Options to Improve Indonesia’s Inclusive Education CurriculumKorotkov, Kim and Yarrow, Noah

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This report was prepared by: Kim Korotkov and Noah Yarrow.

Financial support for this report was provided by the Government of Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade through the Australia-World Bank Indonesia Partnership (ABIP). The team thanks the Australian Government for their generous support. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.

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The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for non-commercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given.

All queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org.

Contact Information

The authors can be contacted at nyarrow@worldbank.org.

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Options to Improve Indonesia’s Inclusive Education Curriculum

The global vision for an evolving model of inclusive

education is one that ensures inclusive and equitable

access for all learners regardless of ability, identity, or

background. Since the release of the UN Convention

on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Article 24),

147 countries have signed and 97 have ratified the

convention (CRPD) including Indonesia in March 2007.

In 2015, the United Nations general assembly adopted

a series of seventeen sustainable goals to be realized

by 2030. The 2030 agenda is “disability-inclusive

and highlights the need to empower persons with

disabilities.” (WB, 2018). Key to its success is the fourth

sustainable goal to ensure quality education, more

specifically, it is to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality

education and promote lifelong learning opportunities

for all” (United Nations, 2015).

The 2008 United Nations Convention for the Rights of

Persons with Disabilities (CPRD Article 24) states clearly

that all children have the right to quality education that

supports the “development of their personality, talents

and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential”.

Many years after the 1994 Salamanca Agreement and

the Framework of Action was adopted by UNESCO, the

international community is being asked again to commit

to equitable and inclusive education, in time for the UN‘s

2030 sustainable development goals (SDGs) (AuCoin,

Porter, Baker-Korotkov, 2020). While progress has been

made in many countries, the journey towards inclusive

education is far from complete. A renewed interest

and sense of urgency around the 2030 SDGs is taking

place, requiring countries to step-forward, strengthen

and intensity their efforts to meet their obligations to the

Convention.

In its support of the Salamanca Agreement and the

CRPD, the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture

has defined inclusive education as, “an approach to

meet the educational and learning needs of all children,

Options to Improve Indonesia’s Inclusive Education Curriculum

The purpose of this policy note (PN) is to provide initial support and information to the Ministry

of Education of Indonesia in their quest for an improved national curriculum with respect

to inclusion of all learners. The hope is that by sharing experience and evidence from other

countries, Indonesia may with greater confidence more rapidly select the most promising

approaches for their current political and social context. This work is supported by DFAT under

the ABIP Trust Fund.1 This PN does not include a review of Indonesia’s Inclusive Education

policies and legislation. A detailed review of that work can be found in the 2021 Policy Note,

Embracing Diversity and Inclusion in Indonesian Schools – Challenge and Policy Options for

the Future of Inclusive Education (World Bank, 2021). The World Bank is committed to ensuring

that all WB-Financed education programs and projects are disability-inclusive by 2025.

Introduction1.0

Korotkov, Kim and Yarrow, Noah.

01

focused specifically on those who are vulnerable,

marginalized and neglected, (including children with

special needs).” (MoEC, 2019). The Master Plan for the

Development of National Inclusive Education 2019-2024

provides a roadmap for realizing and improving inclusive

education in Indonesia. It is comprised of three stages

of activities: preliminary, implementation and final stage,

designed to provide guidelines for local, provincial,

and national implementation. The recognition that an

inclusive education system is to be flexible and that

the existing system must adapt to child (MoEC, 2019)

instead of expecting the child to adapt to an inflexible

system is worthy of noting and is to be commended.

The commitment of the Indonesian government towards

inclusion is to be acknowledged and celebrated,

however, such a change requires sustained effort

and engagement to meet multiple challenges and

opportunities. In its 2021 review of Indonesia’s inclusive

education policies and regulations, the World Bank

found that while Indonesia has made considerable

progress in establishing a solid policy framework,

implementation remains a challenge due to a range

of issues (WB, 2021). The goal of implementation

within five years was ambitious prior to the onset of

the recent global pandemic and despite a sense of

urgency to provide for a focus on learning recovery

and accelerated learning for all learners, it may need

to be amended.The Master Plan identifies seven

essential foundations that provide support to inclusive

education. Inclusive education embraces all children,

is child-centered, respects and accepts differences

and diversity, is accessible, included teachers working

in teams, involves parents, and curriculum, learning

methods, and assessments are personalized to the

needs of the child (MoEC, 2019).

While progress has been made in many areas of

inclusive education and ensuring that all learners

meet their full potential, there are still gaps that exist

between research and practice (Hata et al., 2021; Afkar

et al., 2020; Béteille et al.,2020; Hosshan et al., 2020),

including educator support for inclusive education,

access and equity, quality of teaching and learning,

and curriculum design and delivery. In operationalizing

the plan for inclusive education, consideration should

be given to the development and implementation of

inclusive curricula. This is an area that provides an

opportunity for Indonesia take the lead and to build on,

both as a country and as an international leader.

This paper outlines the guiding principles, benefits, and

indicators of an effective inclusive education system

with an emphasis on inclusive pedagogy, curricula

and supports, making the case for the why and how of

inclusive education.

2.0 Guiding Principles for Inclusive Education

Ensures learning for all

Respects basic civil, legal, and human rights

Is delivered in an accessible environment

where all students and staff feel safe,

welcome, and valued

Removes barriers to presence, participation,

and learning, and provides reasonable

accommodations

Is not a one-size fits all model, but is flexible

and responsive to learner needs

While the international body of research on inclusive

education continues to grow and the global

community moves closer to a common definition and

understanding, implementation is highly variable

according to local contexts. One of the most significant

shifts in recent years has been to conceptualize inclusive

education not just from a one-dimensional approach, that

of a special education and disability lens, but to one that

is focused on strengthening whole education systems to

support all learners. As we work to strengthen inclusion,

we strengthen our schools (Porter & AuCoin, 2012).

There are guiding principles interwoven throughout

legislation, policies and frameworks which inform our

conception that inclusive education:

•

•

•

•

•

02

All children benefit from inclusive education. As

classrooms become more diverse, it is important to

recognize the benefit of inclusive education for all

learners, those who are neurodiverse, those who

are marginalized and those who are not. Factors that

impact access and equitable inclusive education are

numerous, but include ability, gender, poverty, and lack

of universal access. Inclusive education allows schools

to develop and foster a shared commitment to a culture

of respect and belonging, that is representative of their

growing communities. Learners in inclusive classrooms

are less prejudicial and more accepting of their peers

(Hehir, Grindal, Freeman, Lamoreau, Borquaye & Burke,

2016). Appreciation for the strengths, skills, passion, and

knowledge that all learners bring to the classroom helps

set the stage for an accepting and inclusive community

and future workforce.

The positive impacts of inclusive education include

social, academic, community and economic benefits.

There is clear evidence that inclusive education can

provide significant benefits for students with and

without disabilities (Hehir, Grindal, Freeman, Lamoreau,

Borquaye & Burke, 2016). Student with disabilities in

inclusive classrooms outperform similar students in

non-inclusive settings and can be twice as likely as

their non-included peers to enroll in postsecondary

education (Baer, Daviso, Flexer, Queen, Meindl, (2011).

Inclusion can support the social and emotional learning

and development (SEL) needs of all learners. There is

greater peer acceptance and friendships established,

more likelihood of joining a school group/club,

acceptance, understanding and tolerance of individual

differences occurring in inclusive classrooms. (Kart &

Kart, 2021) These areas are likely of importance to the

Indonesian curriculum revision process, which includes

specific character development-related goals.

While it has been mostly accepted that inclusive

education can benefit learners with disabilities, there

have been concerns raised about the impact on the

learning and achievement on non-disabled learners.

Drawing on a series of 26 studies in the United States,

Australia, Canada and Ireland, researchers concluded

that inclusive education was associated mainly with

positive or neutral effects for neurotypical learners, and

they were not adversely affected (Kart & Kart, 2021;

Hehir et al., 2016; Kalambouka et al., 2007). Similar

findings were found by Hehir et al. (2016) who reviewed

over 200 studies in 25 countries, for example, in a

district in Boston, inclusive schools demonstrated that a

school could be inclusive and high performing. Several

high schools with an inclusive model performed higher

than the city and or state average on Language Arts

and Math assessments. In a recent review of inclusive

education in Southeast Asian countries, it was noted that

while inclusion is not yet fully embedded in education

systems, governments have expressed commitment and

progress is underway in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,

Singapore and Thailand (Hosshan et al., 2020).

In New Brunswick, Canada, teachers reported an

increase in student achievement and engagement in

high school math scores after participating in action

research on Universal Design for Learning within

inclusive classrooms. They also reported teachers were

better equipped to teach multiple ability levels and to

use multiple strategies (Beamish, Brown, King, Power,

2015). Research across six Indiana school districts

indicated students without disabilities educated in

inclusive settings demonstrated greater academic

progress in mathematics and reading (Cole, Waldron,

& Maid, 2004), and across the largest school district

in Toronto, Canada included learners outperform their

peers in special or segregated schools (Parekh, Brown,

& Zhengu, 2018).

Students who have been included are more likely to be

attend postsecondary education, and to be employed

or living independently (Hehir, Grindal, Freeman,

Lamoreau, Borquaye & Burke, 2016.) Previously

marginalized students have higher rates of attendance,

are less likely to have behavioral problems, and are

more likely to complete secondary school than students

who have not been included. This continued impact

is then felt within workplaces who reap the economic

benefit of an engaged and prepared workforce. As this

body of research continues to grow, the belief is that in

being part of an inclusive education environment, skills

like, “leadership, critical thinking, problem-solving and

cross-cultural awareness will continue to develop and

grow.

Ensuring Learning for All: Impacts of Inclusive Education

3.0

03

Operationalizing inclusive education requires

establishing school-based indicators that can be

adapted to the local context and a school improvement

framework for continuous monitoring. To avoid system

and change fatigue, priorities are determined to allow

for a stepped approach and a greater chance of

success and sustainability. While this report outlines

several overarching indicators of inclusive education, it

would not appropriate to develop and prescribe local

indicators without the request and involvement of the

Indonesian government; this process at the minimum

would require a co-constructive approach.

The field of inclusive education is quite broad, and

while there is still work to be done, countries have

made progress toward making their education systems

more inclusive. Countries such as India and Hungary

have begun to take steps to review and revise

textbooks to remove gender stereotypes and develop

awareness of gender equity (UNESCO Global Education

Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 1, 39). Lesotho and Rwanda

have made progress in providing professional training

for pre-service and in-service teachers and school

leaders (World Bank, 2022; UNICEF, 2021). Several

South Asian countries have embedded disability

inclusion in their strategic education plans, including

Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal (Grimes et al., 2021). Over the

last decade, Indonesia has made progress on gender

and education resulting in the accessibility of education

to disadvantaged children, improved literacy rates,

school enrollment and employment (World Bank, 2020).

More recently, in March 2022, the OECD released its

report on the review of inclusive education in Portugal,

highlighting successes and challenges, four years

after that country enacted a decree law on inclusive

education. Despite progress being made, challenges

remain in ensuring that countries action their

commitment and that work continues to be ongoing.

An inclusive approach to the development of and

implementation of curricula requires inclusive

content, textbooks and resources, and instruction

and assessment practices that reflect the needs of

all learners. It is through curriculum that the principles

of inclusion are put into action (IBE, 2008, p.22). The

complexity and diversity of classrooms and students

in the 21st century places high demands on the

classroom teacher to provide effective and inclusive

educational programming and instruction (Baker-

Korotkov, 2020), and teacher success in meeting

these increasing demands requires support. Inclusion

requires more than just placement in the classroom

with ones’ age-appropriate peers. Educational

policies and government commitments alone cannot

guarantee the successful inclusion of students in

general education classrooms, (Mitchell, 2014) unless

they are actioned and embedded into the prescribed

curricula and instruction with appropriate resources

and supports. In developing inclusive teaching,

teachers must be aware of how they teach (pedagogy),

what they teach (curriculum) and how they will monitor

learning (assessment) for all learners (Brussino, 2021).

Responding to Learner Needs: Development and Implementation of Inclusive Curricula

4.0

Consider all learners in content and

methodology, and values their rich diversity,

previous knowledge, and experiences

Are flexible while maintaining high

standards with appropriate resources and

supports, including materials, training,

technology, personnel

Are accessible and remove or eliminate

barriers to participation and learning

Incorporate formative assessment

1

2

3

4

4.1 Elements of Inclusive Curricula

We define inclusive curricula as those that:

04

4.2 Consider all learners

Learners are more engaged and learn best when they

feel connected and see themselves and their context

represented in curricula, including content, textbooks,

materials, and resources. Examples include avoiding

gender-based misrepresentation or stereotypes in

resources and materials, acknowledging and including

history of groups who were previously excluded (for

example persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples),

and being culturally responsive to respect learners’

culture and prior experiences. It is respectful of student

and staff diversity in terms of race, color, religion,

national origin, age, disability, marital status, real or

perceived sexual orientation and/or gender identity,

sex, social condition, or political belief or activity.

During the development phase, a curriculum framework

based on principles of inclusive education can support

writers and advisory teams throughout the process. In

2016, the Kenyan Institute for Curriculum developed

a similar framework to support all learners (UNESCO

Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020, p. 115). The

Indonesian national curriculum has been updated many

times over the last sixty years, with 2024 set as the next

review date, taking into account a period of learning

recovery due to the global pandemic. In the recent

UNESCO and UNICEF collaborative report, analyzing

the effects and responses to COVID-19 in Indonesia,

the MoEC has a clear vision for the future of their

education system, one that includes “prioritising local

values, building competency and children’s character

development and inclusion, and using learning

materials designed and based on local wisdom” (2021).

Moving forward with an inclusive curriculum will help

all learners feel that their voices are represented and

an increased sense of belonging (Baker-Korotkov,

2020; Mukmimin et al., 2019). An understanding that

all students can learn and are valued is central to the

pedagogical approach to inclusive teaching (Brussino,

2021).

4.3 Flexibility and high standards with appropriate resources and supports

The communication of high standards and expectations

in curricula is key to ensure learners are prepared to

meet their goals and outcomes and to be successful,

while allowing for flexibility. The use of rubrics and

checklists, with clear observable indicators help

students know what is expected of them to focus

their efforts and help teachers create and support

inclusive learning environments. Flexibility can refer

to teaching practices, prioritizing curricular outcomes,

and allowing for levels of adjustment to meet learner

needs. Curricular adjustment or modifications allow

for curricular outcomes to be altered, deleted, or even

added to address a learner’s specific needs, while still

maintaining the integrity and intent of the curriculum.

The learner can participate using adapted materials and,

in some cases, modified expectations. New Zealand,

Portugal, Canada, Australia, and the United States

of America are just a few examples of countries who

allow curriculum adaptation to occur at the local level.

Processes developed at the Ministry or district levels

provide guidelines for school-based teams to make and

support these decisions locally.

4.4 Removing barriers to access and learning

Curriculum accessibility is a varied concept. For some

students it can refer to accessing the physical learning

environment and for others it can include the strategies,

technologies or accommodations/adaptations that

allow a learner to participate in the curriculum without

changing the curricular content. The intent is to remove

barriers while allowing students access to learning

while they master and demonstrate their knowledge

of the same instructional content and outcomes as

their peers. Examples include Braille, large print, extra

time, assistive technologies, and reduced assignments.

Effective curriculum reform to equip students with the

knowledge, skills and competencies for the future will

require flexible and adaptable teaching and learning

materials and strategies and teacher training to be

successful (Grimes et al., 2021; OECD, 2020).

In the past decade there has been increased focus

on the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework.

UDL uses a series of guidelines and principles to

remove barriers to learning while building in flexibility

from the beginning. The guidelines of engagement,

representation and action and expression aim to

improve accessibility and participation for all learners to

meet curricular outcomes (Nelson, 2014). UDL allows

teachers to be responsive to the needs of students, and

can be applied to curriculum design, assessment, and

pedagogy (OECD, 2020).

05

4.5 Formative Assessment

The goal of formative assessment is to monitor student

learning to provide ongoing feedback so that teachers

can adjust their instruction to be responsive and support

the learning process, (Connell, 2020; Finnegan, Miller,

Randolph & Bielskus-Barone; Davies, Herbst & Reynolds,

2012) and students can develop insights into their own

learning and progress. Formative assessment does

not replace summative assessment, which evaluates

progress at the end of a unit/term, e.g., final project,

assignment, midterm, or final exam. To support inclusive

curricula, formative assessment should be seen as

assessment for learning, a checkpoint to gauge student

learning, e.g., journals, checklists, quizzes, in-class

discussion questions, classroom activities, homework.

Inclusive education is not a one-size fits all approach.

Teachers can use formative assessment to support the

successful inclusion of all learners and use multiple and

varied method to assess for feedback and opportunities

(UNESCO Global Education Monitoring Report, 2020,

p 130). In every classroom, there is variability among

learners and formative assessment can help teachers be

responsive to learner needs and determine if students

require additional support or additional challenge to

meet outcomes.

Supporting effective inclusive education requires

building on principles and inclusive curricula.

Second only to classroom instruction, educational

leadership and administrator support is the driving

force behind inclusive education and change (Fullan,

2014.) In inclusive schools, leaders are engaged, help

create a sense of belonging, facilitate relationships

among staff and establish a safe environment (Sands,

Kozleski & French, 2000, p. 128). Effective leaders are

also proficient in both instructional leadership and

organizational leadership. Evidence from studies in

Indonesia, Bangladesh and India show the importance

of effective leaders and their involvement in school

improvement, teacher job satisfaction and improving

student learning (Béteille, Tognatta, Riboud, Nomura,

& Yashodhan, 2020, p. 169-171); Hasan, Monypenny &

Prideaux (2012).

Effective leadership and especially effective inclusive

school leadership cannot be realized by one individual.

It is most effective when carried out by a small group

of educators, with the principal as the promoter and

the cohesive force (Korotkov-Baker, 2020; Fullan, 2014;

Dufour & Marzano, 2009; Hattie, 2009; Marzano, 2003).

Moving to a more distributive and interactive model of

leadership will see greater transformation (Anderson,

2008). This will require trained and committed teachers

and leaders and require communities of support and

practice. Leadership support via core leadership teams,

professional learning communities (PLCs), student

support teams are also crucial, but do not replace

strong leadership in the school administrator, they are

complementary, not supplementary.

As countries continue to make progress towards

inclusive education, a system for effective

implementation must be in place. Communication and

accountability are key, especially in making to shift

from a one-dimensional focused direction to one that

embraces inclusion for ALL learners. Without a clear

process for oversight and monitoring, the gap between

policy and implementation will widen and intent will not

be realised (Hata et al., 2021; Baker-Korotkov, 2020).

The involvement and voice of local stakeholders,

including community, advocacy, families and especially

the learners themselves provide a necessary connection

to develop and implement conditions for success.

Supporting effective inclusion cannot happen without

comprehensive and ongoing professional learning for

civil-servant teachers, contractual teachers and all those

working in the classroom. From the Ministry level to the

local schools, across pre-service and in-service groups,

there is a responsibility to equip educators with the

information, tools, and strategies to be successful so

that in turn our learners can be successful. The train the

teacher model in Vietnam is an example of collaborating

with universities to ensure pre-service and in-service

teachers have the knowledge and skills needed in an

inclusive learning environment (WB, 2021).

5.0 Supporting Effective Inclusive Education

06

6.1 Inclusive education is a journey

The path towards inclusive education should be seen as a

journey, one that will take time and will continue to evolve.

There are lessons to be learned from those further along the

path and those that are just beginning. The small Canadian

province of New Brunswick has had inclusive education

legislation since 1986, while Portugal enacted a legal

framework for inclusive education in 2018. Both are recognized

internationally as best practice examples of inclusive education.

It is up to each jurisdiction to define and implement inclusive

education within their own context, building on the successes

in other places. As countries begin or continue to move

forward, it is important to meet schools and communities where

they are, just as we would with our students. A country such as

Indonesia with the fourth largest education system in the world

will face challenges in ensuring consistent quality improvement

across all schools. At the same time, they have a tremendous

opportunity to focus on the cultural, social, and economic

benefits of inclusion, making a systemic shift and positioning

the country as a global leader in inclusive education.

Conclusion 6.0

6.2 Intentional and purposeful approach

Implementing and maintaining a focus of inclusive

education for ALL requires an intentional and

purposeful approach, one that builds on successes

and embraces challenges. The world is now seeing

the impact of the global pandemic on schools,

communities, and economies. They have faced

tremendous loss and the effect on access to universal

and inclusive education will be felt for years to come.

As the deadline for the UN’s 2030 sustainable

development goals initiative fast approaches,

there is a sense of urgency to action and build

a sustainable and better future for all.

Recognizing learning as a major driver for socio-

economic growth is key to building that future.

Creating inclusive and equitable quality education

will provide the foundation to ensure all learners are

able to participate in lifelong opportunities for success.

These changes in instructional practice, student

engagement, teaching materials and education

philosophy require both time and financial resources.

The precise costs depend on the scope of the changes

envisioned, targets being set, the time frame and the

scale of the education system. In Indonesia, successful

implementation of a more inclusive curriculum is

expected to involve expenditures at the central level

(for example textbook design, support materials for

teachers and school administrators, trainings for school

administrators and teachers) as well as at the regional

and district level (workshops to address regional or

school-specific challenges, coaching and school visits to

provide ongoing encouragement and technical support).

''''

Creating inclusive and equitable quality education will provide the foundation to ensure all learners are able to participate in lifelong opportunities for success.

07

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