German Production and Mazda Motor Corpora-tion’s Japanese production, maintaining the same ranking as last year until Rank 6. The considerable expansion of GM’s American production, along with the Japanese pro-duction of Nissan Motor Company and Honda Motor Co., Ltd. growing to double-digit figures, were also notable, but were contrasted by considerable drops in the Japa-nese production of Suzuki Motor Corporation and Mit-subishi Motors.2. 2. State of Japanese Vehicle Production, Exports,

and Sales2. 2. 1. ProductionThe significant drop in demand caused by the mini-

PASSENGER CARS

Overall Trends

Table 1 Passenger car production in leading manufacturing countries.

2016 2015 Compared to previous year (%)

Japan 7 873 886 7 830 722 100.6U.S. 3 934 357 *4 162 808 94.5Canada 802 057 888 565 90.3EU 16 786 957 *16 324 423 102.8

GermanyUKFranceItalySpain

5 746 8081 722 6981 626 000713 1822 354 117

*5 708 1381 587 677*1 555 000 663 1392 218 980

100.7108.5104.6107.5106.1

South Korea 3 859 991 4 135 108 93.3China 24 420 744 *21 143 351 115.5India 42 008 *19 346 217.1Brazil 1 778 464 *2 017 639 88.1World total 72 105 435 68 604 137 105.1　Note 1 ) Preliminary figures announced by the International Orga-

nization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA)　Note 2 ) * denote revised values　Note 3 ) The 27 EU countries.　Note 4 ) The number of vehicles for the U.S. and Canada excludes

SUVs and other models considered trucks in those countries.


vehicle tax increase in April 2015 continued to affect pas-senger vehicle production in Japan throughout 2016, re-sulting in a major decline in production, which fell to 82.6% of the previous year (Table 3). At the same time, production of ordinary and compact cars expanded slightly, and at 7.87 million vehicles, the production and registration total for mini-vehicles essentially remained the same.2. 2. 2. ExportsThe key role played by the strong yen pushed the

number of passenger cars exported in 2016 up slightly to 4.12 million vehicles, representing103.7% of the figures for the previous year (Table 4). Higher exports to North America, Europe, and Asia̶primarily China̶were the main drivers of the overall increase. The strong demand for light trucks, including SUVs, in North America was accompanied by an increase in exports from Japan.2. 2. 3. SalesSales of passenger cars in Japan dropped slightly to

4.146 million vehicles, or 98.4% of the previous year (Ta-ble 5). Still affected by the tax increase, mini-vehicles sales continued to decline, falling to 89% of the previous year, and sales of compact cars also decreased somewhat, to 97.1% of the previous year. However, strong sales of new ordinary passenger car models launched in the lat-ter half of 2015 led to a growth of 110% compared to the previous year, resulting in only a small decline in overall sales.2. 2. 4. Used vehicle salesThe number of used vehicles sold in 2016 was virtually

Table 3 Passenger car production in Japan.


Ordinary carsCompact cars4-wheeled mini-vehicles

4 999 5661 610 4861 263 834

4 744 4711 555 5481 530 703

105.4103.582.6

Total 7 873 886 7 830 722 100 .6

　Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA)

Table 4 Number of passenger cars exported from Japan according to destination.


North AmericaEuropeOceaniaAsiaMiddle-EastCentral AmericaSouth AmericaAfricaOthers

1 868 638 803 978 346 978 434 897382 065135 83286 31757 4242 367

1 719 428 717 980 344 344 382 586504 159132 446104 37761 8982 785

108.7112.0100.8113.775.8102.682.792.885.0

Total 4 118 496 3 970 003 103.7


Table 5 Passenger car sales in Japan.


Ordinary carsCompact cars4-wheeled mini-vehicles

1 490 2161 311 2751 344 968

1 354 5411 349 9441 511 404

110.0 %97.1 %89.0 %

Total 4 146 459 4 215 889 98.4 %

　Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA)　The classification criteria of the sales statistics are based on the license plate number.

Table 2 Passenger car production according to manufacturer and country.

Ranking(Previous year) Manufacturers Country 2016 (Units) 2015 (Units) Compared to

previous year (%)

1（ 1 ）2（ 2 ）3（ 3 ）4（ 4 ）5（ 5）6（ 6）7（12）8（ 9 ）9（ 7 ）10（11）11（ 8 ）12（14）13（15）14（17）15（10）16（18）17（13）18（19）19（20）20（16）

Hyundai groupToyotaVW groupBMWDaimlerMazdaGMNissanPSAHondaVW SpainSubaruHonda AmericaToyotaFord GermanyFCASuzukiGM DaewooDaihatsuMitsubishi

South KoreaJapanGermanyGermanyGermanyJapanU.S.JapanFranceJapanSpainJapanU.S.U.S.GermanyItalyJapanSouth KoreaJapanJapan

2 891 0322 847 3672 325 4471 190 9351 066 249 967 510 864 779 835 058 829 419 820 226 745 863 727 741 686 378 676 970 670 376 657 995 580 389 569 394 562 323 555 018

3 183 4552 827 3492 327 5411 153 283 991 313 955 961 725 535 755 742 843 349 730 493 775 893 709 749 678 828 629 088 743 401 622 222 712 070 600 961 530 784 635 441

90.8100.799.9103.3107.6101.2119.2110.598.3112.396.1102.5101.1107.690.2105.781.594.7105.987.3

　Source: Automobile manufacturers association in each country and automaker public relations material


unchanged at 99.8% of the previous year, and has re-mained at the 5.6 million vehicle level since 2012 (Table 6). Matching the trend observed for new vehicles, sales of ordinary passenger cars rose by 3.6%, while those of compact cars and mini-vehicles dropped by 2.4% and 1.3%, respectively.2. 2. 5. Imported vehicle salesTotal sales of imported vehicles in 2016 rose to 104.6%

of the previous year, an increase of 328,000 vehicles (Ta-ble 7). Sales continued to rise for most of the top ranking importers, particularly Mercedes-Benz and BMW, but declined for Volkswagen and Audi, which is part of the Volkswagen Group. Swapping places with BMW and dropping to third place, Volkswagen fell in rank for the second consecutive year. In addition, Ford sales declined considerably compared to the previous year following the announcement that it would withdraw from the Japa-nese market.2. 3. Vehicle Sales in Markets outside JapanGlobal markets in 2016 were marked, among major

countries, by the stalled economic recovery in Brazil causing a continued decline in sales, which plummeted to 79% of the previous year (Table 8). In contrast, the tax rebate policy to stimulate sales in effect in China since October 2015 has proven effective, boosting sales to 115% of the previous year. European countries exhibited ex-panded sales across the board. In North America, sales in the passenger vehicle category, at 91 to 93% of the previous year, have continued to decrease, but significant growth in the light truck category, which includes SUVs, has brought sales to record levels in both countries for the combined passenger vehicle and light truck catego-

Table 8 Passenger car sales in leading manufacturing countries and share of Japanese vehicles.

Total passenger car sales 2016

Japanese vehicles within the total (share of Japanese vehicles)

Total passenger car sales 2015

Total passenger car salesCompared to previous year

JapanU.S.CanadaBrazilChinaIndiaEU+EFTA total　UK　Germany　France　Italy

4 146 4596 873 158 659 5251 676 71724 376 9022 966 63715 116 3442 692 7863 351 6072 015 1771 824 968

3 818 8523 108 314 286 458 334 9343 937 5351 741 2431 963 535 431 808 313 369 198 927 182 058

(92.1%）(45.2%）(43.4%）(20.0%）（16.2%）（58.7%）（13.0%）（16.0%）（9.3%）（9.9%）（10.0%）

4 215 889*7 516 826*711 6952 122 95621 146 3202 772 26914 182 5842 633 5033 206 0421 917 226*1 575 737

98%91%93%79%115%107%107%102%105%105%116%

　Source: Automobile manufacturers association in each country　Note 1 ) Japanese vehicles refer to all Japanese brand vehicles and include those produced outside Japan.　Note 2 ) The number of vehicles for the U.S. and Canada excludes SUVs and other models considered

trucks in those countries (Source: Ward’s).　Note 3 ) Calculated from the 26 countries in the EU and 3 countries in the European Free Trade

Association (EFTA: Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland) (source: European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association (ACEA)).

Table 7 Imported vehicle sales in Japan.

Ranking(Previous year) Manufacturers 2016

(Units)2015 (Units)

Compared to previous year

1（ 1 ）2（ 3 ）3（ 2 ）4（ 4）5（ 5）6（ 6）7（ 7）8（ 8）9（16）10（11）11（ 9 ）12（10）13（12）14（14）15（20）16（15）17（19）18（13）19（17）20（18）

Mercedes-BenzBMWVWAudiBMW MININissan (vehicles produced outside Japan)VolvoJeepSuzuki (vehicles produced outside Japan)PeugeotPorscheFiatRenaultMitsubishi (vehicles produced outside Japan)smartLand RoverJaguarFordCitroënABARTH

67 378 50 571 47 233 28 502 24 548 17 824 14 553 9 388 9 026 7 403 6 887 6 717 5 303 4 637 4 508 3 165 2 883 2 143 2 009 1 857

65 159 46 229 54 765 29 414 21 083 20 481 13 510 7 129 2 953 5 906 6 690 6 032 5 082 4 102 1 012 2 979 1 349 4 856 1 978 1 472

103.4 109.4 86.2 96.9 116.4 87.0 107.7 131.7 305.7 125.3 102.9 111.4 104.3 113.0 445.5 106.2 213.7 44.1 101.6 126.2

Total (including ranks 20 and below) 327 607 313 081 104.6


Table 6 Used vehicle sales in Japan. Ordinary cars

Compact cars

4 -wheeled mini-vehicles Total Proportion of

previous year (%)20062007200820092010201120122013201420152016

1 959 7391 810 5961 728 0901 619 3701 592 1101 542 6141 688 6061 666 7321 630 4211 668 4291 729 194

2 304 2262 105 1221 944 7661 855 0711 816 6961 733 5191 826 3351 740 7251 653 2141 602 7191 564 982

2 033 5692 022 8661 995 3331 864 8741 873 4661 906 5232 133 7252 255 5602 367 2352 354 0772 322 533

6 297 5345 938 5845 668 1895 339 3155 282 2725 182 6565 648 6665 663 0175 650 8705 625 2255 616 709

99.1%94.3%95.4%94.2%98.9%98.1%109.0%100.3%99.8%99.5%99.8%

　Sources: Japan Automobile Dealers Association (JADA) and the Japan Light Motor Vehicle and Motorcycle Association


ries. However, the U.S. market started leveling off in 2016.

3 Product Technology Trends　

The product technology trends observed in ordinary and compact cars, as well mini-vehicles, introduced in 2016 in Japan by Japanese manufactures have been sin-gled out and summarized (Tables 9 and 10). This summa-ry covers new models (including the adoption of new power trains or new vehicle body structures) and com-pletely redesigned vehicles.3. 1. Trends by CategoryIn 2016, 18 new ordinary and compact car models, as

well as 4 new mini-vehicle models, were launched in the Japanese market. These include original equipment man-ufacturing (OEM) models. Eleven new ordinary and com-pact car models, and four new mini-vehicle models, were introduced. Seven completely redesigned ordinary and compact car models were also introduced.Of the 18 new ordinary and compact car models, seven

were HEVs.The addition of electrification technologies continued

to advance, with Nissan adding EV variants of their ex-isting models and Toyota adding hybrid variants of their existing models. For its part, Honda brought a fuel cell vehicle in the market.3. 2. Fuel Efficient and Environmentally Friendly

TechnologiesAs CO2 regulations become stricter in various coun-

tries worldwide, manufacturers continued to pursue ad-vances in fuel efficient and environmentally friendly technologies in 2016. Fuel efficient and environmentally friendly technologies continue to attract growing public interest, and represent crucial technologies for automak-ers.The spread of electrification technologies and endeav-

ors to develop new energy power trains (fuel cells) re-main at the forefront of such technologies. A broad range of electrification technologies, including systems where the internal combustion engine (ICE) is used as a genera-tor acting as the power source for the motors, systems that also provide a motor mechanism that assists the

ICE, and mild hybrid systems that use the ICE as a pri-mary source of power in conjunction with mechanisms to support energy recovery, low-speed cruising, and en-gine starts, are being introduced in the market.The use of high compression ratio technology, CVTs,

and start-stop system mechanisms has also continued to spread. As safety and other systems become more exten-sive and standardized, models offering expanded interior space while reducing weight by 100 kg over the previ-ous generation have entered the market. Consumers want weight reduction technologies that do not sacrifice safety, fun, interior space, seat layout, or user friendli-ness, and such technologies remain a cornerstone of fuel efficiency improvement. Advances in fuel efficient and environmentally friendly technologies have allowed some models to meet the 2020 fuel efficiency standard.3. 3. Safety TechnologiesIn addition to the technologies that improve fuel effi-

ciency, advanced safety technologies have also been seen a steady growth in adoption.Since 2016, the evaluation of the performance of brak-

ing systems that mitigate pedestrian injuries has been added to the active safety evaluation in the Japan New Car Assessment Program (JNCAP). This has led to the introduction of models with higher active safety perfor-mance with respect to pedestrians. Progress was made in standardizing advanced safety systems in conjunction with refinements in safety performance such as the adaption of collision avoidance assist brakes to work at higher vehicle speeds.The technical field of pedestrian safety, in particular,

saw the introduction of technology to protect pedestri-ans, such as Subaru making pedestrian airbags standard equipment for the first time in Japan.The installation of control systems that suppress start-

offs to reduce accidents cause by pedal misapplication in automatic vehicles, a topic of growing public interest, has become more common.Mini-vehicles are incorporating even more advanced

safety technologies than ordinary and compact cars, and models featuring pedestrian injury mitigation brakes as standard equipment have become available.


Table 9 Product technology trends in passenger cars produced in Japan in 2016

Release date Vehicle model Manufacturers Major details

January 14 Delica D:2 Mitsubishi Full model changeReduces weight extensively while expanding cabin space. Equipped with a newly developed 1.2 -liter engine and mild hybrid system, providing both fuel efficiency and acceleration performance. All models have the latest e-Assist active safety technology as standard equipment.A new platform was developed, minimizing the engine compartment with an optimal layout for the new lightweight downsized 1.2 -liter engine. The wheelbase was also extended (30 mm longer than the previ-ous generation) to ensure occupant space.Weight has been reduced by 100 kg compared to the previous generation, and the adoption of a new highly efficient, lightweight downsized engine and a mild hybrid system achieves a fuel economy of 27.8 km/L (2 WD).

February 18 Ignis Suzuki New modelThis new genre of compact crossover is a fusion of sports utility vehicles (SUVs) and compact cars.The packaging offers a compact body size and higher eye point, and expanded road clearance gives driv-ing performance suited to snowy or rough roads.All models feature a mild hybrid system and the K12D Dual Jet engine. Fuel economy is 28.8 km/L (hybrid MG 2 WD).Safety systems include dual camera brake support, SRS curtain airbags, and front seat SRS side airbags.

March 9 Baleno Suzuki New modelTwo grades offered: one with a 1.0 -liter turbo engine, and one with a 1.2 -liter naturally aspirated engine. Fuel economy is 20.0 km/L for the 1.0 -liter turbo engine version, and 24.6 km/L for the 1.2 -liter natu-rally aspirated engine version.Newly developed lightweight, high rigidity platform.Adopts advanced safety systems that include a collision mitigation system, and a following function that maintains distance from the preceding vehicle by accelerating and decelerating automatically.

March 10 Clarity Fuel Cell

Honda New modelNew fuel cell vehicle, featuring high practicability and sophisticated appeal, aimed at popularizing FCVs. The fuel cell powertrain has been downsized and mounted under the hood, making it the first sedan FCV in the world with room for five adult passengers.The adoption of a 70 MPa high-pressure hydrogen fuel tank, a more high efficiency powertrain, and re-duction in the amount of energy required for driving all contributed to extending the driving range for a single refill (reference value) by some 30 %, to approximately 750 km.It can become a “drivable electric power source” and provide electrical power if used in conjunction with a portable external electric power supplier.Maximum motor output of 130 kW/4 ,501 ‒9 ,028 rpm, and maximum torque of 300 N•m/0 ‒3 ,500 rpm.

April 12 Boon Daihatsu Full model changeModel developed with the goal of raising the standards for compact cars as a whole by bringing the accumulated technology developed in mini-vehicles and the concept a product proposal matching user needs and closely tied to everyday life to compact cars.The combination of the 1.0 -liter 1KR-FE engine and a CVT achieves a fuel economy of 28.0 km/L (2WD). The compression ratio was raised to 12.5 from the previous 11.5.Adopts the Smart Assist II collision avoidance assist system.

April 12 Passo Toyota Full model change (OEM of Daihatsu Boon).All grades combine a 1.0 -liter engine with a CVT. Fuel economy is 28.0 km/L for the 2 WD grade, and 24.4 km/L for the 4 WD grade. Driving performance improved through features such as a lighter and stiffer body and strengthened chassis.Collision avoidance system (Smart Assist II), Collision warning function (vehicles and pedestrians), Colli-sion avoidance support braking function (vehicles), Erroneous start prevention function (forward, reverse), Preceding vehicle departure reporting function.

April 18 Auris Toyota Hybrid variant introduced.Equipped with 1.8 -liter engine hybrid system (THS II with a reduction gear). Cruising fuel economy of 30.4 km/L. Achieves the 2020 fuel efficiency standard +20 % threshold. 2005 emissions standard 75 % re-duction level.The engine and motor combination achieves both direct acceleration performance and superior quietness.

August 24 Serena Nissan Full model changeBased on the “big, easy and fun” concept, development was planned to provide enjoyable and comfort-able mobility to all people with features such as a large, convenient, and pleasant cabin.Adopts the ProPilot single-lane automated driving technology. On highways or other roads reserved for motorized vehicles, the system controls vehicle speed within the driver-set upper limit (approx. 30 to 100 km/h) to maintain a constant distance with the preceding vehicle, and provides support for driving in the middle of the lane.Fuel economy is 17.2 km/L.

September 16 Freed Honda Full model changeOffers versatile seating layouts adaptable to various uses anytime, anywhere, by anyone, based on a con-cept suggesting wonderful mobility seven days a week. Includes the Honda Sensing advanced driving safety support system. Provides optimum settings for carrying many people, and achieves excellent bal-ance between driving performance and fuel economy.Hybrid vehicles: Equipped with the Sport Hybrid Intelligent Dual Clutch Drive (i-DCD) system, consist-

ing of a 1.5 -liter gasoline and a 7 -speed dual clutch transmission (DCT) with a built-in motor. Fuel economy is 27.2 km/L.

Gasoline vehicles: 2.5 -liter direct injection DOHC i-VTEC engine and high efficiency CVT. Fuel economy is 19.0 km/L.


Table 9 Product technology trends in passenger cars produced in Japan in 2016 (cont.)


October 25 Impreza Subaru Full model changeAiming to offer customers security and delight, this model introduces the next-generation Subaru Global Platform and other new technologies. It improves overall safety performance as well as the dynamic and static feel. All versions include a pedestrian airbag and EyeSight (version 3 ) as standard equipment.In comes in the Sport (5 -door hatchback) and G4 (4 -door sedan) body types, and offers newly developed 2.0 -liter and 1.6 -liter direct injection naturally aspirated engines. Built according to the new “dynamic and solid” design philosophy.

November 2 Note e-Power Nissan EV grade added.Driven by the electric motor in the new e-Power powertrain using electricity generated by the mounted gasoline engine. Offers highly responsive acceleration fully powered by motor drive, and is also quiet. The engine stops during deceleration, and regenerative power generation charges the high voltage battery. External charging is unnecessary, and driving based only on gasoline refueling offers a fuel economy of 34 to 37.2 km/L. The Intelligent Around View Monitor (with a function to detect mobile objects) and Smart rearview mirror (with a function to display the images from the Intelligent Around View Monitor) are available as options.

November 9 Thor Daihatsu New modelCompact exterior dimensions provide maneuverability on par with a mini-vehicle while nevertheless offering a relaxed interior space. Offers seating arrangements and luggage space adaptable to a variety of situations. Broad range of accessories, including a rotary cup holder, a large assist grip (with child grip) for getting in and out, and a TFT color multi-information display.Equipped with the 1 KR-FE 1.0 -liter inline 3 -cylinder engine or the newly developed 1 KR-VET 1.0 -liter inline 3 -cylinder turbo engine, it features a high rigidity body and adopts the D suspension. Fuel economy is 24.6 km/L (1 KR-FE (2 WD)).

November 9 Tank/Roomy Toyota New model (OEM of Daihatsu Thor)Based on a concept dubbed “1 LD car”, which combines a spacious interior with flexible driving, the new type of tall 2 -box vehicle represented by these models are perfect for a broad variety of customer everyday needs, particularly families with children.

November 21 Justy Subaru New model (OEM of the Daihatsu Thor)Developed under a concept called “Big Pleasure Compact”, this compact car fully satisfies the wide-ranging everyday needs of customers.It has a small turning radius of 4.6 m and body dimensions keeping it within the 5 -series license plate category, while offering a spacious interior.A 1.0 -liter naturally aspirated engine and a newly developed 1.0 -liter turbocharged engine are available. A start-stop system is standard equipment for all grades, and fuel economy is 24.6 km/L.Safety-wise, the Smart Assist II system is standard equipment for all grades, and the newly developed body can withstand frontal offset impacts at 64 km/h. Other features include a structure that mitigates injuries to the heads or legs of pedestrians.

November 29 S o l i o / S o l i o Bandit

Suzuki Full model changeFeatures a compact system with motor assist and an EV mode. Offers both fuel economy and driving performance while remaining spacious. Combines a 1.2 -liter gasoline engine with a motor. Fuel economy is 32.0 km/L. Two hybrid systems: a mild hybrid system where a motor assists the engine during acceleration, and a hybrid system offering EV mode driving. The compact system improves fuel economy.In terms of safety technologies, the collision mitigation system uses a stereo camera. ASV++ rating in the 2016 JNCAP active safety performance assessment. Memory navigation system with omnidirectional monitor that shows images of the vehicle surroundings.

December 14 C-HR Toyota New modelSecond Toyota New Global Architecture (TNGA) model. Shares the platform of the Prius, the first TNGA vehicle, and pursues responsiveness, linearity, and consistency to realize the concept of “driving the way I want”.Original style based on a concept called “Sensual Speed-Cross”.The hybrid variant has a fuel economy of 30.2 km/L. Certified as achieving the 2020 fuel economy standards +20 % and the 2005 emissions standard 75 % reduction level. The 1.2 -liter turbocharged grade (regular gasoline) as a fuel economy of 15.4 km/L. Certified as achieving the 2015 fuel economy standards +5 % and the 2005 emissions standard 75 % reduction level.

December 20 Landy Suzuki New modelEquipped with features such as a 2.0 -liter inline 4 -cylinder engine, the simple hybrid system, a start-stop system. Fuel economy is 16.6 km/L (2 WD). Front wheel 2 WD and full time 4 WD grades are available. The transmission is a CVT.The sliding mechanisms for the second row, which is extra long, and the third row enable a versatile seating arrangement. Two ways of opening the back door.The emergency braking system that supports avoiding collisions with vehicles or pedestrians is standard equipment for all grades.The fuel economy of the 2 WD grade has been improved through measures such as extending the stop duration of the start-stop system, and the 4 WD grade has been newly equipped with the smart simple hybrid (S-Hybrid) system.

December 22 Roadster RF Mazda New modelAdopts a fastback style. The electric retractable roof is operated with the simple press of a switch, and a structure allowing efficient storage in the limited space available provides almost as much luggage space as in the soft top model.Uses the SKYACTIV-G 2.0 gasoline engine. An RS model even more focused on the joy of driving uses a longitudinally mounted exclusively tuned SKYACTIV-G 2.0 engine and offers exclusive seats and Brembo brakes as manufacturer options.

　All fuel economy values are JC08 test cycle fuel consumption rates (verified by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure Transport and Tourism)


References(1)　 JAMA: Monthly Statistics, http://www.jama.or.jp/

stats/m_report/(2)　 JAMA database, http://jamaserv.jama.or.jp/

newdb/index.html(3)　 JADS, http://www.jada.or.jp/contents/data/used/

index01.php

(4)　 Japan Light Motor Vehicle and Motorcycle Asso-ciation, http://www.zenkeijikyo.or.jp/statistics/index.html

(5)　 O ICA , h t t p : / /www . o i c a . n e t / c a t e g o r y / productionstatistics/

(6)　 Website of each company

The fusion of automobiles and IT technology became even more pronounced in 2016 also turned it into a year involving major changes in automobile design. At the same time, new approaches came to the fore as the vari-ous brands strove to express their business strategy through the power of design. This article seeks to offer an understanding of major trends by providing a sweep-ing view of the current context of automobile design.

1 Brand Expression　

Recently, efforts aimed at making brand characteris-tics stand out have further intensified. The BMW Group, in particular, is one of the brands garnering attention. Celebrating its 100th anniversary in 2016, the BMW brand has a long history and used exhibition models to

present its vision for the next 100 years of its three marques (BMW, Mini, and Rolls-Royce). Features such as automated driving and ride sharing send a strong brand message that builds on the tradition while looking to the future (Fig. 1).Mercedes-Benz has also successively presented the Vi-

Table 10 Product technology trends in mini-vehicles produced in Japan in 2016


August 31 Pixis Joy Toyota New model (OEM of Daihatsu Move Conte)Uses e:S technology to achieve a fuel economy of 30.0 km/L. All grades are eligible for the fuel-efficient car tax reduction.Equipped with the Smart Assist II collision avoidance assist system.

September 7 Move Canbus Daihatsu New modelFirst mini-vehicle equipped with the Adaptive Front-lighting System (AFS). Features the Panorama Monitor.Fuel economy is 28.6 km/L (2 WD grade), making it exempt under the fuel-efficient car tax reduction, and the 4 WD grade has a fuel economy of 27.4 km/L, making it eligible for that reduction.Adopts the Smart Assist II collision avoidance assist system.

September 26 Pixis Space Toyota New model (OEM of Daihatsu Cast)Features such as the 2 ,490 mm long wheelbase provide 2 ,000 mm of interior space. Offers both a higher and wider cabin providing ample interior space allowing four adults to relax and sufficient luggage space.Engine variants available are the 660 cc KF engine with DVVT and the 660 cc KF engine with an intercooler-equipped turbocharger. All variants pair the engine with an automatic continuously variable transmission (CVT).The 2 WD grades (X, Custom G) are equipped with the eco-IDLE start-stop system and have a fuel economy of 25.5 km/L (CO2 emissions: 91 g/km) in the 10 -15 Japanese test cycle.All grades with the KF engine (excluding the Custom RS) achieve the 2010 fuel economy standards + 25 %. Certified as achieving the 2005 emissions standard 75 % reduction level, and compliant with the 75 % tax reduction requirements for the vehicle acquisition and motor vehicle weight taxes.

December 13 Chiffon Subaru New model (OEM of Daihatsu Tanto)Features sliding doors on both sides, and a passenger door with a built-in B-pillar, called the “Miracle Open Door”. Achieves a wide door opening of 1 ,490 mm.The newly developed Smart Assist III is standard equipment on all grades. Safety has been further enhanced with the adoption of a stereo camera expanding the emergency braking operation to pedestrians and over a broader speed range, high beam assist, and other functions.Enhancements such as making the vehicle lighter and reducing aerodynamic drag through integrated molding of the rear gate and roof spoiler make all grades compliant with the 2020 fuel economy standards.

　 All fuel economy values are JC08 test cycle fuel consumption rates (verified by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure Transport and Tourism)

Fig. 1 BMW Group Vision Next 100

Design Trends


Fig. 2 Vision Mercedes-Maybach 6

sion Mercedes series of concept cars at international shows as a means of conveying the future of its brand. In 2016, it unveiled the Vision Mercedes-Maybach 6, a luxurious coupé (Fig. 2).The exterior offering elegant and classical front-engine,

rear-wheel drive proportions worthy of the pinnacle of Mercedes, combines with a futuristic interior that lever-ages IT technology to provide features such as display-ing information on the windshield, to make this a high appeal concept model (Fig. 3).

2 Fusion of Automobiles and IT　

One of the most significant events in Japan was the in-troduction of a Japanese-made vehicle featuring automat-ed driving technology.The launch of models such as the flagship Nissan Ser-

ena (Fig. 4) effectively made 2016 the first year of auto-mated driving popularization. Its strategic prices finally brings automated driving within the reach of the aver-

age consumer.As automated driving evolves, new issues concerning

the adaptation of automobiles to urban environments are becoming apparent. The IDS Concept model (Fig. 5) un-veiled by Nissan in 2015 proposed a method of communi-cation between automobiles and pedestrians based on textual information, and this field is expected to progress further through the application of non-verbal communica-tion and other forms of interaction that coordinate with design expression.For its part, Honda unveiled its NeuV concept model

for automated driving technology (Fig. 6) not at a motor show, but at the CES IT trade show held in the United States. More and more brands are adopting a similar ap-proach, which is symbolic of the accelerated pace of the fusion between automobile and information technology.

3 Environmental Technology and Design

Some manufacturers are striving to express the appli-cation of environmental technology as part of new de-signs. Exterior design, for instance, has used highly ener-gy-efficient LED technology in automobile lamps for a long time. More recently, numerous concepts that capi-

Fig. 3 Vision Mercedes-Maybach 6

Fig. 4 Nissan Serena

Fig. 5 Nissan IDS Concept

Fig. 6 Honda NeuV


talize on the high degree of shape flexibility of LEDs to realize both highly innovative designs and environmental (aerodynamic) performance, such as the BMW i8 (Fig. 7), are being put forth.The fourth-generation Toyota Prius further refines the

silhouette established by the second and third genera-tions, whose distinctive gently arched roof offers superior aerodynamics and packaging (Fig. 8). At the same time, the design is characterized by features such surfaces treated to help correct airflow set at body corners and various other locations that reflect the value placed on environmental performance permeating down to the fin-est detail (Fig. 9). This is also applied in the Prius PHV and Lexus LC launched in 2017 (Figs. 10 and 11).The Aston Martin DB11 (Fig. 12) directs air through

the bodywork from the C-pillar and out at the trailing edge of the trunk to improve aerodynamic characteris-tics without relying on supplementary aerodynamic parts such as spoilers (Fig. 13). This idea achieves both environmental performance and the elegant and clean-cut silhouette intended by the original design.

4 Premium Crossovers　

On a global scale, the crossover category features the most active introduction of products, and as in the previ-ous year, 2016 saw a succession of luxury model offerings by the premium brands.Bentley launched the Bentayga (Fig. 14) crossover

model which is essentially designed around a platform shared with the Q7 (Fig. 15) by Audi, a fellow member of

Fig. 12 Aston Martin DB11

Fig. 13 Aston Martin DB11

Fig. 8 Toyota Prius

Top of roof moved forwardLow roof rear end

Prius Previous Prius

Fig. 9 Toyota Prius

Fig. 10 Lexus LC

Fig. 11 Lexus LC

Fig. 7 BMW i8


Fig. 14 Bentley Bentayga

Fig. 15 Audi Q7

the Volkswagen Group. Each brand successfully uses its distinctive family traits and body language to skillfully express its uniqueness. The Maserati Levante is a cross-over embodying the luxury of high-end Italian sports car brands as well as a sporty worldview (Fig. 16).The world of crossovers, in particular, is demonstrat-

ing a propensity to bring out new models based on here-tofore unseen combinations. In 2015, Aston Martin un-veiled the DBX Concept, a crossover incorporating the features of a luxury coupé (Fig. 17). Range Rover added a new convertible model to its Evoque series (Fig. 18), creating value based on the new combination of convert-ibles and crossovers.

5 The Expanding Scope of Design

Expression　

Lexus exhibited at the Milano Design Week interna-tional design event for the tenth time. The art exhibits

blending the radical expression sought by the brand with the aesthetic sense of Japanese culture continues to convey the brand message through collaborations with artists around the world (Fig. 19).At Mazda, the Design Division is overseeing the archi-

tectural design of the dealerships, where customers and cars meet, and developing next-generation stores. This clearly reflects the aim of clearly promoting the brand worldview not only in the design of the vehicles them-selves, but also through a total design encompassing ele-ments such as the stores presenting the vehicles and ex-hibition booths (Figs. 20 and 21).

6 Japanese Car Design Highly Rated

Worldwide　

A succession of high ratings for Japanese car design on a global scale stood out in 2016. The Mazda Roadster (Fig. 22) and CX3, along with the Jaguar XE, were the fi-nalists for the World Car Design of the Year award an-

Fig. 16 Maserati Levante

Fig. 17 Aston Martin DBX Concept

Fig. 18 Range Rover Evoque Convertible

Fig. 19 Lexus Design Award 2017


Body Structures

nounced in March 2016, which was won by the Roadster.In addition, the Mazda RX-Vision (Fig. 23) was named

Most Beautiful Concept Car of the Year at the 31st Fes-tival Automobile International held in Paris, France.The Nissan Vmotion 2.0 (Fig. 24) received the Eyes on

Design Award at the North American International Auto Show is just one example of designs by Japanese brands drawing attention on par with that of European premium brands.

7 Conclusion　

Automobile design in 2016 stood out as the evolution of a means of mobility spurred by dramatic advances in information technologies such as automated driving or ride sharing. Although these trends may be prone to turning products into commodities, automobile design based on stimulating people’s delight in owning beautiful cars and controlling them as desired continues to be of-fered vigorously. Designs by Japanese brands are being increasingly well received on the international scene, and sustaining that momentum over time will be critical.

References(1)　 Website of each company

Fig. 22 Mazda Roadster

Fig. 23 Mazda RX-Vision

Fig. 24 Nissan Vmotion 2.0

1 Trends in Body Structures　

Regulations on CO2 emissions and fuel economy are becoming more stringent year after year in an effort to halt global warming not only in developed countries, but in emerging countries as well. In Europe, the CO2 emis-sions regulatory value, which was 130 g/km or less in 2015, is schedule to drop to 95 g/km in 2021 and around

70 g/km in 2025. The fuel economy regulatory value in the U.S., set to 35.5 miles/gallon (approx. 15.1 km/L) in 2016, will be raised by a factor of 1.5 to 54.5 miles/gallon (approx. 23.2 km/L) by 2025. The Chinese fuel economy target value of 6.9 L/100 km (14.5 km/L) in 2015 will in-crease to 5.0 L/100 km (20.0 km/L) by 2020.This situation is prompting successive launches of

new, mainly hybrid, models relying on electric power

Fig. 20 Kanto Mazda Takatanobaba store

Fig. 21 Kanto Mazda Takatanobaba store


such as the Honda Odyssey and NSX, the Nissan Note e-Power, and the Toyota C-HR. This trend toward electrifi -cation is picking pace worldwide. However, electrifi cation in addition to increasing vehicle weight due to the mounting of power units, the strengthening of the body frame to protect electrical devices such as batteries is also a factor in weight increase.Furthermore, on the safety front, the Tenth Funda-

mental Traffi c Safety Program issued by the Cabinet Of-fi ce in March 2016(1) set the target of reducing the num-ber of fatalities to less than 2,500 by 2020 (there were 3904 in 2016), forcing automakers to step up their eff orts in that respect. Using existing technologies, measures against collisions are expected to increase the weight of vehicle bodies with a comparatively high contribution to passive safety performance.Also, with SUV sales expanding worldwide, including

in emerging countries, weight increases particular to SUVs cannot be ignored.Avoiding the negative impact of such weight increases

on fuel economy makes reducing the weight of the vehi-cle body a challenge that can only be met in a limited way in bodies using current steel sheets. Consequently, the use of multi-material bodies seeking to achieve fur-ther weight reduction is gaining momentum.This article review the 2016 trends in body structure

technologies with a focus on balancing body performance (including crashworthiness) and weight reduction.

2 Technological Trends Concerning

Performance Requirements　

2. 1. Stability and ControllabilityGoing beyond allowing the driver to feel the joy of

controlling the vehicle as desired, stability and controlla-bility performance is also crucial to off ering safe and worry-free driving. In contrast, there is a need to under-score the fun of driving automobiles to counter the grow-ing tendency of young people in Japan to steer away from buying cars. Conscious of these factors, automakers are engaging in carmaking focused on stability and con-trollability performance, as well as power performance.For the Subaru Impreza launched in October 2016,

body deformation measurements taken with a strain gauge every 1/1000 second were paired with subjective evaluations to secure both higher and continuous rigidity causing no driver discomfort and achieve a dynamic feel(2).

2. 2. Noise , Vibrat ion and Harshness (NVH) Performance

Expectations placed on NVH performance keep rising, and in addition to off ering a higher level of quietness in the rear seats as well as in the front, a high level of qual-ity is insisted upon.In vehicle bodies, creatively engineering the frame and

panel shapes, rather than allocating cost or mass to con-trol vibration, has become the mainstream approach to eliminating pronounced vibration peaks. Sound absorbing and insulating materials, whose play a supplementary role, and then updated to incorporate the latest advances and effi ciently set in the dash and fl oor panels, as well as the pillars, in accordance with the intended purpose.The NVH performance of vehicle bodies is expected to

change as electrifi cation becomes more prevalent.2. 3. Safety performanceWith respect to passive safety performance, measures

such as the revising of impact modes are being taken in various countries to strengthen passive safety assess-ments and reduce the number of fatalities.The growing number of electric-powered vehicles are

in no way exempt from these tougher assessments, and the Nissan Note e-Power provides an example of effi cient adaptation achieved by making minimal structural modi-fi cations to the body of the gasoline engine base vehicle(3). The Honda FCV relies on an effi cient energy-absorbing structure where the front side frame, fl oor frame and rear subframe are connected in a straight line to protect the battery and hydrogen tank (Fig. 1)(4).Such ingenious adaptations of body structures to new

vehicle specifi cations such as those of electric-powered vehicles will become increasingly necessary.

Fig. 1 Honda FCV(4)


3 Technological Trends to Mitigate

Weight Increase and Satisfy

Performance　

3. 1. Steel SheetsAlthough multi-material bodies have been adopted in

some models, steel sheets are currently the primary ma-terial constituting the vehicle body.Formability improvements and tailored manufacturing

methods carried out with steelmaker involvement have led to a steady increase in the use ratio of ultra high ten-sile strength steel sheets made thinner for the purpose of reducing the weight of the vehicle body. Known ex-amples of the adoption of ultra high tensile strength ma-terials include the 1,180 MPa class cold rolled steel sheets primarily used to improve performance against impacts, the die quenched 1,500 MPa class material used in the B-pillar and other structural members, and the 1,800 MPa class material used in the front bumper beam.The front pillars of the Honda NSX use a 1,500 MPa

ultra high tensile pipe made with three-dimensional hot bending and direct quench (3DQ) technology to reduce weight while achieving high rigidity, superior space effi -ciency, and passive safety(4).3. 2. AluminumFirst used in the top tier models of European premium

car lineups, the use of aluminum in vehicle bodies has been fi ltering down to the middle tier of those lineups. In Japan, it can be seen in premium cars such as the Lexus LC and the Honda NSX.The NSX raises its ratio of aluminum use through alu-

minum extrusions in the main frame members, a space frame structure with aluminum cast parts at the joints between members, and even aluminum panels in some of the outer panels. It also features the fi rst automotive in-dustry use of ablation casting technology, which provides higher ductility and strength mechanical properties than the current gravity casting process, and is used for the front and rear suspension housings(4).3. 3. Composite MaterialsDue to its mechanical properties of being light weight

and strong, CFRP, a composite material consisting of plastic and carbon fi ber, off ers signifi cant weight reduc-tion potential. Consequently, it is increasingly used in ve-hicle bodies, particularly in BMW, Audi, and other Euro-pean vehicles. In Japan, it was initially used as panel material for roofs and other parts in limited production

vehicles, and following its use in the limited production Lexus LFA, it started seeing use in low-volume produc-tion in 2016 with the NSX (Fig. 2). Advances in the de-velopment of the material itself and in manufacturing process technologies have been alleviating the issues of high cost and low productivity involved in the adoption of CFRP, and its application is expected to expand fur-ther, and encompass popular cars, in the coming years.Similarly, the Honda FCV is the fi rst vehicle in the

world to adopt a lightweight, high-strength rear bumper beam that uses GFRP, a composite material consisting of plastic and glass fi ber, which off ers enhanced moldability achieved through hybrid molding that layers non-contin-uous and continuous glass fi ber(4).3. 4. JoiningWhile the spot welding generally used for vehicle bod-

ies consisting of steel sheets is a single-point joining pro-cess, the application of laser welding or continuous weld-ing principles involving the concurrent use of adhesives is becoming more common.At the same time, multi-material structures using

lighter materials in suitable locations to reduce vehicle body weight are seeing greater adoption. Multi-material structures have prompted advances in joining technolo-gies used to bond dissimilar materials such as steel sheets, aluminum, plastics, or CFRP. These include the use of adhesives in addition to mechanical fastening us-ing self-piercing rivets (SPR) or fl ow drill screws (FDS).Multi-material structures are likely to become more

prevalent and simultaneously incorporate new materials, and new joining technologies adapted to those materials will undoubtedly be required.

Fig. 2 Honda NSX(4)

Carbon fiber roof

Carbon fiber floor

Pressed aluminum

Heat resistance

High accuracy, high strength

Lightweight, high rigidity



Lightweight, high rigidity, surface quality

Hydroformed aluminum sheet panelLightweight sheet molding compound panel

Sheet molding compound

High-temperature resistant plastic

Integrated inner panel with aggressive design


Fig. 3 Toyota TNGA(5)

4 Platform Unifi cation　

Development effi ciency must be increased and costs reduced even further to adapt to the market conditions changes mentioned in the introduction and respond to the needs of the market on issues such as safety. In that respect, manufacturers are unifying their platforms in preparation for the future, and cross-segment commoni-zation and standardization is also being applied to vehicle body structures.Starting with the Prius unveiled in December 2015,

Toyota has been gradually adopting the Toyota New Global Architecture (TNGA) (Fig. 3) for its models. The TNGA body frame mainly consists of a new annular structure and a strong new joining structure, increased and optimized welding positions, and the setting of struc-tural adhesives(5).Subaru introduced the Subaru Global Platform (Fig. 4)

with the Impreza announced in October 2016, and is gradually applying it to its other models. As a next-gen-eration platform setting the course until 2025, it is adapt-ed to upcoming electrifi cation, and features such as the optimized frame structure and stronger joining of parts enhance the sense of dynamism and increase safety per-formance(6).This concept of platform unifi cation was adopted by

Mazda with the SKYACTIV-Body (Fig. 5) fi rst seen in the CX-5 announced in 2011(7), by Nissan with the Com-

mon Module Family (CMF) (Fig. 6) fi rst used in the Rogue, Qashqai, and X-Trail unveiled in 2013(9), and by Suzuki with the HEARTECT, which debuted in the Alto announced in December 2014(10).Similarly, non-Japanese manufacturers are also apply-

ing the principle of unifi cation, as seen in the Volkswa-gen Group Modularer Querbaukasten (MQB)platform(11), the Volvo Scalable Product Architecture (SPA)(12), and the PSA Group Effi cient Modular Platform 2 (EMP2)(13).

References(1)　 Cabinet Offi ce, http://www8.cao.go.jp/koutu/kihon/

keikaku10/ (2016)(2)　 MotorFan extra issue, new modeSUBARU IM-

PREZA, p.46, San-eishobo Publishing (2016)(3)　 MotorFan extra issue, new model NISSAN Note e-

Fig. 4 Subaru Global Platform(6)

Fig. 5 Mazda SKYACTIV-Body(7)

Fig. 6 Nissan CMF(8)

Fig. 7 Suzuki HEARTECT(10)


POWER, p.43, San-eishobo Publishing (2016)(4)　HONDA Motor, http://www.honda.co.jp/(5)　TOYOTA Motor, http://www.toyota.co.jp/(6)　SUBARU, https://www.subaru.co.jp/(7)　MAZDA Motor, http://www.mazda.co.jp/(8)　Response website, https://response.jp/

(9)　NISSAN Motor, http://www.nissan-global.com/(10)　SUZUKI Motor，http://www.suzuki.co.jp/(11)　Volkswagen, http://www.volkswagen.co.jp/(12)　Volvo, https://www.media.volvocars.com/(13)　PSA Group, https://www.groupe-psa.com/

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