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PERCEIVED VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND PURCHASE BEHAVIOURS:
MOTHERS' CONSUMPTION OF EDUCATIONAL TOYS
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of Graduate Studies
Of
The University of Guelph
By
LINDSAY HOLLAND
In partial fulfillment of requirements
For the degree of
Masters of Science
April, 2008
© Lindsay Holland, 2008
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ABSTRACT
PERCEIVED VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND PURCHASE BEHAVIOURS: MOTHERS' CONSUMPTION OF EDUCATIONAL TOYS
Lindsay Holland Advisor: University of Guelph, 2008 Dr. May Aung
This thesis focuses on the perceived values, attitudes, and purchase behaviours of
mothers regarding the consumption of educational toys for their pre-school aged (0-5
years) children. This study was guided by the model of the theory of reasoned action
(Azjen and Fishbein's, 1980). As the term 'educational toys' may have multiple
meanings for different people, phase one sought to investigate the definitions of
'educational toys'. Phase one involved visiting toy stores, analyzing toy catalogues, and
interviewing child care professionals. The second phase of this research consisted of in-
depth interviews using a version of the photo-elicitation technique identified by Heisley
and Levy (1991). Respondents for phase two were stay-at-home mothers and mothers
who enrolled their child(ren) at the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning
Centre. Results from this study indicate that the mothers' definitions were more similar
to those of the child care professionals and of niche marketers. Regarding subjective
norms, the majority of the mothers from both groups cited their 'friends'. Lastly,
differences found between the two groups of mothers included budgeting for toys as well
as reasons for purchasing toys. Finally, conceptual and managerial contributions were
offered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to than my committee, family and friends for
their support and dedication to my thesis.
My advisor Dr. May Aung was a constant source of guidance and support
throughout the process of completing this thesis. Thank you for your compassion and
dedication. Special thanks to Dr. Kathy Brophy for all the guidance and expertise in the
field of child development. Also, to Dr. Anne Wilcock who provided honest and detailed
feedback throughout the process. Thank you for helping to make sure that what I was
writing actually made sense. I would also like to thank the Department of Marketing and
Consumer Studies as a whole. My time at the University of Guelph has been an
enjoyable and of course, educational experience.
To my family and friends, thank you for your love and support during some very
trying times. Gloria, Joe, Perry & Susan please know how much I have appreciated the
words of encouragement, the shoulders to cry on, and the nagging that kept me going.
Finally I would like to thank the Ontario Early Years Centre and the University of
Guelph Childcare and Learning Centre for being so accommodating during my research.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 2 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 3 1.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 3 1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 4 1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS 5
1.5.1 Educational 5 1.5.2 Educational Toys 6
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TOYS 7 2.2 THEORIES OF PLAY AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 9
2.2.1 The Practice for Adulthood Theory of Play 9 2.2.2 The Cognitive-Developmental Theories 10 2.2.3 The Contextual Theory of Play 10 2.2.4 Summary 11
2.3 TOYS FOR PLAY 12 2.4 RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL TOYS 13 2.5 UNDERTANDING PARENTAL BELIEFS 17 2.6 RESEARCH STUDIES ON PARENTAL BELIEFS 18 2.7 THEORIES LINKING BELIEFS TO ACTIONS 19
2.7.1 Research Linking Parental Beliefs To Parental Actions 20
2.8 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: THE THEORY OF REASONED ACTION 23
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 29 3.1 PHASE ONE 29
3.1.1 Participant Observation 29 3.1.2 Content Analysis 30 3.1.3 In-depth Interviews 31
3.2 PHASE TWO 31 3.2.1 Pre-test 32 3.2.2 Profile of Informants 33 3.2.3 Justification for Group Selection 34 3.2.4 Place of Recruitment 35 3.2.5 The Role of the Researcher 36 3.2.6 Ethics 36 3.2.7 Data Analysis 36
3.3 CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 37 3.3.1 Credibility 37 3.3.2 Transferability 37
n
Page 3.3.3 Dependability 38 3.3.4 Confirmability 38
3.4 ASSUMPTIONS 38
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 40 4.1 DEFINING'EDUCATIONAL TOYS' 40
4.1.1 Market Definition of Educational Toys 41 4.1.1.1 Mass Market Definition of Educational Toys 41 4.1.1.2 Niche Market Definition of Educational Toys 44
4.1.2 Child Care Professionals Definition of Educational Toys 46 4.1.3 Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre Definition
of Educational Toys 49 4.1.4 Stay-at-Home Mothers Definition of Educational Toys 51
4.2 GUIDING FRAMEWORK 54 4.3 SUBJECTIVE NORMS 56
4.3.1 Subjective Norms of Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre 56 4.3.2 Subjective Norms of Stay-at-Home Mothers 60
4.4 OTHER INFORMATION SOURCES 62 4.4.1 Other Information Sources of the Mothers with
Children in Child Care Centre 63 4.4.2 Other Information Sources of the Stay-at-Home Mothers 67
4.5 CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOUR 71 4.5.1 Types of Toys Purchased 71
4.5.1.1 Types of Toys Purchased by Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre 72 4.5.1.2 Types of Toys Purchased by Stay-at-Home Mothers 73
4.5.2 Purchase Frequency of Toys 74 4.5.2.1 Purchase Frequency of Toys for Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre 75 4.5.2.2 Purchase Frequency of Toys for Stay-at-Home Mothers 75
4.5.3 Budget for Toys 76 4.5.3.1 Budget for Toys of Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre 76 4.5.3.2 Budget for Toys of Stay-at-Home Mothers 77
4.5.4 Reason for Purchasing Toys 78 4.5.4.1 Reasons for Purchasing Toys for Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre 79 4.5.4.2 Reasons for Purchasing Toys for Stay-at-Home Mothers 82
4.5.5. Summary of Consumption Behaviour 86
iii
Page CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 88
5.1 OVERALL UNDERSTANDING 88 5.2 COMPARATIVE FINDINGS OF BOTH GROUPS OF MOTHERS 90
5.2.1 Comparative Findings of the Subjective Norms of Both Groups of Mothers 91 5.2.2 Comparative Findings of the Other Information Sources of Both Groups of Mothers 93 5.2.3 Comparative Findings of the Consumption Behaviour of Both Groups of Mothers 94
CHAPTER 6 : CONTRIBUTIONS & FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS 97
6.1 CONTRIBUTIONS 97 6.1.1 Conceptual Contributions 97 6.1.2 Managerial Contributions 102
6.2 LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY 105 6.3 FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS 107
REFERENCES 110
APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Toy Store Layouts 117 APPENDIX B: Toy Store Comparative Observation Notes 119 APPENDIX C: In-depth Interview Demographic Profiles 120 APPENDIX D: Recruitment Flyer - University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre 121 APPENDIX E: In-depth Interview Consent Form 122 APPENDIX F: Toy Catalogue Comparative Notes 125 APPENDIX G: Comparative Notes on Mothers' Pictures 127 APPENDIX H: Interview Guide - Child Care Professionals 128 APPENDIX I: Interview Guide - Mothers 129 APPENDIX J: Example Interview Transcript 132
IV
LIST OF TABLES
Number Topic Page Table I. Subjective Norms Referenced by Child Care Mothers 57 Table II. Subjective Norms Referenced by Stay-at-home Mothers 60 Table III. Other Information Sources Referenced by Child Care Mothers 64 Table IV. Other Information Sources Referenced by Stay-at-home Mothers 68 Table V. Reason for Purchasing Toys for Child Care Mothers 80 Table VI. Reason for Purchasing Toys for Stay-at-home Mothers 83
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Number Topic Page Figure I. The Theory of Reasoned Action, (Azjen and Fishbein, 1980) 24 Figure II. The Theory of Reasoned Action (Azjen and Fishbein, 1980)
As a Guiding Framework for Research in the Context of Educational Toy Consumption 55
Figure III. A Revised Model of the Theory of Reasoned Action (Azjen and Fishbein, 1980) Regarding Educational Toy Consumption 99
VI
1. INTRODUCTION
A child's cognitive development in the first few years of life is rapid. In fact, the
first six years of life are an essential time for parents to provide their children with the
best environment to foster their cognitive development. In a child's first years of life,
his/her brain forms the connections that lead to lifetime learning, behaviour and
wellbeing (Ontario Early Years Centers, 2004). An, 'early years study,' conducted for
the Ontario government reported that, "there is disturbing evidence that children who do
not receive the nutrition and stimulation necessary for good development in the earliest
months and years of life may have great difficulty overcoming deficits later," (McCain &
Mustard, 1999, p. 6).
Parents are responsible for providing the right environment for their children to
grow and develop. Therefore, it can be challenging for parents to choose appropriate toys
and create learning experiences for their child(ren). One article in Today's Parent
magazine (2003), entitled 'Mind Games', details one parent's trouble:
"One sales rep told me that a particular product would provide a sensory experience for my child, that it would be a source of tactile, emotional and kinesthetic learning, would increase his physical output, help his math and number skills and would be fun at the same time. It was a ball, a red rubber ball." (MacQuarrie, 2003, np)
An important issue not addressed to date is, "how parents are supposed to know what
constitutes a high quality, educational product," (Garrison & Christakis, 2005, p. 6).
Educational toys are not a new concept in North America. In fact, as early as the
1920s educators joined with toy retailers to develop toys suitable for each developmental
stage of the child (Cross, 1998). However, in the more or less stagnant toy industry, the
Canadian educational toy sector actually reached USD $500 million in 1999, a real
1
growth rate of 13.1% from the previous year (Latka, 2006). Why have the sales of
educational toys boomed in recent years? According to an Ipsos-Reid Poll conducted for
LeapFrog Canada (2004), 74% of Canadian mothers are apprehensive in regards to the
ability of their child(ren) to compete in the global marketplace and 92% of mothers
agreed that today they are more apt to select educational toys or activities for their
children. One study by Ellen Seiter (1992) looked at the toy market and parental beliefs
focusing on educational toys. In fact, her analysis was based on differences between
mass marketed toys such as those which can be found at Toys R' Us and what she calls
'quality' toys which are sold in upscale independent retail stores. She concludes that the
difference between mass marketed or 'promotional' toys and niche marketed or 'quality'
toys is mostly aesthetic and tends is linked to the 'taste codes' of different classes rather
than observable differences in the creativity of the child during play (Seiter, 1992). To
date there has been very limited research conducted specifically on the role of
educational toys for children or on how parental beliefs drive purchase intentions and use
of educational toys. It is for this reason that this study focuses on the consumption
context of educational toys.
1.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This thesis seeks to discover mothers' beliefs, perceptions, and behaviours with
regard to educational toys for their pre-school aged children. This study focuses on
mothers as the primary care givers of children.
2
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This research starts with the question 'how do people define educational toys?'.
The next stage is to discover what motivates mothers to purchase educational toys for
their pre-school aged (0-5 years) child(ren).
The following are the research questions addressed in this thesis:
1. Where do mothers get information regarding educational toys for their pre-school
aged child(ren)?
2. What sources of information do mothers consider important when making
consumption decisions about educational toys?
3. How and why do mothers choose educational toys for their pre-school aged
child(ren)?
4. What financial constraints do mothers consider when purchasing educational
toys?
5. What types of educational toys do mothers purchase for their pre-school aged
children?
1.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
In consumer behaviour literature, the model of the theory of reasoned action
(Azjen and Fishbein, 1980) is often used to study beliefs and actions. In this model,
behavioral intent is caused by attitudes and subjective norms. Although often simplified
to attitudes, intentions, and behaviour, an attitude is actually composed of six main
factors: salient beliefs, outcome evaluation, belief strength, normative beliefs, salient
3
referents, and motivation to comply. This model is used to guide this research on parental
beliefs and actions related to children's educational toys.
1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODLOGY
This study uses two main qualitative research methods: participant observations
and in-depth interviews.
The objective of phase one is to define 'educational toys' through the perspectives
of toy manufacturers and childcare professionals as follows:
1. Participant observation of toys in stores, analyzing toy catalogues, and
2. Interviewing child care professionals.
Phase two involves conducting in-depth interviews with mothers using the photo-
elicitation technique identified by Heisley and Levy (1991). For this phase, mothers were
provided with disposable cameras prior to their interview. They were asked to take
pictures of their pre-school aged children playing with different toys in their home. No
instruction was provided to the mothers who had multiple children that the pictures were
to include only one child. This was because the pictures were to be representative of
natural play situations, which often included situations in which siblings are sharing toys.
Cameras provided to them included the cost of processing. They were asked to develop
the film and bring the pictures with them to the interview. Pictures that included
educational toys were used during the interview process. More specifically, mothers
were first asked what they believed an educational toy was. They were then instructed to
choose one picture in which their child was playing with what they believed to be an
educational toy. This picture was used for part of the interview process. In a few cases,
4
participants were unable to choose a picture and the interviewer helped participants to
choose one suitable for the interview process. The purpose of each interview was to
discover mothers' beliefs, perceptions, and behaviours with regard to educational toys for
their child(ren). The scope of this phase of the research was limited to mothers who are
primary care givers of their pre-school aged (0-5 years) children. Two groups of mothers
were included in the study. One group included mothers who used the University of
Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre and the other group included stay-at-home
mothers.
1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following definitions were initially adopted for this study.
1.5.1 Educational
The term 'educational' is defined as 'serving to educate' (The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language, 2000), which is a broad definition yet one which is
closely linked to what marketers are using to advertise their new toys. The problem is
how parents decide what is and is not educational. From The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language (2000), educational is defined as "of or relating to
education" or "serving to educate". The same source defines 'educate' as 1. "to develop
the innate capacities of, especially by schooling or instruction", 2. "to provide with
knowledge or training in a particular area or for a particular purpose", 3a. "to provide
with information; inform", 3b. "to bring to an understanding or acceptance", or 4. "to
stimulate or develop the mental or moral growth of, or 5. "to develop or refine" (The
5
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). One Maclean article
defines education simply as teaching facts and figures (Ferguson, 2004). Thus, the
definition of educational is often subject to personal interpretation.
1.5.2 Educational Toys
When the term 'educational toys' is used, generally it includes those toys that are
marketed to parents and educators as educational, and those toys that are designed to
educate children. It includes toys, according to the National Network for Child Care, that
can help to develop one or more of the following areas: physical or muscle development,
sensory (touch, sight, sound, taste, smell) development, make-believe and social
development, and creative and intellectual development (Lagoni et al., 1989). A report by
the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) described educational toys as
"toys provided for children's play with the goal of cognitive gain" (CPSC, 2002, p.249).
6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter consists of two sections. The first section starts with a brief history
of toys. Next is an introduction to the theories of children's play and development. This
leads into a review of the use of toys in children's play. Next is a review of past research
on children's use of toys for educational purposes. The second section of this chapter
focuses on parents. This section outlines how parental beliefs are organized and delves
into research studies on parental beliefs. The third section of this chapter moves on to
theories that link beliefs to actions and reviews the literature linking parental beliefs and
actions.
2.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TOYS
Toys are central to children's play, and they have been around for centuries.
Before toys were mass-produced, children used sticks and stones, along with other
objects found in nature, as toys. The first documented toy was an ancestor of chess and
was played in 6000 B.C. (Skakel, 2006). Obviously, the most basic function for a child's
toy is to provide pleasure to the child. However, there are different types of toys that
serve different purposes for children. The concept of educational toys is roughly three
hundred years old (Ogata, 2004).
There are two notable figures in the history of the educational toy: Friedrich
Froebel and Maria Montessori. Friedrich Froebel, of German descent, was born in 1782
and is credited with the development of the kindergarten. Froebel's original idea,
however, was a real garden in which young children could develop their true potential.
7
Froebel also developed toys for children, which he called his 'gifts'. These toys, inspired
by the form and shape of crystals, were developed in order to help children learn about
things in the world around them. Although Froebel died in 1852, his teachings live on
today in the Froebel Education Center, which continues to employ Froebel's gifts which
are used with all age groups and are made with sticks, beads, balls, tablets, blocks, and
rings (The Froebel Foundation, 2005a & 2005b).
Another notable educator who developed toys for educational purposes was Maria
Montessori. Born in 1870 in Italy, Maria Montessori is credited with the development of
teaching toys and other manipulative learning materials. Several educational toys,
currently used at preschool and elementary schools such as stacking toys and dressing
frame dolls, are copies of Montessori's original ideas (Seldin, 2003). Although a
controversial figure, Montessori was known as a major advocate for early childhood
education. Dr. Montessori specialized in pediatrics and psychiatry, and taught some
other famous names in child developmental psychology, including Jean Piaget.
By the 20th century, "the toy retailers joined with educators to promote the
purchase of toys designed for each developmental stage of the child. Whenever the child
reached the next stage, toys should be given, they insisted. Playthings should no longer
be considered just, 'a class of destructive seasonal holiday merchandise,' but rather as a
regular part of a 'healthy' child's growing up" (Cross, 1998, p. 10). This heightened
focus on toys increased further during the post World War II baby boom in the U.S.,
which inspired a nationwide debate about child rearing, motivated sharp public
discussion over education, and created unparalleled expenditure on children (Ogata,
2004).
8
2.2 THEORIES OF PLAY AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT
It is no secret that play is of vital importance to a child's development. In fact,
"opportunities for a child to learn by solving problems through play drive the
development of multiple sensing pathways in the brain" (McCain & Mustard, 1999, p. 6).
Hughes (1999) proposed that for play to occur, five important elements are required:
1) play must be intrinsically motivated, the child must do it for the sake of doing it,
2) play must be freely chosen by the child,
3) play must be pleasurable,
4) play must be non-literal, meaning that it involves some element of make believe,
and
5) the child must be actively engaged by his/her play
There are many theories of play (Groos 1901, Sutton-Smith 1967, Vygotsky 1962,
Bruner 1972) that have evolved to answer questions about the nature of children's play.
These theories all view play from different points of view. For example, there are
theories that view play from an individual context where it is a type of practice that
children do to make themselves ready to participate in the adult world. Other theories see
play as a cognitive developmental tool for children, yet still in an individual context.
Another theory views play as contextual in nature. In fact, it says that play is a social
context rather than an individual one.
2.2.1 The Practice for Adulthood Theory of Play (K. Groos, 1901)
This biogenetic theory of play proposes that children play in order to develop the
skills and knowledge that are necessary for functioning, as they become adults (K. Groos,
9
1901). Groos suggests that play is the body's normal way of practicing for later life. In
nature, this can be seen with other creatures; when a kitten plays with a ball of string, one
can see that it is preparing for the task of stalking its prey. Many of the types of play that
children exhibit are viewed as preparing for later life, especially when they play pretend
and practice adult roles (e.g. playing house).
2.2.2 The Cognitive-Developmental Theories
These theories argue that play facilitates general cognitive development and that
the purpose of play is to bring out learning which has already occurred while
simultaneously allowing for new learning in a more relaxed atmosphere. Bruner (1972)
and Sutton-Smith (1967) both argue that play provides a relaxed atmosphere in which
children learn through problem solving. Piaget (1962), who wrote extensively on this
topic, maintains that living organisms are required to be adaptive to the environment, via
both assimilation and accommodation. Furthermore, he argues that play for a child is
mainly assimilation. This means that, according to Piaget, when children play they are
integrating new intellectual matter into their existing cognitive structures without altering
the actual cognitive structures themselves. Changes in play behaviour for Piaget are a
result of changes in cognitive development.
2.2.3 The Contextual Theory of Play (Vygotsky, 1962)
This theory stresses intellectual development through reconstructing some reality
devoid of the situational restraints (Vygotsky, 1962). Vygotsky (1962) argues that there
are two interacting lines of development: the natural line developing from within and the
10
social-historical line developing from without. He argues that from birth to two years of
age, children rely heavily on the natural line but, after two years of age, children rely on
the social-historical line of development, which is where children's play is important. To
better understand children's play, Vygotsky's belief about what he calls the zone of
proximal development is an important factor to consider. The zone of proximal
development relies on the notion that a child will perform differently in one social setting
than in another. For example, Vygotsky wrote that a child doing a task alone may
perform more poorly than if given some adult direction or if working on the same task
with a group of peers. The difference between the two levels of performance, for
example, the one achieved alone and the one achieved with peers or with direction from
an adult, is what Vygotsky refers to as the zone of proximal development. Therefore, it is
his belief that we must study a child in many different social settings. Thus, play for
Vygotsky was necessary for cognitive development to occur, in particular within a social
/cultural context.
2.2.4 Summary
It is clear from the theories reviewed that play is essential to facilitate
development in children. Children progress through the stages of cognitive development
at their own pace. The child's environment plays a vital role in supporting the child's
development. A child has a "natural drive to discover through play" (Auerbach, 2004,
p.2). Play provides necessary experiences to support and enrich a child's development.
11
2.3 TOYS FOR PLAY
Dr. Toy, a leading expert on children's use of toys for play and author of several
books, argues that "the toys a child plays with can unlock the door to learning, and each
new experience helps to turn the key" (Auerbach, 2004, p.l). In her book, Smart Play
Smart Toys: How to raise a child with a high PQ, Auerbach describes how babies,
toddlers and young children learn and how to select the right toys for children to achieve
what she calls a high 'play quotient'. Auerbach describes 'Play Quotient', as a critical
factor that affects how children attain the most of their "physical, creative, and
intellectual potentials" (Auerbach, 2004, p.5). In her book, Auerbach offers the solution
to a very common parental problem associated with toys today: finding the right ones.
Auerbach sums up the challenge of parents selecting the right toys for their children as
follows:
"These days, going into any toy store can be overwhelming. So many shelves are filled with choices in every category! There are so many varieties today that any single store has great difficulty stocking all of them. The store's buyer has to discriminate and make careful selections. So do you" (Auerbach, 2004, p. 14).
The types of toys that parents select influences how their child(ren) play and to what
extent their child reaches his/her learning potential. Guided play can help a child to
sharpen thinking, and heighten sensitivity (Auerbach, 2004).
Children use toys during play in a multitude of ways. Even though children are
learning about the world around them all the time, some toys are better than others in
helping children to learn specific skills. For example, by manipulating toys such as shape
sorters and puzzles, children learn more about colours, shapes, sizes and weights.
Children learn mathematics and reading concepts as well as balance and sorting from
12
blocks. Blocks also help children to learn to be flexible and creative by fitting the blocks
together in different ways to create different structures. Children develop artistic
creativity using craft supplies and creative computer software programs. Computer
games can help a child to develop his/her sense of competition. Puppets are a good way
for children to develop communication skills (Aurebach, 2004). Although this list can go
on, it is clear that a variety of toys can help to teach children many different types of
skills and that there is no simple rule of thumb when selecting the right toys for a child.
2.4 RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL TOYS
The majority of research on children's use of toys has focused on issues such as
children with physical and mental disabilities, cross-cultural studies, and gender role
socialization through toys (DiCarlo & Reid, 2004, Finley & Layne, 1971, and Blakemore
& Centers, 2005). An example of a study of children's use of toys in a non-educational
setting is Henderson and Moore's research (1980) on children's responses and levels of
curiosity in regards to a novel object in the presence of differing adult behaviors. It was
not surprising that they found that the high curiosity group of children explored the novel
object more than the lower curiosity group of children. There was no difference for
common toys (Henderson & Moore, 1980). Although these are important areas of study,
they do not capture how toys are used in an educational setting. The following are the
few studies that investigate children's use of toys in an educational environment.
An interesting historical article titled "They Rule by Sympathy: The Feminization
of Pedagogy" (Dehli, 1994), looked at how the growth of public kindergartens in
Toronto, Ontario changed the lives of women teachers in regard to the female 'nature'
13
and 'maternal love'. Although educational toys were not the focus of the article, it noted
that marketing educational toys as being associated with primary schools and primary
education was vital to the expansion of pedagogy to the act of mothering (Dehli, 1994).
The article credits the increased marketing of educational toys in this era with the
importance placed on educational play in the home, a pressure for parents that persists
today.
The perseverance of the issues regarding educational toys has created a unique
demand on mothers today. "The turbulent social conflict over what counts as good-
enough mothering and the greedy institutions of work leaves many women trapped in
what Joan Williams called the gender system of domesticity" (Pugh, 2005, p.729). After
reviewing toy marketing in 11 catalogues for the 2000-2001 holiday season, Pugh
concludes that "catalogues presented toys as solutions that would allow mothers to be
good mothers without having to physically be there, even as the advertising copy evoked
images of companionship and togetherness" (Pugh, 2005, p.729). The evolution of
educational toys has led to more interactive technology that allows mothers to use the toy
as a babysitter. For example, the LittleTouch LeapPad reads stories to children for
parents.
The educational toy market also consists of different varieties of educational
media. Although this is sometimes located in the media section of toy stores, it is part of
today's debate over educational toys. One research report investigated the educational
media available today for babies, toddlers and preschoolers. A report for The Henry J.
Kaiser Family Foundation (Garrison & Christakis, 2005) explored not only educational
videos but also video games, hand held game consoles, and interactive DVD systems. By
14
analyzing the products themselves, the research noted that parents do not always interpret
the claims on the labels as intended by the companies producing them. The Henry J.
Kaiser Family Foundation also looked at parental reviews of some of the products
included in their study by reviewing postings made online at amazon.com. Some parents
reported specific educational benefits to their children, while others claimed to see
through the marketing of the product as educational and said that it provided nothing for
their children that they did not already provide. It may have been in this case that the
parents felt that the educational media on the market were claiming to offer a replacement
or substitute for the role of the parent to teach their child(ren). Interestingly, one parent
even posted that she felt less guilty about letting her child watch television because of the
educational components of the video. Overall, the researchers note that educational
media used in the home do not go through the same rigors as those educational media
tools used in the classroom, and that the only measure of an educational medium's
benefits to a child is the parents' judgment based on the product package labels (Garrison
& Christakis, 2005).
Another study, which examined media in the lives of children from babies to
teenagers (Wartella, Capiovitz, & Lee, 2004), reports that interactive technology can
have positive effects such as improving spatial skills, providing structure, and
encouraging children to think about cognitive strategies. While this report did not focus
on educational media for all ages, however, the media for younger children (e.g. Baby
Einstein and LeapFrog products) were primarily educational in nature (Wartella,
Capiovitz, & Lee, 2004).
15
To date there is little research on educational toys or their use, although Luckin,
Connolly, Plowman, and Airey (2003) investigated young children's use of interactive
plush toys that connected to a computer to assist children while playing with
corresponding software. However, this study did not focus on human interaction with the
toy because it did not involve parental motives for purchasing such toys for their
children, nor complete in-depth analysis of the child's learning and reactions.
The most relevant study conducted was Ellen Seiter's article (1992) comparing
mass merchandised toys with what she called 'quality' toys. She argued that "what is
often at stake in parent-and-child conflict over toy purchase is not the difference between
advertised and unadvertised toys but rather the difference between mass marketed
promotional toys targeted at children and niche-marketed, 'educational' or classic toys
targeted at middle-class college-educated parents" (Seiter, 1992, p.232). In fact, this is
one of the only views of the debate where the author references the mass marketed toys.
She concludes that, although some of the 'quality' toys may give children an advantage
in school because they have had exposure to them at home, the major difference between
mass marketed and 'quality' toys is primarily aesthetic. Moreover, she argues that most
teachers attempt to censor mass culture from schools and in doing so disadvantage
children who require security, involvement, and comfort. For those children who are
more familiar with the mass marketed toys and popular culture, these toys can facilitate
interaction among peers when they enter the school system. This is similar to 'water
cooler' talk in adult office environments.
16
2.5 UNDERSTANDING PARENTAL BELIEFS
Parents have varying beliefs about their children and what is best for them, and
uncovering parental beliefs can be complicated. Newberger (1980) argued for the
following categories of parental beliefs:
1) Egoistic, where the child is a projection of the self and parental desires are
primary,
2) Conventional, where the child's needs are addressed through traditional and
socially acceptable practices,
3) Subjective-individualistic, where the child is thought to be an individual and the
role of the parent is to discover and meet the child's needs, and
4) Process/interactional orientation, where the parent's role is to meet the varying
needs of the child and the parent (Newberger, 1980)
In a review of parental beliefs regarding children's cognitive development, Miller
(1988) argued that one of the following four questions has guided previous research on
parental beliefs:
1) "What do parents think about children's thinking?"
2) "Where do parents' ideas about children come from?"
3) "Do parents' beliefs about children's abilities affect the way they behave toward
their children?"
4) "Do children develop best when their parents hold accurate conceptions of their
abilities?" (Miller, 1988, p.260)
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2.6 RESEARCH STUDIES ON PARENTAL BELIEFS
Much of the research on parental beliefs to date has investigated parental beliefs
regarding children's cognitive development. One such study used parents of children
aged three and four, and asked them through free response interviews about how the
children gained new knowledge. Centering around 12 vignettes, the study asked parents
to explain how four year olds thought about how things float. Responses were
categorized using 27 different categories such as stages (i.e. A child must understand
weight before he/she can understand floating), or experimentation (i.e. Children test
objects in water to see if they float). This particular research was part of a series of
studies conducted by Sigal and McGillicuddy-DeLisi (McGillicuddy-DeLisi, 1982, 1985;
McGillicuddy-DeLisi & Sigel, 1982; Sigel, 1985, 1986). Another example of research
examining parental beliefs regarding children's development uses both the vignettes with
interviews and a questionnaire to delve into the complex nature of parental reasoning
regarding both developmental problems and change. Sameroff, Feil, and Seifer (1985)
report results, which indicate that parental responses can range from a categorical level
(ie. a trouble-free infant will develop into a good child) to a perspectivistic level (ie.
children's problems rarely have a distinct cause), which shows the complexity of parental
beliefs (Sameroff & Feil, 1985; Seifer & Sameroff, 1987).
Parental belief research has also been conducted on children's abilities such as
Jaworski and Hubert's (1994) research on mother's beliefs regarding factors that
influence their children's success or failure during a specific cognitive task. In this study,
the authors used structured interviews and tried to categorize responses into Wiener's
Attribution Model, although some responses could not be categorized in this way and
18
new categories were created. Overall, the researchers found that the mothers tended to
make more internal attributions when their children failed than when they succeeded
(Jaworski & Hubert, 1994).
Previous research conducted on the sources of parental beliefs focused on both
self-constructions of beliefs based on personal experience as well as cultural scripts as the
basis for these assumptions. For example, Kelly (1955) argues that parental beliefs are
like 'personal constructs' and, therefore, they must vary from person to person. Other
studies following this tradition make comparisons between individuals, such as mothers
and fathers (Stolz, 1967), and parents with young children to parents with older children
(Knight, 1981). On the other hand, many sources point in the direction of parental beliefs
as 'received knowledge' or information provided to parents from other people or
information sources (Shweder, 1982, Gergen et al., 1986, Whiting, 1974, Holy &
Stuchlik, 1981, and Super & Harkness, 1986). Parental beliefs as cultural scripts vary
from region to region as cultures shift which can be seen in a study of concepts of infants
(deVries & Super, 1979), and the need for one versus multiple caretakers (Frankel &
Roer-Bornstein, 1982). Some also argue that how we know and act within a culture is
constructed at a personal and a collective level (McNaughton, 1996).
2.7 THEORIES LINKING BELIEFS TO ACTIONS
As a person's feelings and actions can be quite different, it is important in
research on parents to distinguish between how a parent feels and the actions that a parent
takes in response to these feelings. Fazio (1986), in a review of the research on
attitude/behaviour consistency, comments on how social psychologists frequently
19
discriminate between "an affective component involving feelings about and evaluations
of the object, a cognitive component involving beliefs about the object, and a behavioural
intentions component" (Fazio, 1986, p.204). An important issue to emerge from this kind
of research is the sequencing, whether beliefs influence actions or whether actions lead to
the formation of beliefs. The overjustification principle presents the idea that beliefs
follow actions. For example, a person may embark on an inherently interesting activity
for reward and consequently may lower his/her perceived attraction to that activity
(Lepper & Greene, 1978). Therefore, his/her participation in the activity has affected
his/her beliefs about that activity. More common is the sequence of beliefs leading to
actions. For instance, Moscovici (1984) views beliefs or ideas as starting the sequence
leading to actions and outcomes.
2.7.1 Research Linking Parental Beliefs to Parental Actions
Linking parental beliefs to parental actions has been a well-established area of
research. The evidence thus far shows that there is in fact a correlation between parental
beliefs about their children and their actions regarding their children. Furthermore, it has
been shown that this relationship is in the expected direction; that parental beliefs lead to
parental action (Miller, 1988). However, Miller shows that the relationship of parental
beliefs leading to parental actions is a modest one.
Research linking parental beliefs about the environmental influences within the
home on children and the actions taken by mothers in order to provide their child(ren)
with an appropriate home environment showed that the more accurate the beliefs, the
better the home environment. In this study, mothers were tested using the Knowledge of
20
Environmental Influences on Development Scale (KEID) for their beliefs and the
researchers used the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) to
determine the type of environment that the mothers had provided for their children
(Stevens, 1984).
The consistency between beliefs and actions of parents can also vary by the
parent's gender. This is demonstrated in the work of McGillicuddy-DeLisi (1982) which
shows correlations between actions performed on a specific task (i.e. teaching children)
and the general principles of how children learn were higher for fathers than mothers.
The author's explanation for this is that mothers generally have more experience with
their children and therefore, can predict specific outcomes more clearly and hence adapt
their behaviour to the child, whereas fathers are more closely guided by their beliefs
about children in general. Moreover, Stolz (1967) concludes that fathers report beliefs
leading to actions, whereas mothers often add qualifiers about specific situations or
children to explain inconsistency in the beliefs and actions.
Other factors which have been found to affect the relationship between parental
beliefs and actions are social class and social interaction. In one study that looked at
mother-infant interaction and ideas about mothers and children, a strong correlation was
found between the amount of social contact from mothers to their infants when the
mothers held the belief that babies can communicate and seek out social interaction
(Tulkin & Cohler, 1973). However, the authors found significant results only with
middle class participants. They postulate that a middle class mother may support
attitudes which indicate the belief of reciprocity. However, due to the fact that the
21
mother may feel as though she would have little influence over her child she might be
less likely to act on this belief (Tulkin & Cohler, 1973).
In a similar study conducted on mothers' beliefs about their baby's ability and
their interaction with them, Epstein (1980) found a positive relationship between the
mother's underestimation of her baby's ability and the mother's no-talking style of
communication. Moreover, the study reported a negative relationship between
overestimation of ability by mothers and a sharing style of interaction. This study used
the High Scope scale which assesses knowledge of infant abilities as well as videotapes
of the mothers interacting with their babies (Epstein, 1980). Overall, this research
provides support for the connection between parental beliefs and actions.
Research on parental beliefs shows the link between beliefs and actions to also be
dependent on locus of control. In one study of parental beliefs and locus of control, it
was found that "mothers who believed in fate stressed educational materials and good
nutrition as behaviours of the ideal parent but stressed sharing and educational toys in
actual interaction with their children" (Galejs & Pease, 1986, p.501).
Interestingly, one study tried to link parental actions back to beliefs. In fact, this
was one of the few studies that looked at the entire parental decision making-process.
Specifically, the study investigated why parents become involved in their children's
education. The conclusion was that it depends on three constructs, namely the parents'
role construction, their sense of efficacy for helping their children succeed in school, and
general invitations, demands and opportunities for involvement (Hoover-Dempsey &
Sandler, 1997). Since both views of the linkage between beliefs and actions are
expressed in research focusing on parents, it may be that beliefs and actions have a bi-
22
directional effect. In terms of educational toys, it would be important to investigate how
beliefs affect parental actions but also if and how consumption influences future beliefs.
2.8 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: THE THORY OF REASONED ACTION (Azjen
andFishbein, 1980)
In the consumer behaviour literature, the model of the theory of reasoned action
(Azjen and Fishbein, 1980) is often used to study beliefs and actions. The theory has
three main components: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive component
deals with consumers' awareness of the environmental consequences of their actions.
The affective component refers to consumers' emotional responses. The conative
component consists of the behaviour of the consumer in response to the environment.
This model makes two basic assumptions: 1. humans are rational and make logical use of
the information accessible to them, and 2. humans think about the implications of their
actions before they decide to participate.
23
Belief toward an outcome
Attitude
Evaluation of the outcome
Beliefs about what others think
Motivation to comply with
others
Subjective Norm
Intention Behaviour
Figure I. The Theory of Reasoned Action (source: Azjen and Fishbein, 1980)
The theory of reasoned action model is often simplified to attitudes, intentions,
and behaviour. However, intentions are actually composed of six main factors: salient
beliefs, outcome evaluation, belief strength, normative beliefs, salient referents, and
motivation to comply. More specifically, attitudes are derived from a belief about an
outcome and the evaluation of that belief. The linkage of objects, attributes, and benefits
forms beliefs. For example, a consumer may hold object-attribute beliefs, attribute-
benefit beliefs, and object-benefit beliefs. Subjective norms are what someone thinks
others believe about the outcome in question and how important each point of view is to
his/her decision about that outcome. Therefore, according to the model, beliefs bring
about "a person's attitudes and subjective norms, and they ultimately determine
24
intentions and behavior" (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980, p.62). It is important to draw a
distinction between behavioural intentions and behaviour itself. Hypothetically,
intentions lead to behaviour; however, Ajzen and Fishbein explain that
"...although a measure of choice intention may lead to very accurate behavioural predication, knowledge of a person's choice intention will not contribute very much to our understanding of the person's choice. To understand choice we must consider the factors influencing his intentions to perform or not each of the alternatives available," (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980, p.41).
To fully understand a person's intentions and behaviours, we must look at the factors that
lead to the intentions in the first place. For this reason, the model of the theory of
reasoned action is used to guide this research on mothers' values, attitudes and purchase
behaviour related to children's educational toys.
Using this model to study mothers' beliefs and actions involves substituting into
the model the relevant constructs for mothers' beliefs and actions. Firstly, in order to use
this model, it must be made clear how some of the terms will be applied to educational
toys. When the model refers to the outcome, it means purchasing educational toys.
Therefore, in this thesis the outcome investigated is the beliefs of the mothers towards
buying educational toys for their children. These beliefs can be numerous and conflicting
if they come from multiple sources. In fact, beliefs that lead to attitudes about
educational toys may in fact stem from more general beliefs about education, children's
play, toys, or even the parent's role. More specifically, a parent may define his/her role
in regards to his/her child's education as was seen in the study on why parents become
involved in their children's education (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997).
When investigating certain beliefs toward an outcome, in this case purchasing
educational toys for children, it is imperative to investigate the origin of these beliefs. In
25
previous research on the source of parental beliefs, future research must investigate
whether parental beliefs are self-constructions based on personal experience (Kelly,
1955; Stolz, 1967), cultural scripts (Shweder, 1982; Gergen et al., 1986), or perhaps some
combination of the two (McNaughton, 1996). In a review of research on parents' ideas,
actions and feelings, Goodnow (1988) explains that the argument for ideas or beliefs
being self-constructed, refers to the idea that people develop ideas or beliefs from their
direct experiences, and therefore, each person has different beliefs. Furthermore, the
argument of ideas or beliefs as cultural scripts means that they would not vary from
person to person but rather from one culture to another.
When looking at parental beliefs it is interesting to investigate how parents
evaluate the beliefs that they hold. For example, if parental beliefs are self-constructed,
how confident are theses parents in their beliefs? Or, if these beliefs are cultural scripts,
do they agree with the beliefs? The beliefs, sources of beliefs, and evaluations of the
beliefs lead to the parental attitudes. Beliefs are different from attitudes in that one
person may hold multiple beliefs regarding an issue yet only hold one position which is
their attitude. In the context of educational toys we are referring to the position that the
parents have regarding the purchasing of educational toys for their children and, as
previously mentioned, this attitude may be created based on beliefs towards education in
general, play and toys, and/or a parent's role.
In addition, factors in parental decision-making and actions are beliefs of what
others think about what they think and do. Obviously, parents do not take into
consideration the views of everyone around them. However, the beliefs of some people,
for example, their own parents, their siblings, their children and close friends or role
26
models, will have more or less importance in contributing to their intentions. For
example, traditional Western cultures grandparents have become very important in
raising grandchildren (Smith, 2005). In fact, the argument can be made that the
importance of grandparents has grown due to the changes in family structure. According
to Smith, we can expect that today "most people will be a grandparent for around a third
of their lifespan" and following trends in fertility as well as the demographic ageing of
modern Western civilization families are shifting from 'broad/horizontal' to
'narrow/vertical'.. This is leading to an increasingly important role for grandparents
(Smith, 2005, p.684). Interestingly, grandparents are so important in the raising of
children that a program called Dial-A-Granny started in 1980 in Adelaide, Australia due
to a sociological need, which helped elderly people become surrogate grandparents to at
risk families (Barbour, 1983). Part of the argument for beliefs coming from cultural
scripts follows from parental beliefs that are drawn from societal norms and therefore,
from the way that other people within society parent their children. This is an example of
subjective norms coming from role models or close friends.
In Azjen and Fishbein's model of the theory of reasoned action (1980) the beliefs
of others and how important these beliefs are make up the subjective norms. The
subjective norms directly contribute to parental intentions. This area of the model is
particularly interesting since research was unavailable regarding the influence of parental
beliefs on the beliefs of others and how those beliefs are weighted when contributing to
intentions.
From this point, it has been shown how parents could express how their intentions
to purchase educational toys for their children are formed. This can be compared to the
27
parents' actual behaviour. This research looks specifically at how mothers' form their
intentions and how their intentions lead to behaviours relating to the consumption of
educational toys. Previous research has shown that going from parental beliefs to actions
has not been simple. Consistency from parental beliefs to parental actions is influenced
by many factors such as experience with children, and locus of control (Galejs & Pease,
1986; McGillicuddy-DeLisi, 1982). It is important to use the theory of reasoned action
model to break down the process leading from beliefs to actions in order to truly
investigate parental beliefs and actions. Specifically, Azjen and Fishbein's model of the
theory of reasoned action (1980) is well suited to guide the investigation of mothers'
beliefs, intentions and behaviours in the context of educational toys for their preschool
aged children.
28
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study utilizes qualitative methodologies including participant observation
and in-depth interviews. Qualitative methods were deemed the most appropriate in this
research in order to fully investigate the source of beliefs as well as to better understand
the mothers' perceived values and behaviours within the context of educational toys.
3.1 PHASE ONE
The first phase of this research sought to investigate the various definitions of
'educational toys'. Through the initial literature review, it was determined that the term
'educational toys' may have multiple meanings, and for this reason it would be most
important to define this term from all perspectives.
3.1.1 Participant Observation
To capture the perspective of both mass marketers and niche marketers, two very
different toy stores were visited. Specifically, Toys R Us in Kitchener, Ontario, and
Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos Inc. in Guelph, Ontario, were visited to observe how
educational toys are organized in the stores and how they are marketed to consumers.
Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos, was chosen for this study as it represents a niche
marketer of educational toys within Guelph, Ontario, which is where the participants for
the study were recruited. Toys R Us, although in Kitchener, Ontario, was chosen to
represent a mass merchandiser of toys, as it was the closest mass merchandiser that
focused primarily on toys and children's products. Other possible options to represent
29
mass merchandisers included Zellers, Sears and Walmart. However, the toy section of
the Guelph, Ontario Sears department store is very small and does not represent the
variety of mass-merchandised toys that Sears actually sells through other means. Also,
Guelph, Ontario, had only recently opened a Walmart, therefore it did not seem that
Walmart, would adequately represent the previous consumption habits of the mothers
being interviewed as it had only been open for a few months at the time of the interviews.
As these mass merchandisers do not solely focus on toys and children's products, Toys R
Us was deemed the best option for this study. Differences in store layout were
documented during each visit, which resulted in a general floor plan for each store (see
Appendix A). In addition, a comparative table was created (see Appendix B) from
observations of signage, layout, decor, and merchandise within each store.
3.1.2 Content Analysis
Toy catalogues including the 2006 Sears Wishbook Catalogue, the Kids Craft
2005-2006 Early Childhood catalogue, and the Scholar's Choice Moyer 2006 catalogue
were collected to analyze how educational toys are marketed to professionals and general
consumers and how they are defined. The Kids Craft 2005-2006 Early Childhood
catalogue, and the Scholar's Choice Moyer 2006 catalogue were used on
recommendation of the child care professionals at the University of Guelph Child Care
and Learning Centre as they are used by the Centre when choosing and buying toys for
the Centre. The 2006 Sears Wishbook, was used for this study because it is one of the
largest consumer catalogues for toys, therefore offering a large section of mass marketing
of children's toys for analysis.
30
3.1.3 In-depth Interviews
In order to capture the perspectives of childcare professionals, a visit was made to
a childcare center, the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Center, to see what
types of toys are available to the children and how they are organized and promoted to
the children to use. The focus of this visit was to interview some of the childcare
professionals who work at the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Center.
Four in-depth interviews were conducted with childcare professionals, from the
University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre. In these interviews, the childcare
professionals were able to express in their own words what educational toys are and how
they are different from other toys.
3.2 PHASE TWO
The second phase of this research was conducted to collect information regarding
mothers' beliefs and consumption behaviour of educational toys. Phase two data were
also used to analyze the definition of educational toys. To accomplish this, 16 in-depth
interviews were conducted with participants (mothers) using a version of the photo-
elicitation technique identified by Heisley and Levy (1991). The purpose of each
interview was to discover mothers' beliefs, perceptions, and behaviours with regard to
educational toys for her child(ren). Specifically, each participant was provided with a
disposable camera prior to the interview. Each was asked to take pictures of her
child(ren) playing with different toys in her home. The participants were instructed to
take natural pictures as if they were taking them for their own use. The goal of the
instructions to the participants was to explain that the photographs should represent the
31
variety of toys made available to the children by the parents and those toys that the
children chose to play with over the two-week period that they were given for the
participants to use all 24 pictures. Each disposable camera included the cost of
processing, and participants were asked to develop the film prior to the interview.
Pictures that include educational toys were used during the interview. More specifically,
during the interview process, each participant was first asked to define educational toys
and then to choose one picture that showed her child playing with what she considered an
educational toy. Specifically, instruction was given to participants so that the selection of
the picture was to be based on an educational toy. However, some participants were
guided in choosing a picture suitable for the interview process as their definition of an
educational toy was so broad. In these cases, the mothers actually chose pictures that
represented to them a situation in which their children were learning through play despite
the fact that there may not have been a prominence of one specific toy in the picture. It
seemed that some of the mothers perceived that a play situation in which their children
were learning was enough to meet the given directions. For example, one mother chose a
picture of her children playing in the bathtub with food coloring. In this situation, the
food coloring was used as an educational toy for the child. Participants were interviewed
using the selected photo to guide the interview. All pictures were returned to participants
at the end of the in-depth interview session.
3.2.1 Pre-test
The in-depth interview questions were first pre-tested on one mother using
pictures that she had already developed (not for the purposes of the interview) of her
32
children, which she brought to the interview with her. The first pre-test raised several
concerns with the interview questions and process and, as a result, changes were made.
First, the in-depth interview is to start with the review of pictures to avoid confusion.
The first pre-test indicated that it did not make sense to the participants to choose a
picture but then not use it for another half an hour. Second, the in-depth interview
needed to be more direct and get straight to the point in terms of the topic of educational
toys. This is to create a context for the rest of the interview. In addition, the in-depth
interviews questions needed to be re-arranged so that the interviewees would define
educational and educational toys before choosing a picture since the toy in the picture
should fit their definition of educational and educational toys. Lastly, it was discovered
during the pre-test interviews that many of the questions were repetitive and thus some
questions were deleted. The revised interview questions were then pre-tested on another
mother.
3.2.2 Profile of Participants
Participants for this phase of the research were mothers who are the primary care
givers of their pre-school aged (0-5 years) child(ren) in Guelph, Ontario. Two groups of
participants were used within the above classification. The first group of mothers
enrolled their children in the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre for
one reason or another (e.g. work and school) and the second group chose to stay-at-home
with their children. Although the mothers who enrolled their children in the University
of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre included both working mothers and mothers
enrolled in post-secondary academic studies, it is assumed that both fall within the same
33
economic conditions as the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre is a
relatively high priced childcare facility. Both first time mothers and mothers of multiple
children were interviewed within both groups. The number and age of the children as
well as the education level of the mother was recorded for each interview. All mothers
interviewed had some post-secondary education (see Appendix C). In fact, all except for
one mother from the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre and one stay-
at-home mother had completed a Bachelors degree. Six of the eight mothers from the
University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, were either enrolled in or had
completed postgraduate education. Moreover, three of the eight stay-at-home mothers
had also completed postgraduate education. The in-depth interviews took place between
April and September of 2007 and each interview lasted between 45 and 90 minutes. All
interviews of mothers who enrolled their children in the University of Guelph Child Care
and Learning Centre, took place on University of Guelph property. Two of the stay-at-
home mother interviews took place at the Guelph, Ontario Satellite location of the
Ontario Early Years Centre, while the remainder took place in the homes of the mothers.
3.2.3 Justification for Group Selection
This group of mothers with pre-school aged (0-5 yeas) children, was chosen to be
the focus of this phase of the research because the Canadian market for games and
educational toys is divided into two categories: pre-school children category (0-to-5-year-
olds) and schoolchildren category (6-to-14-year-olds). Additionally, parents of pre
school aged children normally make purchase decisions for their children (Latka, 2000).
34
Accordingly, this group of participants is particularly relevant for the investigation of
beliefs and consumption of educational toys.
The focus on mothers comes from the view that mothers are the fundamental part
of children's daily play environment, well informed about their children's play habits,
typically more available than fathers for interaction with their children, and more likely
than fathers to exercise control over their children's play, especially through choice and
purchase of toys. This is supported by a study by Knight (1983) which reported that
mothers ranked themselves as having more control than fathers have. In this phase of
the study, it was important to have the parent who is the primary care giver.
3.2.4 Place of Recruitment
Participants were recruited through the University of Guelph Child Care and
Learning Center, which consists of children of University staff, faculty, students and City
of Guelph residents. The University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre (see
Appendix D) distributed flyers to parents. Obviously, the participants recruited from the
University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, represented the mothers who
enrolled their children in that childcare centre. The plan was to use similar flyers to
recruit stay- at-home mothers through the Guelph Ontario Early Years Centre. The
Guelph Ontario Early Years Centre, was chosen because it attracts many stay-at-home
mothers with children between the ages of 0 and 6. Flyers were sent to the Guelph
Ontario Early Years Centre satellite location in Stone Road Mall in Guelph, Ontario; only
a few participants from this location responded. Friends and acquaintances of the
35
researcher provided the majority of the respondents for the group of mothers in this
phase.
3.2.5 The role of researcher:
The researcher was able to use her own experiences as a mother to bond with
participants and make them feel comfortable during the interview process. Through
introspection, the researcher was able to use her own experiences to help further the
interviews and ultimately to get very descriptive accounts from participants. The
researcher maintained a collection of process notes as well as intentions and reactions
during the data collection phase of the research to act as an ongoing record of data
collection.
3.2.6 Ethics
Consent forms were provided to inform participants about the research goals of
this study as well as the confidentiality that would be used to protect the identity of the
participants who agreed to participate (see Appendix E). Ethics approval from the
University of Guelph Research Ethics Board, was obtained before the first phase of the
research began.
3.2.7 Data Analysis
All interviews were audio taped and later transcribed verbatim. The interviews
were coded for the beliefs, perceptions and behaviours of the mothers using Nvivo, a
36
qualitative analysis program. From the analysis of the data, key themes were identified in
beliefs, attitudes, purchase intentions and actual use of educational toys.
3.3 CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING QUALITIVE RESEARCH
In this study, a qualitative approach to data collection was used to understand the
values, attitudes and purchase behaviour of the mothers' regarding educational toy
consumption from their perspective. It is not the goal of qualitative research to
generalize from the sample to some greater population. The methodology of this thesis is
thus examined using humanistic criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability and
confirmability.
3.3.1 Credibility
To meet the requirement of credibility, the data obtained in the study must be
accepted by the respondent as true. This study has yet to meet the requirement of
credibility because it needs to be reviewed and accepted as accurate by the participants in
the study. Ultimately, the participants themselves best judge the credibility of qualitative
research (Herschman, 1986).
3.3.2 Transferability
Similar to external validity in quantitative research, transferability refers to how
well the results of this study generalize to other contexts. In order to enhance
transferability, it is important for the researcher to be thorough when describing the
37
research context as well as any assumptions made when conducting the qualitative
research.
3.3.3 Dependability
The criterion of dependability highlights the need to explain the varying contexts
within which this research takes place (i.e. the instrument). Hischman (1986) suggests
that using multiple human investigators is one method of evaluating the consistency of
the research instrument. Although the nature of this research did not permit the use of
multiple human investigators, multiple data sources (i.e. childcare professionals,
childcare mothers, and stay-at-home mothers) were used to triangulate the data (Berg,
2007).
3.3.4 Confirmability
The criterion of confirmability deals with whether or not the results of the
qualitative research can be confirmed by others. Specifically, this criterion refers to
whether certain aspects of the study were unprejudiced. Because this is an academic
thesis, three committee members have reviewed it. Documentation of processes as well
as data sets were also recorded.
3.4 ASSUMPTIONS
The following two basic assumptions were made in conducting this thesis:
1) individuals interviewed told the truth as they understood it and to the best of their
ability
38
2) individuals interviewed are rational, use information available to them and
consider the consequences of the actions
39
3) RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
This chapter is divided into three sections. The first section depicts the findings
and discussions relating to the definition of educational toys from the perspectives of the
educational toy industry, child care professionals, and mothers. The next section
highlights mothers' subjective norms regarding educational toys. The third section
reviews the findings of the actual consumption behaviour of educational toys by the
mothers interviewed. Specifically, the third section looks at the types of toys purchased,
the purchase frequency, the budget for toys, and the reasons the mothers give for buying
the types of toys that they do.
4.1 DEFINITION OF 'EDUCATIONAL TOYS'
To capture the different perspectives involved in this research it was important to
investigate the definition of educational toys from a variety of sources. Various forms of
qualitative research were used to extract the different perspectives involved. Most
significant to this research was the definition of educational toys viewed from the
perspective of the two groups of mothers. However, in the first phase of the research, the
definition of educational toys was also considered from the perspective of the market
(both the mass market and niche market for educational toys), as well as the definition of
educational toys according to child care professionals in the field. Presented first are the
definitions derived from the perspectives of the market and the child care professionals.
These definitions are used as a reference point for the definitions of educational toys
presented by the two groups of mothers.
40
4.1.1 Market Definition of Educational Toys
Two methods, observation and content analysis, were used to capture the market
definition of educational toys. Participant observation at both a mass marketed toy store
(i.e. Toys R Us), in addition to an independent retailer, namely Simply Wonderful Toys
& Gizmos were used to understand the market's definition of educational toys through
the categorization, placement, and in-store advertising of such toys. Comparative
analysis of observation of both Toys R Us in Kitchener, Ontario and Simply Wonderful
Toys & Gizmos in Guelph, Ontario reveals some striking differences in the way the
marketers present educational toys. Content analysis of different types of toy catalogues
from both a mass merchandiser (Sears Canada) and smaller niche marketers (Kids Craft
and Scholars Choice) were again used to verify these findings. The findings suggest that
the mass marketers and niche marketers position educational toys in different ways.
4.1.1.1 Mass Market Definition of Educational Toys
Looking first at the observation of the toys stores (see Appendix B), Toys R Us
divides the toys within the store very clearly by purpose or function and by gender. The
classification by purpose makes it very easy to locate the 'educational toys' section
within the store. It is important to mention that Toys R Us is divided into 'Toys R Us'
and "Babies R Us'. It is also clear in Babies R Us that strollers, feeding supplies and
clothes are very separate sections of the store from the 'developmental toys'. Relating
specifically to the educational toys, it is clear that there is a place for the educational toys
in both Toys R Us and Babies R Us. In fact, there are some overhead signs labeled
'developmental toys' in the Babies R Us sections and the Toys R Us sections use the
41
marketing of the brands to separate educational toys from other toys. Some examples of
the on-shelf signage for brands in the Toys R Us section include 'Ages and Stages' for
the Playskool brand, 'Fisher Price Learning' for the Fisher Price brand and 'Learn more
with Leap Frog' for the LeapFrog brand. Again, this section in Toys R Us is clearly
separate from other sections such as games, seasonal toys, and gendered toys.
Moreover, Toys R Us carries predominately brand name, mass merchandised
toys. This is especially true within the 'educational toys' section of this store as there is a
very large and clearly labeled section for LeapFrog products which have been repeatedly
marketed by the manufacturer as a brand devoted to both learning and entertainment.
Within the educational toy section of Toys R Us there are many electronic toys. These
include video game type toys, toys mimicking adult electronics such as personal
computers, and other basic learning tools such as globes modified to interact with
children. Comparatively it was also noted that the majority of toys carried in Toys R
Us, and specifically within the 'educational toys' section of Toys R Us, are made solely
from plastic rather than other natural materials such as wood. In conclusion, Toys R Us
defines educational toys as a separate category of toy and promotes using these types of
toys as a way to amplify the educational nature of children's play.
Content analysis of the toy section of the 2006 Sears Wishbook (see Appendix F)
further verifies the results from the observations above. Although the division of the toys
in the catalogue is less structured than at Toys R Us, there is definitely some separation
according to function and age as well as gender. A table of contents is noted on the spine
of the2006 Sears Wishbook, which indicates, for example, Toys & Games are on pages
882 to 1060, however, no subsections are listed. Moreover, within the educational toy
42
section, there are many brand name toys. For example, within the educational toy section
there is a predominant section for the LeapFrog brand. Many of the toys shown in the
catalogue are electronic and most were constructed with plastic as opposed to more
'natural' materials such as wood. As with the division of toys in Toys R Us and Babies R
Us, the Sears Wishbook separates educational toys for infants and toddlers from those
meant for older children. Many of the same products carried at Toys R Us can also be
found in the 2006 Sears Wishbook. Descriptions of toys sold through this catalogue
include a synopsis of what the toy actually entails as well as noting how children would
have fun using these products. This may be viewed as a more typical marketing practice.
For the majority of the catalogue, the descriptions seemed to address how a parent would
make a child happy by buying the toy rather than how the toy could be used to further the
development of the child. However in the sections for 'educational toys', the
descriptions addressed how the toy is in fact educational in terms of what specific skills a
child would build upon through the use of this toy.
Overall mass merchandisers such as Toys R Us and Sears position educational
toys as a separate category of toy that has a unique function for children. Mass
merchandisers separate educational toys from other toys and market these toys to parents
through the benefits of their use. It seems educational toys are defined by mass
merchandisers as toys with a purpose. They are marketed to parents as beneficial to the
child's development and are advertised as instrumental to the child's skill development,
especially for pre-school aged children. Skills focused on by these retailers are for the
most part concrete academic skills such as but not limited to mathematics, science,
reading, memory and recognition. In summary, mass merchandisers prey on the parent's
43
desire to provide the best opportunities for their children when marketing educational
toys and define educational toys as toys with a purpose. Specifically, it would seem that
mass marketers define educational toys as those toys that teach children academic skills.
However, this finding has to be treated with caution as it is based upon observation of
Toys R Us at one location and a Sears catalogue.
4.1.1.2 Niche Market Definition of Educational Toys
When looking at Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos (see Appendix A & B), one
can see that the toys are separated by purpose or function only, for example, science kits
are separate from building toys, which are separate from craft supplies. There is no clear
distinction of gender although there are some traditionally gendered toys such as tea and
kitchen play sets. Specifically, Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos displays all miniature
doll play sets in one section, however they carry both 'boy' and 'girl' dolls sets in this
section. Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos noticeably carries more imported toys from
various countries and sells very few brand names and mass merchandised toys. Simply
Wonderful Toys & Gizmos also has very few electronic toys in the store, where most of
the toys are made from durable 'old fashioned' materials such as wood. Relating
specially to educational toys, Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos has no clearly labeled
educational toy section. In conclusion, Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos has a general
focus on educational toys within the store. That is, almost all of the toys carried serve
some educational function and therefore there is no one section for these types of toys.
Specifically, the layout of Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos does not give the
44
impression that educational toys are separate from other toys, rather there is a feeling that
all of the toys in the store assist in the development of the child in one way or another.
Content analysis of the Scholar's Choice Moyer Early Learning 2006 and Kids
Craft 2005-2006 Early Childhood Catalogue (see Appendix F) showed that there are
clearly distinct sections with a table of contents in the front to guide parents and child
care professionals. The products advertised in these two catalogues are separated
according to skills sets (ie. mathematics, science, geography and history) and purpose (ie.
classroom tools and furniture). Overall, there are minimal brand name toys within this
catalogue as a whole and many of the products are constructed with natural materials
such as cloth and wood. Although there is one section in this catalogue titled 'Early
Learning', it is clear that all of the toys available in this catalogue are educational in
nature. Product in these catalogues tends to include explanation of the pieces/parts
included in the set as well as descriptions about sturdiness, uniqueness, safety and
function for children. The descriptions associated with the toys in this catalogue attempt
to address the concerns of parents or child care providers in terms of how long the
product should last and how it might be used to assist in the development of the child.
Overall, based on observation of the two niche marketers Simply Wonderful Toys
and Gizmos, Scholar's Choice Moyer Early Learning 2006 and Kids Craft 2005-2006
Early Childhood Catalogues, it appears that these niche marketers do not separate the
mass merchandised educational toys from other toys when marketing to parents and
educators. From these observations, it would seem that these three niche marketers
position all toys as educational in some way. The three niche marketers used in this
study promote the benefits that any toy can have for the child when used in certain ways.
45
All of the niche marketers examined in this study thoroughly explain how to use all toys
in ways that would be educational for the child. Although these niche marketers market
many of their offerings through concrete academic skills, they also recognize and
promote the value of creativity and social skills in the development of the child and
include such toys and art supplies and puppets in their definition of educational toys. In
summary, it would seem that the niche marketers used in this study promote the value in
almost any toy and therefore do not define educational toys as separate from other toys.
Furthermore, it would seem that these niche marketers define an educational toy as any
toy that helps a child develop a skill. However, this finding has to be treated with caution
as it is based upon observation of just one location and two catalogues.
4.1.2 Child Care Professionals Definition of Educational Toys
Analysis of four in-depth interviews with child care professionals from the
University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre in Guelph, Ontario shows that
there is a consistent philosophy regarding the definition of educational toys within the
centre. All child care professionals interviewed were questioned to see if they actually
made a distinction between educational and non-educational toys. Respondents
highlighted some criteria as to what qualities they would consider an educational toy to
possess. Toys that the child care professionals describe as educational could be used in
more than one way: they would develop with the child, and they would help the child to
learn concepts and skills. Also, the child care professionals mentioned that toys which
they considered to be educational would be toys which would last longer. For example,
one respondent reported that "there's some toys that are, are ... more efficient because
46
they grow with the child ... the educational properties of it last longer... so it has more
than one sort of, it, it develops with the child...".
Generally, the child care professionals agreed that a toy with more than one function is
rated as being more educational than a toy with limited or prescribed uses. Another child
care professional explains:
"there's certain toys that I figure that are learning concepts, and skills, .. and then there's other toys that we just put out sometimes for fun ..., but there still getting some skills from those too, but, ... there's certain toys that we put out for educational purposes".
Even though the previous two examples suggested that some toys are better in terms of
being educational, the consensus seemed to be that almost any toy could be educational.
Overall, the child care professionals concluded that almost any toy could be
educational if it was used in the right way. For example, one child care professional
explained:
"I guess it obviously depends on how you define education, but I think every toy has lots of learning opportunities, some more so the toy itself and some may need more interaction with more children or more adults to help the learning sort of come out, but I think every toy has great potential...".
One respondent explained in detail how a simple toy such as Lego could be educational:
"...people all, for years have always bought Lego and they just go and automatically buy it, I see how they interact with the Lego and I see what it does, and how they can build things, and how they can manipulate, and the cause and effect that they get from that, I mean toddlers the big cause and effect, no matter what you build somebody knocks it over and everybody laughs for a half an hour, so that's the educational part of it..."
Looking at the criteria that child care professionals use to judge educational toys, it seems
to indicate that they are referring to which toys would be best suited for the Child Care
and Learning Centre.
47
When questioned further about what an educational toy is to them, the child care
professionals seemed to go off track, not stating how a certain toy is educational
compared to others but rather which toys they think are best in terms of being
educational. The consensus here was that the more educational toys could be used in
more than one way. One respondent offered
"I would think of a toy I guess that it can be used in more than one way, that skills can be brought in, that concepts can be brought in; colors, shapes, sizes, seriation [ordering objects and/or sequencing] ... different functions for it, there's nothing I hate more than just one thing that it does, I like it to be able to do different things".
Furthermore, one child care respondent was able to compare some of the more mass
marketed educational type toys with what she herself would choose for educational
purposes: "I think there's a place for the little computery things that have the little voice
and give you an answer type thing but I think it's a limited place, I like more open ended
stuff like blocks...".
On the whole, all child care professionals interviewed seem to agree with the
belief that almost any toy could be educational if used in the right way. Although some
child care professionals interviewed expressed the belief that some toys may be better or
more educational than others, they do not seem to classify educational toys as a separate
category. Like niche marketers, child care professionals value social and creative skills
equally with academic skills such as mathematics and science. Therefore, child care
professionals would define educational toys as those toys that develop or enhance any
type of skill for the child.
48
4.1.3 Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre Definition of Educational Toys
After eight in-depth interviews with mothers from the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre, clear themes emerged in regards to how they defined the terms
'educational' and 'educational toys'. Mothers were questioned about their definitions of
the term 'educational' and then further probed for their thoughts on the existence of
educational toys and how educational toys might differ from other toys.
For all of the mothers interviewed who had their child(ren) enrolled at the
University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, it was hard to separate the
definition of the term 'educational' from the definition for an educational toy as the
answers to the first question tended to end with the answer to the second. Due to this, it
was hard to come up with a separate definition of the term 'educational' on its own. Only
one mother was able to clearly verbalize her definition of the term 'educational'. For this
mother:
"something that's educational is ... something that allows ... or facilitates a exploration and learning about something, so it could be very play based but learning about the scientific principles or how the world works or colours or letters or reading or behaviour or something like that."
Another mother put it quite simply as "something that requires ... requires a pattern of
thought to bring about the outcome." Most other mothers were unable to verbalize a
definition of the term 'educational' without using toys or play as the context. For all of
the mothers in this group an 'educational toy' was described in terms of specific learning
outcomes. For example, one mother in this group described educational toys as "toys that
you can teach the children some ... like academic skills and also some other skills."
Similarly, another mother described an educational toy as "a toy that has some specific
49
skill associated with its use.... And, so, whether that's a verbal skill, or a coordination
skill, or something like that." Other descriptions for educational toys used by this group
of mothers included 'counting or mathematics', 'vocabulary', 'fundamental skills',
'dexterity and hand eye coordination', 'imagination', 'academics', and 'school
curriculum'.
Ultimately, all of these mothers agreed that there were in fact educational toys,
therefore they believed that some toys on the market were not educational, or at least not
according to their own definitions of what 'educational' might be. For example, one
mother explained the difference between her definition of an educational toy compared to
'other' toys:
"...the other toys are, for me anyway, my definition is that they have more of an entertainment factor, often they are toys that aren't particularly durable. ...they usually now have anyway, require batteries, or some, and they often have a very limited scope of what they can be used for."
Most of the mothers in this group had very similar beliefs about how the market defines
and positions educational toys and how the market definition is slightly different from
their own. In fact, overall, the mothers in this group tended to agree that the market had a
specific group of toys that it marketed as educational and that there was a definite overlap
between the market definition and their own. The second mother from the University of
Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre answered this question by saying that:
"I think traditionally, I think that like if it had letters and numbers in them, then somehow are seen as, are advertised as more educational. But, but there's a lot of blending, I mean there certainly are things that, that to me are really educational but that are, ... are really marketed more as a toy ... and ... yeah and visa versa, so I think it's really, I think it's not clearly divided I think it's really blended"
50
Most of the mothers in this group were able to express in some way how the market
defined or positioned educational toys and all of the mothers tended to agree that there
were similarities in their definition of educational toys and the market's definition.
In summary, the eight mothers interviewed from the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre expressed very strong opinions of what they considered to be
educational for their children even if they had trouble defining it in the interview. All of
the mothers in this group used specific acquired skills as a way to measure and explain
how a toy could be educational for their child. Moreover, all of the mothers in this group
were able to explain how they believed that the market positions and/or defines
educational toys. Lastly, although this group of mothers agreed that their definitions of
educational toys might overlap with the market definition, they were careful to stress the
differences in the types of toys that they choose to fulfill their requirements for
educational toys in the lives of their children.
4.1.4 Stay-at-Home Mothers Definition of Educational Toys
For comparative purposes, eight in-depth interviews were conducted with stay-at-
home mothers who had children in the same age range as the mothers whose children
attended the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre. These mothers were
also questioned on their definition of the term 'educational' and then further probed for
their thoughts on the existence of educational toys and how educational toys might differ
from other toys.
Similar to the group of mothers recruited through the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre, the stay-at-home mothers had a hard time defining the term
51
'educational' separately from how they defined educational toys. Both answers tended to
overlap for most of the eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed. For example, one
mother described educational as:
"...allowing a child to discover and learn new things on their own but with parent direction and involvement so it could be sensory motor, um, any of those new things, particularly when it's age 5 and under, so educational to me is hands on, um tactile as well, um, verbalization, having the chance to discover new things and apply them to next day's play."
Although this is a clear explanation of how this mother defines 'educational', it is also
clear that she views 'educational' in the context of her child's play. Similarly, most of the
other mothers in this group used the context of toys and play to define the term
'educational'. Furthermore, the mothers had clear expectations of what was and what
was not an educational situation for their children. For example, another mother's
response to the definition of the term 'educational' was as follows:
"Educational? ... I would say what involves some thought, behind what they are doing, and not just, pushing something and talking at them and that's it, and, probably over some time they have games of skill, or some ability or some knowledge, over time of playing with the toy, or reading the book, or whatever it is."
When asked to explain what an educational toy is, this group of mothers used
more descriptive characteristics of toys rather than specific learning objectives as the first
group of mothers did. For example, one stay-at-home mother described how she viewed
educational toys:
"If I were in a store and I were looking, and I was trying to pick an educational toy I'd probably try to pick something with a lot of colours, numbers on it, different shapes, maybe music or sound, vocabulary, alphabet, that's initially what I think of as an educational toy."
52
Most of the mothers from this group described the toys that they were referring to in
terms of what the toys looked like or what they did rather than the outcomes of their use
for their children. For the most part, this group of mothers tended to focus on the types of
toys that they did not define as necessarily educational as a way to allude to what they did
believe to be educational. A few of the mothers in this group also included skill
acquisition as a way to describe what they believed to be educational. Some of the terms
used by this group to describe educational toys included 'hand eye coordination', 'adding
or spelling', 'music or sound', 'vocabulary', and 'alphabet'.
When asked about the difference between their definition of educational toys and
how they believe the market defines educational toys, the eight stay-at-home mothers
interviewed tended to focus on their perspective of how the market defines educational
toys. The second stay-at-home mother interviewed expressed her view of the different
types of educational toys available through mass marketers and niche marketers:
".. .well it might even be different from, uh like a regular department store compared to a specialty toy store, like I think a specialty toy store might consider most of their toys educational. Whereas probably like in a Zellers or a Walmart they might even have an educational area and they would be the ones that are for math or reading or maybe like a science experiment type toys that are really set up with a real purpose of teaching something. Whereas I think at an educational, more of an educational toy store they might see any of these toys can be educational depending on the setting or just depending on the child."
Overall, this group of mothers tended to explain the market definition of educational toys
in terms of specific skill acquisitions for children. Many of the mothers in this group also
tended to base the market's definition of educational toys on some of the aspects of
technology.
53
In summary, all of the stay-at-home mothers interviewed focused on examples of
what they did or did not consider being an educational toy as a way to answer the
question of how they defined educational toys. Most of the mothers in this group used
characteristics of toys as a way to explain what an educational toy was. Furthermore,
many of the mothers in this group used characteristics such as technology as a way to
explain how they believed the market defines educational toys and most of these mothers
tended to express disagreement with this definition. Lastly, when asked about how the
market defines educational toys and how that may be different from their own definition,
most of the stay-at-home mothers interviewed answered by expressing their dislike for
the market's positioning of educational toys or for specific mass marketed educational
toys.
4.2 GUIDING FRAMEWORK
The Azjen and Fishbein model of the theory of reasoned action (Azjen and
Fishbein, 1980) was used in this study as a guide to understand and analyze how mothers
form beliefs and attitudes that lead to the consumption of educational toys for their
preschool aged children. Figure II shows what this model looks like in the context of
educational toys.
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Belief toward an outcome o Buying
educational toys for a child
Evaluation of the outcome o How
educational toys meets personal standards
Beliefs about what others think o Beliefs of
friends, relatives, role models, etc. regarding buying educational toys
Motivation to comply with others o The personal
value placed on the opinions of other regarding buying educational toys
Attitude o Personal
disposition towards buying educational toys for a child
Intention o Setting a
budget for educational toys
Behaviour o Purchase
frequency of educational toys
o Types of educational toys purchased
Subjective Norm o Value of
opinion from friends, grandparents, children, etc.
Figure II. The Theory of Reasoned Action (Azjen and Fishbein, 1980) As a Guiding Framework for Research in the Context of Educational Toy Consumption
The following sections outline the details of these findings. The next section
outlines the details of the findings related to subjective norms. Next are other information
55
sources and finally the consumption behaviour. Please see chapter two for more details
regarding the use of this model.
4.3 SUBJECTIVE NORMS
This section focuses on the subjective norms, that is, beliefs of what others think
and motivation to comply with others. This helps to understand how social context has
an impact on mothers' beliefs about educational toys. Beliefs that lead to attitudes about
educational toys may in fact stem from more general beliefs about education, children's
play, toys, or even the parent's role. Therefore, some of the references to subjective
norms by the mothers interviewed in both groups may influence these general beliefs and
not relate directly to an educational toy. Multiple questions in the interviews were used
to capture the sources that mothers used in their subjective norms. Although the
interviews did not go so far as to ask the mothers to weigh each source's importance as a
contributing factor to their intentions, the mothers were able to express varying levels of
importance when speaking about these sources.
4.3.1 Subjective Norms of Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre
The mothers interviewed who enrolled their child(ren) in the University of
Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre referenced seven categories of subjective norms.
The following outlines the number of mothers in this group who referenced each of these
categories of subjective norms. Furthermore, specific examples of how the mothers from
this group referenced these subjective norms are provided to shed light on the value that
56
these mothers place on the subjective norms referenced in regards to their beliefs and
attitudes about the consumption of educational toys for their children.
Friends
Daycare/Teachers
Child(ren)
Partner
Other Family
Ontario Early Years Centre
Grandparents
Other Parents
Celebrities
Child Care Mothers
6
6
4
3
3
1
1
0
0
Table I. Subjective Norms Referenced by Child Care Mothers* * The above table shows the number of child care mothers who mentioned/referenced the subjective norm listed
As would be suspected for this group, six of the eight mothers interviewed cited
the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre as one source of information
that they used for educational toys. A few of the mothers said that the teachers at the
University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre recommended what they would
consider educational toys to them for their children. Most of the mothers however, just
referred to specific toys or the types of toys available in general at the Centre as a source
of information that they use when deciding which toys to buy their own child(ren) for the
home. One mother explains:
"... and the centre here has a lot more toy-toys than I would have expected ... when I first came in, and seeing how they use them and ... you know developmental contexts, has definitely changed the way I think about whether something can be educational or not."
It is clear that the mothers that enroll their children in the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre look to the Centre as one source of information when deciding
57
what types of toys to buy their children. This is consistent with the multiple sources that
point to parental beliefs as 'received knowledge' (Shweder, 1982, Gergen et al., 1986,
Whiting, 1974, Holy & Stuchlik, 1981, and Super & Harkness, 1986).
Equally as important as the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre
to this group of mothers are their friends. It could be argued that this is the most
important source of information for these mothers as 'friends' were cited multiple times
in each of the six interviews in which they were referred to. One mother illustrates:
"...I have a girlfriend who's done a PhD in education; early childhood so I refer to her a lot for some neat educational toys that you wouldn't normally find or get and I also refer to her for and my own knowledge about what are the different skills that children are learning at specific ages and toys that are appropriate for that, ... help you."
Moreover, for mothers who enroll their children in the University of Guelph Child Care
and Learning Centre, friends were cited more often than their partners as sources of
information for educational toys. In fact, only three of the eight mothers interviewed in
this group mentioned their partners when talking about people who influence their
opinions and actions regarding buying educational toys for their children. Referring back
to the literature in the area of parental beliefs about their children (McGillicuddy-DeLisi,
1982, 1985; McGillicuddy-DeLisi & Sigel, 1982; Sigel, 1985,1986; Sameroff & Feil,
1985; and Seifer & Sameroff, 1987), the majority of studies have focused on the mothers'
beliefs, attitudes, and actions. This may stem from the view that mothers are a
fundamental part of their child's daily play environment, and are well informed about
their child's play habits (typically more available than fathers for interaction with their
child), and more likely than fathers to exercise control over their child's play, especially
through choice and purchase of toys. This is supported by a study by Knight (1983)
58
which reported that mothers ranked themselves as having more control than fathers. This
may explain why the mothers interviewed in this group tend to refer to other mothers
(friends) as sources of information more often than to their partners.
Interestingly, four of the six mothers interviewed in this group cited their
child(ren) as a source of information when making decisions about educational toy
purchases when compared to their partners. One mother whose son is five and enrolled at
the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre spoke of her daughter who is
eight: ".. .my daughter would now know to pitch to me that it was educational, she's
smart enough to do that (laughter) she knows I will probably say yes." This example
may represent a child who has learned how to get what she wants, however, it also
represents that even the child has realized that her mother values the educational
properties of toys. Most of the other mothers in this group, however, are referring to
children who are not old enough to convince their parents of the benefits of a particular
toy. In these cases, the mothers are choosing to buy some toys simply because their
children have requested them, some of which happen to fall into their category of
educational toys.
In summary, from the eight in-depth interviews conducted with mothers who
enrolled their children in the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, the
two sources of information regarding educational toys referenced by the most mothers
were their friends and the daycare, or more specifically, teachers at the daycare. Other
more commonly believed sources of information such as partners and other family
members were mentioned much less by this group of mothers.
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4.3.2 Subjective Norms of Stay-at-Home Mothers
The eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed referenced eight categories of
subjective norms. The following outlines the number of mothers in this group who
referenced each of these categories of subjective norms. Furthermore, specific examples
of how the mothers from this group referenced these subjective norms are provided to
shed light on the value that these mothers place on the subjective norms referenced in
regards to their beliefs and attitudes about the consumption of educational toys for their
children.
Friends
Child(ren)
Grandparents
Daycare/Teachers
Celebrities
Other Family
Other Parents
Partner
Ontario Early Years Centre
Stay-at-home Mothers
7
4
4
3
2
2
2
2
0
Table II. Subjective Norms Referenced by Stay-at-home Mothers* * The above table shows the number of stay-at-home mothers who mentioned/referenced the subjective norm listed
For the eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed, 'friends' ranked as the most
mentioned source of information regarding educational toys. Half of the mothers
interviewed in this group mentioned grandparents and their own children as sources of
information regarding educational toys. Specifically, four of the stay-at-home mothers
60
mentioned their own parents or their partner's parents as sources of information regarding
educational toys.
In addition, the stay-at-home mothers did not mention their partners as sources of
information nearly as much as many of the other sources discovered throughout the
interview process. In fact, only two of the eight mothers interviewed in this group
mentioned their partners when talking about where their thoughts on educational toys
might come from.
The last important source of information for this group of mothers is daycare
providers. Although this group consisted solely of stay-at-home mothers, there were
some who chose to enroll their child(ren) in daycares, preschools, and to use private
daycare for one reason or another. Three of the stay-at-home mothers interviewed
mentioned their daycare providers as sources of information regarding educational toys.
Lastly, the eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed did mention a few more
sources of information, although they were only mentioned by one or two of the mothers
in this group. Two of the eight mothers interviewed in this group mentioned other
parents and celebrities as sources of information regarding educational toys. In fact, one
mother from this group gave a very specific example of how celebrities had influenced
her to purchase a toy for her infant:
"Oprah did a baby show with all the greatest toys that every baby should have and all the celebrities wrote in about their favourite toys, and I went out and bought almost every single one that the celebrities had recommended, and the most disappointing one that I got was the exersaucer, I forget who, Cindy Crawford or something said it was the greatest toy ever and I was so dis...I bought it in the States and it was like 90 dollars and it was not the greatest toy ever, like my son never wanted to sit in it for more than 5 minutes."
61
One more commonly hypothesized source of information, the interviewees'
partners was mentioned by very few of the eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed. This
could be explained by the study by Stolz (1967) which compared mothers and fathers on
the influences on parent behaviour and found that mothers and fathers tended to differ in
their goals for raising their children. Perhaps most interesting for this group of mothers
was the fact that grandparents and their own children were mentioned by an equal
number (half) of the mothers interviewed as sources of information regarding educational
toys. As 'friends' and 'grandparents' were mentioned as subjective norms more by the
stay-at-home mothers, the parental beliefs of this group of mothers could be categorized
by Newberger (1980) as conventional. In other words, where the needs of the child are
viewed in terms of generally accepted practices and traditional rationales (Newberger,
1980).
In summary, the source of information regarding educational toys mentioned most
by the stay-at-home mothers interviewed was their friends. One interesting finding from
this group was that three of the eight stay-at-home mothers cited child care providers as a
source of information regarding educational toys. This was most interesting because
these mothers choose to stay home with their children, therefore it was unexpected that
they would have enrolled their children in daycares or preschools, or used private daycare
providers.
4.4 OTHER INFORMATION SOURCES
While interviewing the two groups of mothers about what influences have played
a role in forming their beliefs regarding educational toys many sources outside the
62
domain of subjective norms came up. The following section outlines the results from the
interviews with the two groups of mothers regarding other information sources that were
referenced by the mothers. These other information sources also help in explaining how
other factors in the social context have an impact on the mothers' beliefs about
educational toys. Interestingly, as with the subjective norms, the mothers were able to
express varying levels of importance when speaking about these other information
sources.
4.4.1 Other Information Sources of the Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre
The mothers interviewed from the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning
Centre discussed twelve sources of information other than subjective norms regarding
their beliefs and attitudes about educational toys. The following outlines the number of
mothers in this group who referenced these other information sources. Additionally, to
clarify the value that these mothers place on these other information sources, specific
examples of how the mothers from this group referenced these other information sources
are provided.
63
In Stores
Experience
Magazine
Internet
Catalogues
Education
Print Media Advertising
Television Advertising
Toy Packaging
Newspaper
Societal Norms
Upbringing/Childhood
Children's Videos
News
Toy/Baby Expos
Child Care Mothers
5
4
4
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
Table III. Other Information Sources Referenced by Child Care Mothers* * The above table shows the number of child care mothers who mentioned/referenced the information source listed
Although not a subjective norm for the mothers who enroll their child(ren) in the
University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, store information seemed to be a
relevant source of information for educational toys (see Table II). In fact, five of the
eight mothers interviewed responded that they get some of their information about
educational toys from the stores that they shop in. In these cases, three of the mothers
were able to name specific stores that they frequent. These include Chapters,
Mastermind Educational Toys, Scholar's Choice, and Simply Wonderful Toys &
Gizmos. Two of the mothers specifically referred to toy packaging as a source of
information. One mother explains:
64
"I guess I'm kind of skewed by the market. They'll tell...you look at something as educational on the packaging, .. you read what it says on it and then you think oh that'll provide a lot of education for my child so that's why you purchase it, or vice versa, if there's nothing on there you don't always find, if you're looking for something more educational."
Interestingly, this finding can be linked back to a study by Garrison and Christakis (2005)
which focused on educational media. Garrison and Christakis (2005) found that the only
measure of an educational medium's benefits to a child is the parents' judgment based on
the product package labels. As can be seen, even though television advertising
(referenced twice) and print media advertising (referenced twice) were not frequently
cited by this group of mothers, the market still has a strong influence on their beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviours regarding educational toy consumption.
Referenced by four of the eight mothers from the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre as another source of information for educational toys were
magazine articles. One mother went into detail about her feelings about the use of
articles from one particular parent magazine.
"...ya Today's Parent I'm a little disappointed they've kind of gone main stream with a lot of toys so you'd hoped that they'd give a little bit more than what you've already seen in the stores you know it's main stream already."
Most of the mothers who mentioned magazine articles did not go into detail about how
they are used or what magazines they tend to reference.
Another noteworthy source of information regarding educational toys for the
mothers who have enrolled their children in the University of Guelph Child Care and
Learning Centre is past experience. This is something that was mentioned in one way or
another by four of the eight mothers interviewed and in these interviews, it was
mentioned more than once. For these mothers, past experience as sources of information
65
regarding educational toys usually referred to watching their own children interact with
toys whether these were toys they had purchased themselves for their children, toys the
children had received as gifts, or 'hand-me-downs' from friends and family. Often, the
mothers could remember a detailed account of a bad or good experience their child had
had with a toy. For example, one mother details her frustration with a Thomas the Tank
Engine toy:
"...it was a Thomas the Train blow bubble and it was to help him walk so it was like he had this little handle that he can walk and as he walked bubbles would come out of it. I thought it was kind of neat when I saw it in the package I thought oh great he loves you know trains and bubbles come out and it encourages him that he has to move and bubbles and there is an action but first of all the thing made so much noise like it didn't make a train noise it's just I think the way the bubbles were trying to come out it's like *sound effect* it made noise, the handle broke like it would fall every once in a while, um it wasn't easy to push, and the bubbles hardly came out so I was like that's bad that once was like oh this is just my son just didn't care for it, and it made me nervous because it made him nervous, he wanted to push it and it was harder to push, and the bubbles didn't come out and he wanted the bubbles, and it made things actually worse. So I would definitely say that was a disappointment."
Experience, mentioned by only half of the mothers in this group, was repeated by those
mothers in multiple sections of the interview and relayed this through the use of different
stories. For example, although most mothers related past experience through stories of
their own child(ren)'s experience with a toy such as the example above, one mother
recalled a story of past experience with her husband's children from a previous marriage
as she was present for their upbringing before she had a child of her own. One of the four
questions that Miller (1988) proposed has guided previous research on parental beliefs is
"what do parents think about children's thinking?" (Miller, 1988, p.260). The results of
this study show that it is not necessarily how the child thinks that determines what
66
parents buy but what the child does and how children play that determines what the
mothers buy.
The Internet, mentioned by three of the mothers in this group, was another notable
source of information for educational toys. The mothers described situations in which
they had gone online to look up ratings and information about toys. One mother
explains, "I went to website and looked for this toy and read how people review it". Two
other mothers in this group provided similar examples.
In summary, the most important source of information other than subjective
norms (mentioned by five of the eight mothers) was in-store information, specifically the
toy packaging—which is a part of the in-store experience. This group of mothers
mentioned another more common source of information, namely advertising, much less.
Interestingly, mentioned equally by half of the mothers in this group, as sources of
information regarding educational toys were magazine articles and the internet. Past
experience, although mentioned by only four of the mothers in this group as a source of
information was actually cited most frequently within these four interviews in one way or
another. As a source of information regarding educational toys, past experience provided
the most vivid and detailed stories for the mothers in this group.
4.4.2 Other Information Sources of the Stay-at-Home Mothers
The eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed discussed twelve sources of
information other than subjective norms regarding their beliefs and attitudes about
educational toys. The following outlines the number of mothers in this group who
referenced these other information sources. Additionally, specific examples of how the
67
mothers from this group referenced these other information sources are provided to
explain the value that these mothers place on these information sources.
Magazine
Internet
Experience
In Stores
Print Media Advertising
Catalogues
Education
Television Advertising
Children's Videos
News
Societal Norms
Toy/Baby Expos
Newspaper
Toy Packaging
Upbringing/Childhood
Stay-at-home Mothers
5
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
Table IV. Other Information Sources Referenced by Stay-at-home Mothers* * The above table shows the number of stay-at-home mothers who mentioned/referenced the information source listed
Interestingly, five of the eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed talked about
magazines as sources of information for educational toys. Through this, the mothers
referred to articles and other information pieces in magazines rather than advertisements.
Some of the actual magazines cited were Toys and Games, Canadian Family, Readers
Digest, and Today's Parent. For example, one mother explains:
"...I get a couple of parenting magazines that have descriptions too, there are ads in there but they also have reviews that at the end they'll say this is our fav... or you know the top ten list, the top ten toys of the year, top ten new toys, ... so there's one where there's new toys every year, and there's another one that they have a section
68
called our favourite things, so it's not necessarily new but they're saying, here, Today's Parent, it's their 20th anniversary and they look back 20 years of toys and then the top ten toys over 20 years and, and ..., we have a lot of stuff like Duplo and the Little Tykes Cozy Coupe and that sort of stuff, that's kind of like a classic that come up and so I read that stuff. Yep."
Magazines were mentioned most by the stay-at-home mothers as a source of information.
Half of the mothers in this group mentioned the Internet as a source of
information. These mothers use the Internet to research educational toys in multiple
ways. For example, some mothers look up brands they have heard about and rare
products they cannot find in stores, while others use the internet to research what other
mothers have recommended. One mother offered:
"Yes, uh, if they, well I'll do things like I go onto Amazon and read reviews about what other parents have written about or message board or forums on the computer and read what other people have to say about certain toys, and again that would be about a toy that one of our kids asked for it or I saw it somewhere and I go read about what more moms have to say. Um, before picking it out."
The stay-at-home mothers mentioned the Internet as a source of information regarding
educational toys.
One more important source of information for this group of mothers is in store
information. In fact, three of the stay-at-home mothers cited in store experiences as
sources of information. The actual stores referenced by the stay-at-home mothers
included Zellers, Scholar's Choice and Simply Wonderful Toys and Gizmos. However,
the stay-at-home mothers did not specifically refer to toy packaging as a source of
information.
Also, mentioned as a source of information regarding educational toys by three of
the stay-at-home mothers was past experience. One mother described how experience
with her first child shaped her consumption behaviour for her subsequent children.
69
"Experience, we're down to my third baby now, so what we did with our first, from what we do with our third, and, by watching him play and knowing what he did and what was worth having, um, that shaped our buying habits for our baby that we have now. With our first baby I did expect, I thought, if I buy the right choice then he'll be able to play for an hour and he'll be fine, but that's not the way it works. Uh, I guess toys don't entertain kids, kids develop the skills to entertain themselves with the toy, because that just comes from having,... practice there's a lot of mistakes the first time around and there's a lot of sucky gifts that you end up getting rid of because nobody's play with it."
All of the mothers who mentioned past experience as a source of information from this
group spoke about experience with multiple children. Since past experience is specific
to the individual, this finding is consistent with Kelly (1955) who argues that parental
beliefs are like 'personal constructs' and, therefore, they must vary from person to
person.
Lastly, the eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed did mention quite a few more
sources of information although only one or two of the mothers in this group mentioned
them. These included the news, children's videos and baby expos. Children's videos
were an interesting finding of this study as a source of information regarding educational
toys. Specifically, one stay-at-home mother mentioned the Baby Einstein videos as a
source of information. This is because this series of videos does in fact include segments
showing actual toys, usually rare and for the most part ones that would fit into the
mother's definition of educational toys. Also, unexpected although understandable was
the reference to the Baby Exposition.
In summary, five of the eight mothers referenced magazine articles as a source of
information, making it the most popular source of information outside of subjective
norms for the stay-at-home mothers interviewed. One more common source of
information, advertising, was mentioned by very few of the eight stay-at-home mothers
70
interviewed. Perhaps most interesting for this group of mothers was the fact that the
Internet was mentioned by an equal number (half) of the mothers interviewed as sources
of information regarding educational toys. Lastly, the source of information mentioned
most often within the interviews in one way or another was past experience. As a source
of information regarding educational toys, past experience provided the most vivid and
detailed stories for the mothers in this group.
4.5 CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOUR
The findings of this section conclude with the investigation of mothers' actual
consumption behaviour of educational toys. These results include mothers of children
enrolled in the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre as well as a group
of stay-at-home mothers. The findings present the types of educational toys that the
mothers have bought and choose to buy for their child(ren) under the age of five as well
as the frequency of purchase, budget for toys, and reasons for buying these toys.
4.5.1 Types of Toys Purchased
Multiple questions throughout the in-depth interviews were designed to
investigate what the mothers actually choose to purchase for their children. The photo-
elicitation technique did not always catch the mother's purchase behaviour as some
mothers choose pictures of educational toys purchased for their child by someone else for
one reason or another. Brief notes to compare the pictures taken by both groups of
mothers showed some differences although these pictures may not be representative of
the types of toys that the mothers purchased as they also included gifted toys and toys
71
this Fisher Price one on the shelf and I thought it was cheap relatively speaking so I just got it."
The castle purchased by this mother had fit into her definition of educational toys
although that was not the specific reason that she had purchased it. A few of the other
mothers in this group were also able to use specific examples of toys that they had
recently purchased for their children. For example, one mother explained how one toy
called 'Zoobs' that she had purchased for her child was, to her at least, an educational toy
because it allowed her child to be creative. Another parent also commented on how a
very popular collection of stuffed animals called Webkinz is educational for her son
although he had wanted it for two months before she actually purchased it for him.
Interestingly, the brand Lego was mentioned by one mother in this group when asked
what types of toys she buys her children most often. Overall, the mothers in this group
choose to buy their children a variety of toys although as will be seen in the following
sections they are able to clearly verbalize why they purchase some toys over others for
their children.
4.5.1.2 Types of Toys Purchased by Stay-at-Home Mothers
The stay-at-home mothers also used a range of very general descriptions to
specific examples to explain the toys that they choose to buy for their children. Some of
the very general descriptions of toys that were mentioned by the stay-at-home group of
mothers included "gender friendly toys", "outdoor things", and "imaginary play" toys.
Categories of toys that were mentioned by this group of mothers included "books",
"puzzles", "sand toys", computer games, "craft type things", "board games", "videos",
and "shape sorters". For the stay-at-home mothers, there were more instances where they
73
could provide very specific examples of toys that they had purchased for their children.
For example, one mother described a LeapFrog toy that she had recently purchased for
her child because it had been recommended to her by a friend;
"And I don't exactly know how it teaches the child the original word to start with, but, I don't know, I haven't looked at it, then you put them in order, then it says the word, and she said it's even phenomenal how he learned how to put those and say the word."
Another stay-at-home mother described how she purchased her daughter a suitcase and a
sleeping bag as toys for her to play pretend with:
"Urn, we actually bought her a suitcase um, it's so funny we bought her a suitcase as a toy um, well strawberry shortcake suitcase because we're travelling a little bit, and she loves to pretend that she's traveling so we got her a little suitcase for herself and she loves to pack it and play with it and we actually got her a sleeping bag as well because we're going to go camping um, and she likes to pretend she's camping at home so, it's something she's allowed to pull out. We didn't like her playing with our real stuff."
Other mothers in this group gave specific examples of the toys that they choose to buy for
their children. Some of these included "Play-Doh", "plush Backyardigans", and
"crayons". Again, similar to the child care mothers, the stay-at-home mothers offered a
wide variety of toys as examples of their consumption behaviour yet they were able to
provide detailed explanations of what they wanted these toys to do for their children and
why they choose to purchase the toys that they did.
4.5.2 Purchase Frequency of Toys
Two questions in the in-depth interviews were added to try and capture the
purchase frequency of the mothers interviewed. Although neither question related
specifically to educational toys, it can be seen from the interviews that the mothers
regarded most if not all of the toys that they purchased to be educational in some way for
74
their children. The first question that dealt with purchase frequency was to discover the
last time they had actually purchased a toy for their child(ren) while the second purchase
frequency question related to the average frequency with which they tend to purchase
toys for their child(ren).
4.5.2.1 Purchase Frequency of Toys for Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre
Three mothers who enroll their children in the University of Guelph Child Care
and Learning Centre reported that the last time that they had purchased a toy for their
child(ren) was about two weeks ago. Two of the mothers responded that the last time
they had purchased a toy for their child(ren) was a month ago. Responses in this group
ranged from the current week to Christmas (four to nine months before interview). When
asked on average how often they purchased toys for their children, the mothers in this
group had responses that ranged from once a week to two to three times a year. No two
mothers in this group provided the same answer to this question. For example, another
mother responded that on average she purchases toys for her child(ren) about twice a
month. Overall, there seems to be very little consistency in the purchase frequency of the
mothers interviewed for this study who enroll their child(ren) in the University of Guelph
Child Care and Learning Centre.
4.5.2.2 Purchase Frequency of Toys for Stay-at-Home Mothers
For the group of stay-at-home mothers, there was a range of responses for
questions relating to purchase frequency. Three of the mothers in this group reported that
the last time they had purchased a toy for their child(ren) was no more than one week
75
prior to the time of the interview. Three other mothers in this group reported dates that
all fit into the category of two to three months prior to the interview dates while one
mother reported that the last time she had purchased a toy for her child(ren) was at
Christmas (almost six months before interview). When asked on average how often they
buy toys for their child(ren), the mothers in this group provided responses that ranged
from weekly to two to three times a year. No two mothers provided the same answer to
this question in this group. However, not all mothers in this group provided clear
measurable answers to this question. For example, one mother added qualifiers to her
answer by stating that she buys toys "now and then" for small things and otherwise just
Christmas and birthdays. Overall, there seems to be very little consistency in the
purchase frequency of the stay-at-home mothers who were interviewed for this study.
4.5.3 Budget for Toys
One question in the in-depth interview for the two groups of mothers asked about
their budgeting habits for toys for their children. The following outlines the responses to
this question for the group of mothers interviewed from the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre and the group of stay-at-home mothers interviewed for this
study.
4.5.3.1 Budget for Toys of Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre
For the group of mothers interviewed from the University of Guelph Child Care
and Learning Centre there was a common response to the question regarding budget.
76
More than half of the mothers responded with "not really" or "no" and some expanded on
this with an explanation. For example, one mother elaborated:
"...not an actually budget like where I say it it's basically whatever I got and if I see something I really like if I can get it I get if I can't I just don't get it that's how my budget really works."
The other three mothers in this group indicated that they did have a budget. One mother
elaborated regarding her everyday budget for the children and her Christmas budget:
"Um, yes, so, we, we set a budget for, um, I'm afraid we're real Dollar Store aficionados. So the children have an allowance and they can have a dollar or two dollars and my mother-in-law is living with us, so to her it's like a Saturday penny. When she was a kid her grandma used to take her and they would go and spend a penny, um at the toy store so this is the dollar store equivalent, so the children get opportunity to spend it on whatever they like. So that's, we have a budget for that, and then kind of at Christmas, we all, we'll set a rough budget which we continuously exceed every single Christmas."
One mother began her answer to the budget questions with "I try to keep it down" while
another mother also expanded with an explanation of her Christmas time budget.
Overall, it seems that none of the eight mothers in this group have a definite year round
budget for toys for their children and even seasonal budgets seem to be very flexible.
4.5.3.2 Budget for Toys of Stay-at-Home Mothers
For the group of stay-at-home mothers interviewed there was a definite
conclusion regarding the answer to the question of budget for toys. In fact, more than
half of the mothers responded that they did in fact have a budget for how much they
spend on toys for the child(ren). These mothers tended to be very specific about when
and how much they spend on toys for their child(ren). For example, one mother reported:
"Well, we only buy at birthdays and Christmas, I don't think there's any other time that we buy. No, that's the only time that we buy them toys. Unless we're at a dollar store and there's a you know
77
little dollar thing here or there. Um, we don't find that that makes a lot more junk, lying around our house, and a lot more things are broken, a lot more garbage, um, so yea, probably just twice a year and you know at birthdays they probably get one thing from their siblings and one thing from us, and again at Christmas, you know, one thing from their sibling and maybe two or three things more."
Most of the mothers elaborated by relating a specific dollar amount they are willing to
spend per child for Christmas time and birthdays. For example, one mother explains:
"No, not really, I mean, we don't, I don't really buy him toys unless it's his birthday or Christmas, and you know of course I would have a budget for the entire Christmas list I wouldn't have it where, you know $30.00 on toys or whatever, I certainly wouldn't spend, I wouldn't spend more than $45.00 on one single toy for him."
Only two mothers in the group of stay-at-home mothers reported that they did not have a
budget for how much they will spend on toys for their child(ren). For example, one
mother interviewed in this group explained; "I, ya, I mean I pretty much buy him
whatever I want to buy him whenever. If I see something that I like and I think will be
good for him then I just buy it." Overall, it is clear to see that the majority of the stay-at-
home mothers do set budgets for how much they will spend on toys for their children.
4.5.4 Reason for Purchasing Toys
Throughout the interviews, the mothers in both groups were asked questions
pertaining to why they bought a particular toy or why they chose to purchase the types of
toys that they had described. These questions generally related specifically to the
consumption of toys that the mothers interviewed believed to be educational. The
sections outline the reasons for buying toys referenced by the child care mothers and the
stay-at-home mothers interviewed in this study.
78
4.5.4.1 Reasons for Purchasing Toys for Mothers with Children in Child Care Centre
The stay-at-home mothers interviewed referenced fifteen different reasons for
buying the types of toys that they do for their children. The following outlines the
number of mothers in this group who referenced each of these reasons. The reasons
referenced are grouped in the following table into one of three general categories of
educational, child centered, and other. Through analysis of the interviews with both
groups of mothers, it was discovered that many of the reasons provided were similar in
terms of their general purpose. For example, some mothers in this group explained that
they will buy a toy simply because their child wants it or because it will entertain and
keeps the interest of the child. Both of these reasons for buying a toy are child centered
reasons. Whereas, some mothers gave reasons such as that the toys they purchase
develop certain skills in their child or that their child will learn from the specific toy they
choose to purchase. These are both educational reasons for purchasing a toy. Reasons
provided that were neither educational or child centered are listed as other reasons for
purchasing toys. In addition, specific examples of how the mothers from this group
referenced these reasons in the interviews are provided.
79
Reasons for Purchasing Toys Educational
Child Centered
Other
Child Care Mothers
Develops certain skills (age appropriate) Will learn from/Educational Explore new concepts Promotes interaction Provides a sense of accomplishment /self-esteem
5 5 2 0 0
Child wants it What the child seems to be interested in Will spend a lot of time playing with Entertains/keeps their interest Suited to personality of the child
4 3 3 2 0
Durable Impulse buys Nostalgia Recommended Won an award Different from what other children have Is viewed as needed On sale / reasonably priced Gender friendly Safe
3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0
Table V. Reason for Purchasing Toys for Child Care Mothers* * The above table shows the number of child care mothers who mentioned/referenced the reasons for purchasing toys listed
For the mothers who enroll their children in the University of Guelph Child Care
and Learning Centre, there was a consistent response as to why they purchase the types of
toys that they do for their children. The top two categories for this group of mothers is
that the types of toys that they choose to purchase will develop certain skills in their
child(ren) or more generally that these types of toys will be educational in some way for
the child(ren). For example, one mother explains specifically how certain skill
acquisitions are important to her when looking for a toy. For example, one mother
explains, "I think it depends on how I, like how he develops. I want to buy toys that can
build up something that he is short of, he is not so good at". Another mother describes
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her reasons for purchasing toys, "the biggest factor is my sense of whether, it will be a ...
good toy for my kids, to use or to learn". From both of these categories of responses it is
clear that the educational benefits of toys are very important to this group of mothers.
The second most important reason that these mothers gave for buying the types of
toys that they reported purchasing for their child(ren) was that their child(ren) had asked
for the toys in question. One mother from this group explains how her daughter
influences the toys purchases in their house.
"...she took us to the store and showed us where it was and she's been telling us since Christmas that that's really what she wanted for Christmas. Not what we did get her, I can't remember what we did get her, whatever we really got her is what she wanted in September."
This mother goes on to explain how her daughter is able to convince her parents to buy
her the toys that she asks for.
Other reasons provided by the mothers from the University of Guelph Child Care
and Leaning Centre included that the toys seem to be what the child is interested in, that
the child will spend a lot of time playing with the toy. For example, one mother from this
group explains the current interest that her daughter has and how that has affected her
purchase behaviour of toys.
"...has gotten really interested in puzzles for example and so I'm kind of on the look-out for a good puzzle, to, to build on that interest that she obviously has, um but I haven't bought one yet, but when I see one that fits I'll buy it. "
Another mother explains how she bought a toy that her children will spend a lot of
time playing with.
"Um, I was just in Target shopping and again I saw it and I thought AWESOME they will be able to have their castle that one of his friends had and they played on it, or played with it for hours..."
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This mother obviously knew that her children would spend a lot of time with this toy
because they had already spent a lot of time playing with it at a friend's house. This
reason for buying toys was mentioned by three of the mothers from this group.
Also mentioned by three of the mothers interviewed in this group were the
reasons that the toys they bought would be durable or that they were just impulse buys.
Interestingly, there were a few responses such as that the toy had won a toy award and
that the toys that they purchased were different from what other children had that were
each only mentioned once in this group. It must be noted that many of the reasons
provided by the mothers for buying the types of toys that they do were brought up in
conjunction with other reasons. Thus, it is not the case that one toy is bought for any one
particular reason but rather a toy might be purchased for multiple reasons cited.
4.5.4.2 Reasons for Purchasing Toys for Stay-at-Home Mothers
The eight stay-at-home mothers interviewed referenced seventeen different
reasons for buying the types of toys that they do for their children. The following
outlines the number of mothers in this group who referenced each of these reasons. The
reasons referenced are grouped in the following table into one of three general categories
of educational, child centered, and other. Through analysis of the interviews with both
groups of mothers, it was discovered that many of the reasons provided were similar in
terms of their general purpose. For example, some mothers in this group explained that
they will buy a toy simply because their child wants it or because it will entertain and
keeps the interest of the child. Both of these reasons for buying a toy are child centered
reasons. However, some mothers gave reasons such as that the toys they purchase
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develop certain skills in their child or that their child will learn from the specific toy they
choose to purchase. These are both educational reasons for purchasing a toy. Reasons
provided that were neither educational or child centered are listed as other reasons for
purchasing toys. In addition, particular examples of how the mothers from this group
referenced these reasons during the interviews are provided.
Reasons for Purchasing Toys
Educational
Child Centered
Other
Stay-at-home Mothers
Develops certain skills (age appropriate) Will learn from/Educational Promotes interaction Provides a sense of accomplishment /self-esteem Explore new concepts
5 4 2 2
0
Child wants it What the child seems to be interested in Entertains/keeps their interest Will spend a lot of time playing with Suited to personality of the child
5 7 4 3 1
Durable Recommended Is viewed as needed Nostalgia Gender friendly Impulse buys On sale / reasonably priced Safe Different from what other children have Won an award
5 5 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0
Table VI. Reason for Purchasing Toys for Stay-at-home Mothers* * The above table shows the number of stya-at-home mothers who mentioned/referenced the reasons for purchasing toys listed
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For the stay-at-home mothers who were interviewed for this study, the
overwhelming majority reported that the main reason they buy the types of toys that they
do is that those are the types of toy that they believe their child is interested in. As one
mother put it, "I think the thing is if the child has an interest in that area." It would seem
that the mothers are using their direct interaction with their child(ren) to predict which
toys would be best for their child. Thus these mothers adapt their own behaviour in the
consumption of toys to their direct experience with their child(ren). This is consistent
with the conclusions drawn by McGillicuddy-DeLisi (1982) that mothers generally have
more experience with their children and therefore, can predict specific outcomes more
clearly and hence adapt their behaviour to the child.
The group of stay-at-home mothers also explained that they tended to buy the toys
that they did simply because their child had made a request for it. One mother explains
how letting her children choose a toy is actually educational on its own.
"...every once in a while they get to choose, and they make a choice and that's an education, so if they want something and they get it it's junk they're going to figure out that it wasn't worth it..."
Other mothers in this group admitted that they would buy a toy for their child simply
because the child had asked for that toy, although this did not seem to be a common
practice for this group of mothers.
Five of the eight mothers interviewed from this group mentioned that it was
important for them that the toys that they purchased would develop certain skills in the
child. One mother details her reasons for buying the toys that she does.
"...yeah I just, the ones that I think are good, than yeah, I think they're very good for her development and encourages her to read or learn to count and just expands her imagination and creativity so yeah I think it's very important."
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Answers provided in this category were not as general as just being educational. The
mothers seemed to describe the skills that they believe that their child should be learning
at the stage that they are currently in.
Half of the mothers in this group reported that they bought the types of toys that
they did because their child would learn from it, which was similar to how many of the
mothers described that they wanted toys that would develop certain skills. These two
reasons for buying toys were separated because the first was very general and related
only to educational toys whereas the second was specific and related to age appropriate
toys. Also mentioned by half of the mothers in this group was the motivation to buy toys
that would keep their children entertained. It must be noted that many of the reasons
provided by the mothers for buying the types of toys that they do were brought up in
conjunction with other reasons. Thus although half of the mothers in this group
referenced buying toys that would keep their children entertained it does not mean that
this is the sole reason they have for buying any particular toy.
Another very popular reason for buying toys for this group of mothers was that
the types of toys that they tend to purchase are durable. For some mothers the discussion
of durability related to budget concerns. One mother explains:
"I want something that's going to last, so I don't want a cheap toy, like I don't want a toy from the Dollar store that's going to fall apart into 5 pieces all over my house, and I want something that we'll be able to pass down to all 3, 'cause they're so close in age...".
However, another mother in this group related durability directly to quality.
"I would pay more for a toy, that won't fall apart than get a cheap deal on a toy that will last a week, you know, maybe what that means not buying as many toys because I choose to spend my money on maybe one better quality toy, so that forms my, that's definitely part of my shopping opinion..."
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Although this mother did not define quality, it seems that she was simply referring to
durability. Thus, it would seem that this mother values 'quality' toys for her children and
that durability is not just about saving money.
Also mentioned by five of the eight mothers interviewed in this group was that the
toys they tended to purchase were recommended to them by others. One mother admits
"I probably wouldn't have bought that if my friend hadn't told me how good the next one
up for her was". Another mother describes the same toy which had been recommended
to her also,
"And probably also the Word Wammer, 'cause it probably would have been one that I can distinctly remember talking to my girlfriend and making sure and probably just because it's battery operated and because I shy away from battery operated things."
This group of mothers tended to rely heavily on the recommendation of toys from the
other people and actually went out and searched for toys that had been recommended to
them.
Other reasons provided by this group were that the toys they purchased would
provide the child with a sense of accomplishment, that they suited the personality of the
child, and that they promoted interaction with the child. Interestingly only one mother
reported on how important safety was to her when choosing toys.
4.5.5. Summary of Consumption Behaviour
Overall, there were no noticeable differences in the explanations of what the
mothers in the two groups chose to buy for their children. However, the mothers were
able to clearly verbalize the reasons that they bought the toys that they did during the
interviews. It may be that, as both groups of mothers agreed that almost any toy could be
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educational if used in a certain way, they are able to buy such a large variety of toys to
fulfill what they believe to be the educational needs of their children. For the child care
mothers, the top two reasons for buying the types of toys that they do are to develop
certain skills in their child(ren) or more generally, that these types of toys will be
educational in some way for the child(ren). For the stay-at-home mothers, the majority
reported that the main reason they buy the types of toys that they do is that those are the
types of toys that they believe their child is interested in. As a well educated group of
mothers, both the child care mothers and the stay-at-home mothers are similar in some
respects. However, the child care mothers tend to model the beliefs of the Child Care
Centre more, whereas, since the stay-at-home mothers spend more time with their
children they tend to use their observation of their child(ren) as a guide for their
behaviour.
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5. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
This summary section starts with the overall understanding of the definition of
educational toys from different stakeholders such as mass marketers, niche marketers,
childcare professionals, and mothers. This section outlines the results from the necessary
preparatory research conducted for this thesis. Comparative findings of the two groups of
mothers are presented next. The comparative findings although initially intended to
cover a broader section of categories, focus on the results from this study, which provided
the most depth. These results are guided most by Miller's (1998) second question for
categorizing research on parental beliefs, that is, where do parent's ideas (relating to
children) come from?
5.1 OVERALL UNDERSTANDING
First, this study investigated the definition of educational toys by the marketers.
Based on some observational findings, it seems that mass marketers and niche marketers
are different in their way of presenting the meaning of educational toys. Findings seem to
indicate that mass marketers define educational toys as different from other toys, that is,
educational toys are toys that teach children academic skills. Mass marketers thus seem to
market educational toys by promoting the extra value that they believe these types of toys
offer to the development of the child. In other words, it may be that mass marketer's prey
on insecurities of parents who are trying to do their best. Niche marketers, on the other
hand, promote the value in almost any toy and, therefore, do not define educational toys
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as separate from other toys. Niche marketers define educational toys as any toy that helps
a child to develop a skill.
Furthermore, this study looks at the definition of educational toys from the
perspective of the childcare professionals from the University of Guelph Child Care and
Learning Centre. All of the childcare professionals interviewed seemed to agree with the
belief that almost any toy can be educational if used in the right way. It seems that, like
the niche marketers, childcare professionals value social and creative skills equally with
academic skills such as mathematics and science and, therefore, do not separate
educational toys from other toys in the way that mass marketers do.
All of the mothers interviewed in this study seemed to have very strong opinions
of what they considered educational for their children. The mothers interviewed in both
groups used examples of skills acquired by the child during play as a way to measure and
explain how a toy could be educational. Moreover, all of the mothers from the
University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, were able to explain how they
believed the market positions and/or defines educational toys. The group of mothers
from the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, tended to admit that their
definition of educational toys might overlap with their perception of the market's
definition. Many of the stay-at-home mothers used specific characteristics, namely
technology, as a way to explain how they believed the market defines educational toys.
Most of the stay-at-home mothers tended to disagree with their perceived market
definition. In fact, many of the stay-at-home mothers seemed to almost dislike their view
of the market's positioning of educational toys or for specific mass marketed educational
toys. However, these mothers were careful to stress the differences in the types of toys
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that they choose to fulfill their requirements for educational toys in the lives of their
children.
Collaboratively, the findings from this study are consistent with Ellen Seiter's
(1992) research, which concluded that much of the time the difference between
"promotional" and "quality" toys had to do more with aesthetics than the ways in which
children interacted with the toys. Firstly, the childcare professionals mainly agreed that
in terms of actual educational value, all toys were considered educational in some way.
Yet, when describing types of educational toys the mothers in both groups tended to use
visual characteristics to separate their own categories from those that are mass marketed.
For example, 'technology' was used quite often when the mothers described mass
marketed toys. Going back to Pugh's (2005) results regarding toys advertised in
catalogues, mass marketed toys are presented to parents as a solution to not being able to
actually be with the child, while still remaining a good parent. However, the mothers
interviewed in this study often gave examples of more basic toys when talking about
educational toys they choose for their child(ren). Seiter (1992) would classify these types
of toys as classic toys, which tend to be targeted more towards middle-class college-
educated parents.
5.2 COMPARATIVE FINDINGS OF BOTH GROUPS OF MOTHERS
This section outlines the comparisons between the results from the groups of
mothers who enrolled their child(ren) in the University of Guelph Child Care and
Learning Centre and the group of stay-at-home mothers. The comparative findings begin
with a discussion of the similarities and differences between the two groups of mothers in
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terms of subjective norms and other information sources that most likely lead to their
consumption behaviour of educational toys.
5.2.1 Comparative Findings of the Subjective Norms of Both Groups of Mothers
When looking at the similarities and differences between the results regarding
subjective norms from the groups of mothers who enroll their child(ren) in the University
of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre and the group of stay-at-home mothers, both
groups mentioned 'friends,' mostly as a source of information. However, for the group of
mothers from the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, more (seven)
mothers mentioned their friends as a source of information.
This study found that, 'partners,' were not mentioned as often, as many of the
other information sources discussed throughout the interviews. This was true for both
groups, thus one can conclude that, 'partners,' was not one of the relevant factors within
the context of educational toys consumption behaviour.
Interestingly four of the stay-at-home mothers mentioned their own parents or
their partners' parents as sources of information regarding educational toys. Only one of
the mothers interviewed in the group of mothers from the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre, mentioned their parents or their partner's parents, as sources
of information. Although not consistent between the two groups, this relates back to the
article by Smith (2005) which discussed the importance of grandparents in raising
children in traditional Western cultures. An argument can be made that the stay-at-home
mothers were more apt to rely on grandparents, as they may have more time to stay in-
touch while the mother from the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre,
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may have a more hectic schedule and thus may not have as much time to maintain close
relations with extended family. Moreover, as some of the mothers who enroll their
child(ren) in the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, are students at the
University of Guelph, they may be quite far away from their extended family members.
Likely, they are in Guelph, to pursue their education which would obviously make it
more difficult to maintain close relations with extended family.
Half of the mothers from both groups mentioned their own children as sources of
information. Obviously, a toy chosen for the child must be one, which the child would
want to play with. As explained by Hughes (1999), one of the elements of play is that the
child must freely choose it. Therefore, it can be seen that the child's opinion must be
important when choosing toys.
Many mothers who enroll their children in the University of Guelph Child Care
and Learning Centre, referred to the Centre as a related subjective norm in their
interviews. However, the group of stay-at-home mothers did not mention much about the
Ontario Early Years Centre. This was very interesting because some of the stay-at-home
mothers, were actually recruited through and interviewed at the Guelph Satellite Ontario
Early Years Centre.
In summary, from the 16 in-depth interviews conducted with both groups of
mothers, 'friends,' was the most commonly referenced group of people who influence the
mothers in creating attitudes regarding educational toys. Friends were reported even
more frequently by both groups of mothers than their children and their spouses. The
largest and most predictable differences in subjective norms for these two groups of
mothers was that the group of mothers from the University of Guelph Child Care and
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Learning Centre, referenced their child(ren)'s daycare twice as often as the group of stay-
at-home mothers. Similarly as varied between the two groups of mothers is the number
of mothers who referenced grandparents as sources of information for educational toys.
Where grandparents were referenced as sources of information by four of the stay-at-
home mothers, only one of the mothers recruited from the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre, referenced grandparents in the subjective norms section.
5.2.2 Comparative Findings of the Other Information Sources of Both Groups of Mothers
A few other information sources such as in store experience, toy packaging,
newspapers, one's own childhood, and internet were mentioned as sources of
information. However, there were some similarities and differences between the two
groups of mothers in terms of how relevant these are to the educational toy consumption
context.
Similar to the first group of mothers, the stay-at-home mothers cited in store
experiences as sources of information. This is consistent with Goodnow (1988) who
explains that the argument for ideas or beliefs being self-constructed, refers to the idea
that people develop ideas or beliefs from their direct experiences, and therefore, each
person has different beliefs. The toy packaging was mentioned as a source of
information regarding educational toys by the first group of mothers, but not by the stay-
at-home mothers. Another source of information that was mentioned by one mother from
the first group was an article in the newspaper, and yet another source for this group that
was not cited by the stay-at-home mothers was their own upbringing and childhood.
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However, more mothers from this second group (four) mentioned the internet as a
source of information when compared to the University of Guelph Child Care and
Learning Centre, mothers. Even though the stay-at-home mothers mentioned the internet
as a source of information regarding educational toys more than the first group of
mothers, the difference was not as strong as might have been expected.
Based on the overall findings, one can conclude that the eight stay-at-home
mothers interviewed did mention quite a few sources of information that were not
mentioned by the eight University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, mothers.
Looking back at the literature, one can conclude that the multitude of other information
sources referenced by the mothers interviewed in this study may represent coping
methods to the challenges parents face in selecting the right toys for their children as
referenced by Auerback (2004).
5.2.3 Comparative Findings of the Consumption Behaviour of Both Groups of Mothers
The first area of consumption behaviour investigated was what types of toys the
mothers in each group actually chose to purchase for their children. This was
investigated through questions and through the pictures that the mother had taken of their
children, which were used in the interview process. The comparative notes from the
pictures taken by the mothers were not entirely representative of the types of toys that the
mothers purchased for their children as they included gifted toys and hand-me-down toys.
However, the comparative notes from the pictures taken by the mothers did show some
differences between the two groups in terms of the types of toys that these mothers have
in their homes for their children to play with. For example, the group of stay-at-home
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mothers had more brand name (mass-merchandized) toys in the pictures that they took
for the purpose of the in-depth interview. Interestingly, both groups of mother had taken
pictures of their children playing with household items as toys such as chairs and food
coloring.
The second area investigated regarding the consumption behaviour of these two
groups of mothers was purchase frequency. Purchase frequency varied from mother to
mother but no consistency within groups or comparisons between groups can be drawn
from this study.
The third area that this thesis looked at when investigating the consumption
behaviour of the group of mothers from the University of Guelph Child Care and
Learning Centre and the group of stay-at-home mothers was budget for toys. This area of
questioning did not relate specifically to educational toys as that would have required the
mothers to decipher between how much they spent on educational toys versus other toys.
This did not seem to be a relevant distinction to make as the majority of mothers from
both groups tended to agree with the childcare professionals in that they viewed almost
any toy to be educational. This area of questioning did show some difference between
the two groups of mothers. In fact, although the responses to the question regarding
budget varied a bit, it did seem that none of the mothers from the University of Guelph
Child Care and Learning Centre, set year-round budgets for toy purchases. However,
some of the mothers in this group talked vaguely about seasonal budgets. In contrast, the
stay-at-home mothers were stricter in terms of setting budgets for how much they would
spend on toys for their children. This may have been due to difference in household
income. Although household income of participants was not collected, one needs to note
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that the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre, is a relatively expensive
childcare facility at a cost of between, $33.72 to $51.23 per day, depending on the age of
the child for full time care (University of Guelph, 2007). Examples of the cost for full
time care (for children in the same age range) for other local public child care centres
include: 1) the YMCA-YWCA of Guelph ranging from $33 to $47 per day (YMCA-
YWCA of Guelph, 2008), and 2) Tiny Tim Developmental School Inc. ranging from
$30.60 to $46.00 per day (Tiny Tim Developmental School Inc., 2006).
The last area of consumption behaviour that was investigated for the two groups
of mothers in this study was reasons for purchasing toys. This section of questioning
looked at why the mothers in both groups chose to purchase the types of toys that they
did for their pre-school aged children. One finding was that similar to the group of
daycare mothers, the stay-at-home mothers used a range from very general to specific
examples when discussing buying or choosing educational toys for their children.
Interestingly there were a few responses why the mothers in the first group tended to buy
the toys that they did that were not provided by the stay-at-home mothers. These reasons
include, that they were gender friendly toys, that they were different from what other
children had, that they had won a toy award, and that they helped the child(ren) to
explore new concepts. There were also some reasons provided by the stay-at-home
mothers that were not used by the group of mothers from the University of Guelph Child
Care and Learning Centre. These included that the toys they purchased would provide
the child with a sense of accomplishment, that they suited the personality of the child,
and that they promoted interaction with the child.
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6. CONTRIBUTIONS & FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
The contributions and future research directions section begins with the
conceptual and managerial contributions resulting from this study and follows with the
future research directions for research on parental beliefs in the context of toy
consumption.
6.1 CONTRIBUTIONS
This section presents the conceptual and managerial contributions resulting from
the findings of this study.
6.1.1 Conceptual Contributions
Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) model of the theory of reasoned action was used as a
conceptual framework for this study. The use of this framework to guide this study and to
organize the findings from this research leads to interesting insights with regard to the
consumption of educational toys. Although it was never the goal of this study to extend
the theory itself, its use in this context has broadened the application of the theory of
reasoned action.
Results and findings from this study cannot easily be adapted to fit into the model
of the theory of reasoned action as originally presented by Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980).
Unfortunately, this study was not able to capture specific and relevant factors from the
mothers interviewed regarding their evaluations of the outcome or their motivation to
comply with others. To capture these aspects of the theory of reasoned action would
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have involved questioning the mothers about how the educational toys available to them
meet their personal standards for educational toys for children as well as the personal
value they place on the opinions of others regarding buying educational toys. Moreover,
although some of the mothers gave examples that included the actual perspectives of the
sources of information which they consult regarding educational toy consumption not all
mothers were questioned about the opinions of those other people. Therefore, this study
did not capture the beliefs of what others think for all of the relevant subjective norms
discussed. For the purposes of this study, subjective norms were simply viewed as who
the mothers rely on most regarding ideas and beliefs about educational toys. Also
investigated in this study were the beliefs of the mothers and the mothers' definitions of
educational toys. Presented below is the model that arises out of this study based on the
information provided by the respondent mothers. This is the primary conceptual
contribution of this study.
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Belief Toward an Outcome All toys are educational in
some depending on how they are used.
Subjective Norms I consult my friends, the day care teachers, my child, and
my child's grandparents regarding educational tovs.
Attitude I want toys that develop
certain skills in my child. I want toys that help my
child to explore new concepts.
i '
Intention I set flexible seasonal budgets when buying toys for my children.
"I wouldn't spend more than $45.00 on one single toy for him."
\ \ \ \ \ \ t » 1 1 i
1
Behaviour I buy "the kinds of
toys that they have at book stores".
I buy "gender-friendly toys".
I buy games, books, puzzles, sand toys,
computer games, etc.
Figure III. A Revised Model of the Theory of Reasoned Action (Azjen and Fishbein, 1980) Regarding Educational Toy Consumption
A key aspect of the above model is that it reflects a particular definition of
educational toys. It was found that all of the mothers in both groups were unable to
provide a concise definition of an educational toy, but were able to explain how they
believed almost any toy to be educational when used in a certain way. This broad
definition is such a crucial belief for these mothers that it continually influences their
purchase of educational toys for their pre-school aged children.
When looking at subjective norms this study was able to explore who the mothers
consulted regarding the consumption of educational toys for their children. A crucial
finding in this area from this study was that the majority of the mothers from both groups
cited their friends. The findings of this study showed that the mothers' own beliefs as
well as the information they gather from their trusted sources form their attitude and
intentions, which lead to their consumption behaviour.
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For the mothers interviewed in this study their attitudes were represented by the
reasons why they buy toys or what they look for in toys that they wish to purchase.
These attitudes varied and none were very consistent for either group of mothers. This
study also investigated intentions for purchasing educational toys, that is, whether or not
the mothers in either group set budgets for their toy consumption. It was found that the
mothers in the group from the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre did
not set year round budgets for their toy consumption although a few of them did talk
about flexible seasonal budget setting. On the other hand, the stay-at-home groups of
mothers were more likely to set more concrete budget for their toy consumption.
In this study, behaviour was measured by the types of toys that the mothers
purchased for their children as well as the frequency with which they tended to buy toys
for their children. For the mothers from both groups interviewed there was no real
pattern to the responses regarding frequency of purchase. However, in terms of the types
of toys that the mothers bought both groups provided categories, explanations and
examples of the toys that they purchased which included things like games, books,
puzzles and sand toys.
What was not included in the initial guideline of the model of the theory of
reasoned action but was found to be relevant in this study was the bi-directionality of the
model. As was seen in previous research regarding parental beliefs and actions Hoover-
Dempsey & Sandler (1997) tried to link parental actions back to parental beliefs through
research on why parents become involved in their children's education. In fact, this was
one of the few studies that looked at the entire parental decision making-process. In
terms of educational toy consumption, one of the conceptual contributions is the finding
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that the experiences with toys previously purchased by these mothers shaped their beliefs
regarding future consumption decisions for educational toys. This is shown in the above
Figure III by the addition of the dotted line indicating behaviour or past experience also
play an important role in forming beliefs.
Half of the mothers from the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning
Centre as well as three of the stay-at-home mothers referenced previous experience as a
source of information regarding educational toys. Despite the fact that previous
experience was not the most frequently mentioned source of information from either
group of mothers, those mothers that did reference previous experience were able to
provide vivid stories of some of their previous experiences with educational toys that
they themselves had purchased for their child or toys which had been provided as a gift.
It was clear from the detailed examples that these mothers had, in some way, altered their
beliefs or attitudes regarding educational toys because of the experience they had had.
For the most part the mothers who provided examples of previous experiences with
educational toys related negative experiences with a toy, a category of toy, or a brand of
toys and further explained that they would, as a result, no longer purchase that product or
groups of products for their children. A few examples however were shared regarding
previous examples that were positive. Specifically, one mother talked about seeing her
friend's child interact with an educational toy, she explained how she believed that toy
had been beneficial to that child's cognitive development and thus had gone out and
purchased that toy for her own child.
Overall, the findings of this research were guided by the model of the theory or
reasoned action however, not all aspects of the model were captured in the data and a
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new component, a bi-directional connection, was discovered from the interviews with the
two groups of mothers in this study. It must be noted that the addition of the bi
directional link from behaviour to beliefs results from the data collected from the sixteen
in-depth interviews conducted for this study and is specific to the context of educational
toy consumption of mothers for pre-school aged children. Future research in this area
will be needed in order to test and confirm these findings and the proposed model as well
as to extend them to a greater population.
6.1.2 Managerial Contributions
The results of this study provide three managerial recommendations for
educational toy marketers. The recommendations provided from this study on
educational toys are directed not only to educational toys marketers but to all toys
marketers. The first recommendation is that toy marketers to alter their positioning
strategy to be more in line with their primary consumers. The most dramatic action to be
taken is to dissolve the segments within the toy market altogether. The rationales are as
follows.
Firstly, although marketers usually invest a lot of effort into planning and
implementing a product's positioning in the market, this study indicated that toy
marketers still could do better. The product's position should be identified based on how
potential buyers see that product, and be expressed relative to the position of its
competitors. Interestingly, what was found in this study is that mothers tend to believe
that all toys could be educational when used in certain ways. This does not match the
views identified in this study of the major educational toy marketers. For example,
102
LeapFrog has a very distinct placement within Toys R Us in Kitchener Ontario and in the
2006 Sears Wishbook and is noticeably separate from other toys. Furthermore, mostly all
of the mass merchandised educational toys available at Toys R Us and in the 2006 Sears
Wishbook are separated from the other toy offerings. Based on the results of the
interviews with the sixteen mothers in this study, educational toys should not be
positioned as different as or better than other toys as these mothers did not see this
distinction. The toy manufacturers recognize quite a few segments that fall outside of
educational toys, for example infant and preschool, dolls, outdoor and sports, arts and
crafts, puzzles and games, vehicles, action figures and accessories, etc. (United States of
America Department of Commerce, 2006). Based on the findings of this research that
mothers believe all toys to be educational in some way depending on how they are used,
it seems that the market supports the view that only a small segment of the toys offered
are in fact educational. It would be most beneficial for the toy market to discontinue
promoting this view as it may unintentionally establish an image that other toys (not
included in the educational toys segment) are not as worthy as educational toys. The fact
of the matter is that many mothers, or at least the ones interviewed for this study, as well
as child care professionals and some niche marketers, know that this is not true.
The second recommendation is related to the characteristics of educational toys.
Many of the mothers in this study, when discussing the market's definition of educational
toys, used the characteristics of "technology" or "electronic" to describe how they viewed
the market's definition of an educational toy. However, these characteristics were not
used when the mothers described their own definition of an educational toy, nor were
they used when the mothers talked about the types of toys that they did buy or the reasons
103
that they purchased the toys that they do. In fact, some of the mothers interviewed for
this study expressed dislike for these characteristics in toys, as they were associated with
too much noise. Although this feature alone may not ultimately be a problem for mothers
when choosing educational toys, it would be wise if educational toy marketers did not
highlight these characteristics. It is possible that having such a large group of electronic
toys in one area may put off mothers from shopping for educational type toys of that
nature for their children. If these toys were integrated more with other categories of toys
in the market, this specific feature may not be seen as overpowering to the mothers.
Overall, toy marketers should promote the educational value of all toys and how those
educational prosperities can be brought out through specific play.
The third recommendation offered to toy marketers, based on the results of this
study is to recognize the sources of information that mothers use for making decisions
about their educational toy consumption. In general, the results from this research
suggest that prior experience with toys and children is one of the most crucial influences
for future consumption behaviour. This is so important that, if mothers do not have first
hand experience themselves, they often refer to a friend's experiences to make purchase
decisions. As prior experience and information from friends seem to be most important
to mothers when making decisions about future toy purchases, it would be wise for toy
marketers to draw on this for the marketing communications plans for their products. For
example, promotional strategies, which include obtaining mothers' approval of toy
testing before the product goes to market, could emphasize the fact that mothers have
seen the product being used by a child and they recommend it to other mothers for their
children. Of course, there are multiple other variations on how this information could be
104
utilized for marketing communications plans for toy marketers. The point is that the
mothers potentially purchasing these products may be more apt to notice or trust a
product for their child if another mother has had experience with it and has recommended
it.
6.2 LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY
It is essential to keep in mind that this study is subject to a number of limitations.
The first limitation of this study is the nature of the methodology. The second limitation
of this study is a result of the researcher's inexperience. The third limitation of this study
is a result of the geographic constraints used in the research. The fourth limitation of this
study is the similarity in the level of education of the respondents.
The goal of qualitative research is to investigate the how and why of human
behaviour, while qualitative data tend to be unrefined and are rarely pre-categorized.
Subsequently, the researcher must organize all of the raw data to make sense of the
findings. One of the problems is that there is almost an endless number of ways to
accomplish this and this can be a complex undertaking. Following this and other
criticisms, it has been recommended that the results of qualitative research should only be
suggestive (McQuarrie and Mclntyre, 1988). Moreover, as the household income of
participants was not collected during the interview processes, it is possible that some of
the differences between the two groups of mothers can be explained by any difference in
the disposable income available to the mothers for purchasing educational toys.
The second limitation of this study is that the researcher has limited experience
conducting research on this scale and conducting qualitative research in general.
105
McCracken (1988) has said that successful analysis is dependent on the proficiency of the
researcher. Furthermore, achieving the set objectives of the study through the interviews
is "highly dependent on the skills of the interviewed and on the flexibility allowed in the
question-and-answer process" (Rotenberg, 1955, p. 122). Although every effort was
made to allow the interviews to be guided by the respondent there were times, as can be
seen in the transcripts, where the interviewer interrupted or guided the respondent.
Furthermore, with qualitative methodologies it can be difficult to detect and prevent
researcher induced bias. This may be true in this case as the researcher has had first hand
experience with the context prior to conducting this study. Therefore, the inexperience of
the researcher might have affected the quality of the data collected in this study.
Due to time and financial constraints, the research conducted for this study was
mainly all within Guelph, Ontario. The first observable limitation of this location is that
Guelph does not have many big box stores from which consumers may choose. For
example in order to capture the mass marketers' perspective when comparing toy stores
the researcher had to travel to Kitchener, Ontario, to find the closest Toys R Us store.
Since all of the respondents for this research were recruited in Guelph, some of the results
may be influenced by the fact that these respondents do not have as much choice when
shopping for toys when compared to larger metropolitan cities.
Although unplanned, one additional limitation was found with this study through
collected some demographic data on the participants. Both groups of mothers, mothers
who enrolled their child(ren) in the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre
and mothers that stayed home with their child(ren), were found to be highly educated. In
fact, all mothers had at least some post secondary education. In fact, six of the mothers
106
who enrolled their child(ren) in the University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre
and three of the stay-at-home mothers were enrolled in, or had completed some post
graduate studies. This was an unexpected similarity between the two groups of mothers
that may have served as a limitation for the comparative nature of the study.
6.3 FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
There are two major directions that future research in this area can take,
qualitative and quantitative. This study was exploratory in nature due to the fact that
there has been no previous literature published looking at parental beliefs and actions in
the context of children's educational toys. Since these subject areas have not been
previously combined in a study of this kind, there is still more work to be done to set the
stage for future research, which is why more qualitative research is required.
Firstly, more in-depth interviews could be conducted with research subjects from
larger metropolitan areas. That would be most helpful to extend this finding to include
other segments.
Secondly, some of the questions that have not been answered by this study that
warrant future research include:
1) Why are mothers' definitions of educational toys closer to that of childcare
professionals and niche marketers rather than to mass marketers?
2) Why do mothers consider their friends to be the most important source of
information regarding educational toys?
3) How do fathers define educational toys and is that different from the mother's
definition?
107
4) What are the parental beliefs regarding educational toys for older children and
how these products purchased?
5) Are the beliefs of the child care professionals from the University of Guelph
Child Care and Learning Centre similar or different from child care professionals
at other child care centres?
Thirdly, future research should expand the context by studying the parental beliefs
and actions in the context of children's 'toys' rather than just 'educational toys'. One of
the interesting findings from this study has been the broad definition that mothers have of
educational toys. Due to the finding that mothers tend to regard almost all toys as
educational, the next step for research in this context would be to broaden the scope to all
toys.
Once exploratory research has been conducted in a specific area, quantitative
research is most helpful to extend that research to a greater population. Due to the nature
of the research being conducted, this study covered only a small geographic location and
a small segment of the market. Furthermore, now that exploratory qualitative research
has been conducted using Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) model of the theory of reasoned
action in this context, it would be interesting to use quantitative methods such as
structural equation modeling to test the relationship between parental beliefs, attitudes
and actions within the context of children's toys. Since experience was found to be such
an important source for mothers' beliefs in the context of educational toys, it would be
important to investigate more specifically how consumption influences future beliefs.
Some other questions that can be answered by quantitative research in this area of study
include but are not limited to:
108
1) How do demographic variables such as age, income, and education, factor into the
beliefs, attitudes and behaviours of mothers regarding the consumption of
educational toys?
2) Do mothers respond more favorably to advertisements for educational toys by
mass marketers or niche marketers?
3) What is the most significant predictor of mothers' willingness to purchase
educational toys for their children?
4) Are beliefs and attitudes a significant predictor of behaviour regarding the
consumption of educational toys?
Such studies could extend the understanding of the consumption context of toys for
children.
109
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APPENDIX A Layout - Simply Wonderful Toys & Gizmos
Dolls & Accessories
Train Display
:
Dress Up and Pretend Play
Board and Traditional
Puzzles
CD
Some Commercial Educational
Toys &
Traditional Educational
Toys
Customer Bathroom
Bath Toys
Imaginative and Role Play Toys Role Play &
Manipulative Toys
Arts & Crafts (ie. Pottery, craft dough, etc.)
Infant Toys
Board Games for Young Children
Board Games
for Older Kids
Board Games
and other Mind
Benders
Lego and
other Building
Toys
Die-cast and
plastic vehicles
Science Toys
Science Kits& Girls Arts and Crafts (ie. Beading)
Cash Registers Display Table
Dollar Toys
Window Displays
Dinosaurs and & Farm Toys
Simply Wonderful Entrance
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Layout - Toys R Us
Outdoor Toys Bikes & Scooters
Motorized Ride on Toys,
BOYS Actions Figures
Cars Building Blocks
Play Tools & Workbenchs
Books
GIRLS Barbies
Kitchen Sets & Accessories Dolls & Doll Accessories
Wooden Trains
Arts& Crafts
Furniture and Decor
Musical Instruments &
Bath Toys
LeapFrog & other
'Educational' Toys
Electronics Display Area
Seasonal Merchandise
Party Supplies,
Cards & Gift
Cash Registers
Toddler/Preschool Toys
Playskool Ages and Stages
Stuffed Animals Puzzles and
Board Games
Seasonal Merchandise
Baby Furniture
Baby Swings
Baby and Infant
Clothing
Developmental Toys
Bottles & Baby
Accessories
Cash Registers
Toys R Us Exit Toys R Us Entrance
Babies R Us Entrance
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APPENDIX B
Toy Store Comparative Observation Notes
Tovs R US Toys divided by purpose and gender Clearly identifiable educational section with some overhead signs (ie. "developmental toys" in Babies RUs) Educational section consisting of many electronic toys, some mimicking adult electronics such as computers Educational toy section is separate from puzzles, books, dolls, games, etc...
Educational toys predominantly name brand, mass merchandised Noticeable advertising within store (ie. "Learn more with Leap Frog", "Fisher Price Learning", and "Playskool Ages and Stages")
Simply Wonderful Toys Toys divided by purpose only (not by gender) No clearly identifiable educational section
Very few electronic toys in store
General focus on educational function of mostly all toys in store (a focus on how each type of toys assists in child development in one way or another) Most toys predominantly imported from various countries Very few name brand, mass merchandised toys
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APPENDIX C
In-depth Interview Demographic Profile
Date of Interview
April 2007 April 2007 April 2007 May 2007 May 2007 May 2007 May 2007 May 2007 June 2007 June 2007 June 2007 June 2007 July 2007 July 2007 July 2007 September
2007
Group CCLC CCLC CCLC CCLC SAHM SAHM SAHM SAHM SAHM SAHM SAHM SAHM CCLC CCLC CCLC
CCLC
Level of Education Post Graduate Post Graduate Post Graduate Post Graduate Bachelors Bachelors Post Graduate Bachelors Bachelors Post Graduate College & some university Post Graduate Some university Bachelors Post Graduate
Post Graduate
Child 1 M4 M5 F8 M3 F9 F5 F8 F3 M1.5 F4 M5 M4 M2.5 M4.5 F8
M5
Child 2
F3 M5
F6 M4 F4.5 expecting
F1 M4 M3
M3.5 M5
M3.5
Child 3
M1 F1.5 M1.5
F1.5
F2
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APPENDIX D
Recruitment Flyer - University of Guelph Child Care and Learning Centre
Seeking Particpants for
Consumer Behaviour Research Study
Are you a mother of one or more children aged OSyrs?
& &*» %§ % A graduate student from the University of Guelph's Department of Marketing and Consumer Studies' Master of Science program is
seeking participants for interviews (approx. 1 hour) about children's toys.
For your convenience interviews can be scheduled either directly after drop off or right before pick up in the Child Care and
Learning Centre.
Your participation is greatly appreciated and will be rewarded with a gift card to Chapters.
Please contact Lindsay Holland to be a part of this interesting thesis research.
Email: [email protected] Phone: 905-466-3038
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APPENDIX E
In-depth Interview Consent Form
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
Consumption Context of Toys (In-depth Interview Informants)
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Lindsay Holland, May Aung, and Anne Wilcock from the Department of Marketing and Consumer Studies and Kathy Brophy from the Department of Family Relations and Applied Nutrition at the University of Guelph. Results of this research study will be contributed to a master thesis for the Masters of Science in Marketing and Consumer Studies program.
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact May Aung in the Department of Marketing and Consumer Studies at 519-824-4120 extension 58737.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study seeks to investigate how and why parents buy toys for their children.
PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you to do the following things:
Participate in one in-depth interview which should take no longer than 2 hours. For this interview you will be provided with a disposable camera and a voucher to have the film developed. We ask that over the two week period prior to your schedules interview date you take pictures of your child (aged 0-5) playing with their toys in your home. In these pictures, the child should be engaged in a natural play where one toy is prominent in the picture. Please take care not to include other children in these pictures. We ask that you have the film developed and bring it with you to your interview. You will of course keep possession of all pictures and have the discretion to not include any pictures which you feel are not suitable for the interview process.
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We may need to contact you again after your interview for clarification, and we may ask to interview some of your family members for clarification such as your spouse or significant other.
Findings from this study will be presented in a masters thesis and possibly contribute to a journal article for publish or a conference paper in this topic area. Once published this data will become public, in which case you will have access to it.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Through the interview process you may gain a better understanding of your own beliefs and decision making processes as a parent.
PAYMENT FOR PARTICIPATION
After completion of the in-depth interview you will be given one $10 gift card for Chapters.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Every effort will be made to ensure confidentiality of any identifying information that is obtained in connection with this study.
The primary researcher and the University of Guelph will retain rights to the information collected in this research study. In any and all written accounts of your interview a pseudo name will be given although direct quotes may be used. All data for this research will be destroyed after seven years.
Your interview will be audio taped and transcribed however your identity will not be shared with the transcriber. All audio tapes will be erased at the completion of the thesis process. However, transcriptions will be kept for future reference by the primary researcher.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may withdraw at any time and still receive your gift card. You may exercise the option of removing your data from the study. You may also refuse to answer any questions you don't want to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise that warrant doing so.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
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You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study. This study has been reviewed and received ethics clearance through the University of Guelph Research Ethics Board. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research participant, contact:
Research Ethics Coordinator Telephone: (519) 824-4120, ext. 56606
University of Guelph E-mail: [email protected] 437 University Centre Fax: (519) 821 -5236 Guelph, ON N1G2W1
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT/LEGAL REPRESENTATIVE
I have read the information provided for the study "Consumption Context of Toys" as described herein. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have been given a copy of this form.
Name of Participant (please print)
Signature of Participant Date
SIGNATURE OF WITNESS
Name of Witness (please print)
Signature of Witness Date
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APPENDIX F
Toy Catalogue Comparative Notes
Kids Craft 2005-2006 Early Childhood Catalogue
Organized by: 1. skill sets I.e. Mathematics/science/geography/history 2. purpose I.e. Classroom tools/furniture
Notes: • One section titled 'Early Learning' Focuses on toddler/infant toys and supplies I.e. Ages and stages books for educators/stacking cups/play food/rocking horse/changing pads/gloves/smocks
• Each product throughout book explained using exact pieces/parts included and descriptions about sturdiness/uniqueness/safety
Scholar's Choice Moyer Early Learning 2006
Organized by: 1. purpose/use I.e. furniture/dramatic play/active play 2. skill set I.e. mathematics/science/social studies
Notes: • One section called 'developmental toys' includes shape and color sorters, string-
along lacing kit, farm blocks, and number fun ducks
• Descriptions of products include age appropriateness/product materials/products use instructions/skill sets addressed
Sears WishBook Christmas Catalogue 2006 (toy section)
Organized:
Girls - Barbie's/dolls/ponies, stuffed characters/animals,
Non-gendered items - sale items (random)
Girls - costumes, aesthetic products, large play sets, dance/karaoke sets
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Non-gendered - electronic toys and computers, interactive infant toys, other infant toys, small play sets (non-gendered), young character related toys (Dora, Winnie the Pooh, etc.)
Boys - dinosaurs/race tracks, interactive toddler toys, large play sets, wooden toys, outdoor play sets, more infant/toddler toys, mega blocks
Non-gendered - balls and pop-up tents, furniture, camping, powered ride on toys
Boys - racetracks/cars, action figures, war play sets, cars and automobile play sets, dinosaurs, hot wheels, pirates, more action figures, building sets
Girls - aesthetic toys, Karaoke/voice recorders
Non-gendered - spy sets, instruments
Boys - robots, train sets, traction car racing sects, remote control vehicles/animals, science sets
Non-gendered - art supplies, ̂ oard games
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APPENDIX G
Comparative Notes on Mothers' Pictures
CCLC No commercially produced/mass marketed 'educational toys' in pictures
Some commercially produced/mass marketed type toys (such as Lego)
Many crafts/art supplies
Some active toys (balls, etc.)
Some action figures (eg. Knights with horses)
Some household items used as toys (eg. Chairs)
Some pictures with no toys
Stav-at-Home Some non-brand name but mass marketed semi-educational/educational types toys (ie. instruments and electronic alphabet toys)
More commercially produced, brand name (ie. Fisher Price) toys
Many crafts/art supplies
Some active toys (ie. Riding toys, sand toys)
No action figure type toys
Many household items used as toys in pictures (eg. Chairs, water play)
Some pictures with no toys
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APPENDIX H Interview Guide - Child Care Professionals
My name is Lindsay Holland and I am a graduate student working on thesis research in the Masters of Science in Marketing and Consumer Studies program here at the University of Guelph. The focus of my thesis is mothers' beliefs about educational toys for their children. I would like to ask you a few questions about toys in this daycare as well as your opinion about mothers' beliefs if possible.
Toys in Daycare
1. Do you make a distinction between educational and non-educational toys? 2. If so,
a. In your opinion, what is an educational toy? b. How are educational toys different from other toys?
3. What types of toys are available here at the child care centre?
Prompts: How do you become aware of the toys that are available? How do you choose which toys to buy? Do you look for different toys for different age groups?
4. What toys will you not buy for the centre?
Toys not from Daycare
1. I heard that you have 'show and share' for the kids here and that, they can bring toys from home to show their peers. What types of toys do the children bring in for 'show and share'?
Extras: 2. From your experience, is it possible to tell what kinds/types of toys the parents that
attend your centre buy for their kids? If so, can you explain? 3. From your knowledge and experience with the parents that attend your centre, is it
possible to tell if they focus more on educational play than say other groups of parents? If so, can you explain?
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APPENDIX I Interview Guide - Mothers
My name is Lindsay Holland and I am a graduate student working on thesis research in the Masters of Science in Marketing and Consumer Studies program here at the University of Guelph. The focus of my thesis is mother's beliefs about certain types of toys for their children. I would like to ask you a few questions about the toys that your child has at home if possible. I'd like to use these pictures that you brought of your child playing with his/her toys for some of the questions if possible.
Consumption Behaviour, Attitudes, & Beliefs
V 1. How do you define educational? V 2. Do you think that there are educational toys? V 3. What is an educational toy? V 4. How is an educational toy different from other toys?
Extras:
V 5. How do you see the toy market being divided? V 6. How do you think the market defines educational toys?
Now I'd like to talk about these pictures you brought. Could you please look through these pictures and choose one, which you feel best shows your child interacting with some kind of educational toy.
7. Can you please tell me about this toy?
Prompts: Does this toy fit into your definition of educational toys? How does your child play with this toy?
Is that different from how you expected him/her to play with this toy? How often does your child choose to play with this toy? When and under what circumstances did your child get this toy? (Was there a specific reason that your child received this toy?)
Do you know about how much this toy cost? Can you tell me where this toy came from? Does your child have other toys like this one? (expand if possible)
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Consumption Behaviour
1. When was the last time that you purchased a toy for your child? Can you tell me about that?
Prompts: Is there a reason for buying that particular toy? 'or' V What made you want to buy that particular toy ? Do you have a budget for how much you'll spend for toys at certain times? How did you know about that toy ? (TV, friends, flyer etc.) Where did you buy it from? Why did you buy there?
2. What types of toys do you usually buy for your child?
Prompts: "V Is there a reason for buying those types of toys? 'or' V What purpose do those toys fulfill for your child? V How often do you buy toys for your child? V What types of toys do you most often buy for your child? V Are there any toys that you will not buy for your child?
Beliefs, Attitudes, & Subjective Norms
I'd like to talk now about your thoughts on educational toys as you defined them.
V l.What are your thoughts about educational toys?
Prompts: Do you believe they are beneficial to your child's development?
V 2. How did you form these judgments about educational toys?
Prompts: Do you see these toys advertised? Have you looked for information about educational toys? If so, where? What have you heard or been told about these types of toys? Do your friends buy educational toys for their children? Did you have these types of toys when you were a kid?
V 3. Are there other people who influence your thoughts on educational toys?
Prompts: Does your child ask for these toys? Have other people purchased these toys for your child?
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Have you seen these toys in the daycare? Have you had these toys recommended to you? If so, by whom? Have you read books or magazines that have recommended these types of toys? Have you seen or heard that celebrities use these types of toys?
V 4. Have your thoughts on educational toys changed at all?
Prompts: Did you have a different perspective before you your child got one? Has your perspective changed due to learning something new about educational toys?
V 5. Will you buy more educational toys for your child? If yes, how do you expect to choose which ones to buy?
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APPENDIX J
Example Interview Transcript
CCLC Interview #4
Interviewer: How do you define educational?
Respondent: Something that requires a pattern of thought to bring about the outcome.
Interviewer: Do you think that there are educational toys?
Respondent: Ya
Interviewer: So what is an educational toy to you?
Respondent: It's something that allows children to happen while having fun.
Interviewer: Ok and how would that be different from any other toy?
Respondent: Um I think the difference would be then an educational toy would have a goal other than just having fun where as other types of toys are just about having fun.
Interviewer: Ok how do you see the market for toys being divided.. .in general?
Respondent: My line is between um branded um highly financed marketed toys and everything else.
Interviewer: Can you just maybe give an example of each?
Respondent: Um I think that there are toys that um children are gone to because they were selected brand or logo that they recognize so um for example (name) a few toys that he likes to play with because they are branded by the movies he has seen like Cars. And then we have a lot of toys that are as I call them classic toys, we have wooden blocks, we have wooden cars, we have this one that has the little bird that pecks down like old fashion that don't require a big deal of production with current synthetic products.
Interviewer: Ok how do you think the market defines educational toys?
Respondent: Um I guess I suspect the market would define it by um define it in part like by whether or not there is a set of instructions or rules around how the play is going to happen. Um ya I'm not sure. I haven't thought much about that.
Interviewer: Ok let's talk about the toy in the picture.. .um just in general because I'm not going to take the picture home so can you describe it?
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Respondent: Ok um this is a game of dominos. Um the rules are almost exactly like the regular tile dominos like what adults play with but they made simplified rules for really young children and more complex rules for older children and the dominos are on paper, cardboard with characters that (name) knows, so Thomas the Train, Thomas the Tank Engine um set of dominos.
Interviewer: Ok does this toy fit into your definition of educational toys?
Respondent: Yes.
Interviewer: Can you explain why?
Respondent: Um this one it I think I mentioned if the educational toy was defined by having structure on how you play with it then that might fall into the category that I might think is an educational toy. It's a game and note while we are doing this he his learning how to match the different characters together, we have to take turns, and it's pretty simplified the way that they play it, so that he doesn't always, well he has never lost. I've tried to beat him.
Interviewer: And how does he play with this toy? Respondent: Well he plays with either his mom or his dad; he's only played it with two people. And um in the photo, um as you see in the photos we play on the floor in the living room, so the toy comes up and we shuffle them up and play together.
Interviewer: Um is how he choose to play with toy different from how you expected him to play with the toy before you got it?
Respondent: Um I think he probably exceeded how I expected him to play with the toy. As soon as I introduced him to it, he seemed, after a simple showing him what he needed to do he seemed to catch on easy.
Interviewer: How often does your child choose to play with this toy?
Respondent: Maybe once a month.
Interviewer: On what circumstances did he get this toy?
Respondent: It's a hand me down from my sister. So it's been through a series of nephews and a niece.
Interviewer: Was there a specific reason why it was passed down?
Respondent: My sister I have two sisters who both have kids that are older than (name) and um they know my taste in toys, so they pass on toys that they think I'll enjoy using.
Interviewer: Do you know about how much this toy cost?
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Respondent: I don't.
Interviewer: Do you know where they would have purchased it?
Respondent: Probably at a, my sister is trained in early child education so she probably purchased it at a, rather than a big department story place, she probably purchased it at a more focused
Interviewer: Specialized?
Respondent: Specialized toy store.
Interviewer: Does your son have other toys like this in any way?
Respondent: Well I would classify this as a structured game, and we don't have many of those for this age group.
Interviewer: Ok, so now I'm just going to talk about your toy buying behavior not specifically this toy but when was the last time you purchased a toy for your son?
Respondent: Um two weeks ago.
Interviewer: Ok was there a specific reason?
Respondent: I was traveling in Winnipeg so I wanted to bring him back something.
Interviewer: What did you get him?
Respondent: I don't know how to describe it, I got him this little bird that old fashion toy that is on the wire and pecks down.
Interviewer: Ok what made you buy that toy, that particular to?
Respondent: A friend just knows how to have fun, and he really thought it was pretty exciting. I saw one, ever since I was in Winnipeg, I was in Vancouver, on my last trip, I do a far mount of traveling. And I went into a little local hand craft shop and it was toys but more of hand made, special toys.
Interviewer: Do you have a budget for how much you will spend for toys at certain times?
Respondent: I don't have a budget.
Interviewer: What types of toys do you usually buy for your son?
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Respondent: I buy um most often I buy books for books that are for pleasure reading or books that are for activities like the latest one was a sticker book that involves just making puzzles and going through mazes and those sorts of things.
Interviewer: Is there a reason you choose to buy books?
Respondent: I enjoy reading so much that I've always read quite a bit to (name) and he likes books so much that I just want to keep that level of interest.
Interviewer: What purpose would you say they fulfill for your son?
Respondent: I think that he enjoys having books read to him. He's three now so he's reaching the point where he flips through them and looks at them. I just think he enjoys both the time we spend reading and he likes to look at them separately cause I'll go into his room and he has taken down some that we haven't read recently and we look through them.
Interviewer: How often would you say that you buy books?
Respondent: Probably twice a month.
Interviewer: Ok.
Respondent: Every time that Scholastic thing comes out.
Interviewer: Are there any toys you will not buy for your son?
Respondent: I won't buy commercialized, plastic toys if at all possible to avoid them.
Interviewer: Ok why?
Respondent: Um my partner has thoughts from his previous marriage, and we both just feel the number and the amount of plastic toys that seem to not last very long, break easily, we've experience the children don't play with them very long. We just made a conscious decision when we had (name) that we would ask to not receive those kind of toys which is has not been 100% successful and try to play with things that are sturdier, that lost longer and have more value to them.
Interviewer: More value in what way?
Respondent: More value in terms of because they seem to be better made, though they have durability and I think those types of toys are the ones that the children are more likely to come back to, when he gets you know um we've been given some inexpensive but elaborate you know car garage thing and they don't stay together and loose interest after a couple of days.
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Interviewer: So just in general what are your thoughts about educational toys?
Respondent: I umm I haven't put a lot of thought into about how to define educational toys, but my sense is that I prefer to be using them, whatever it is they are.
Interviewer: So would you say they are beneficial to your child's development?
Respondent: Yes
Interviewer: How do you form your judgment on educational toys?
Respondent: I try to just think what is the purpose of having that particular toy is, you know, little boys, and little girls certainly early on, I say having a set of blocks and along your imagination to just decide what that pattern should look like and just build it up that assisting in development in a way that may be, a toy basically a logo or an image from a movie pattern up to just sit on their shelf or that they might not play with actively is you know how I think of it.
Interviewer: Do you form opinions and judgments about educational toys from being them advertised on television?
Respondent: Probably not as much as going into special stores and having look around I think I value more going into stores that we have here in Guelph simply wonderful downtown and seeing what they have chosen to put into their store versus I try not to pay attention to the commercials on television.
Interviewer: Have you seeked out or looked out for information on educational toys in the past?
Respondent: No.
Interviewer: What have you heard or been told about educational toys from other people?
Respondent: Um I don't think we know anyone that has influenced how I think about educational toys versus whatever the alternative is.
Interviewer: Just to clarify do your friends buy educational toys for their children?
Respondent: I suspect they do and we don't trust those.
Interviewer: Did you have these types of toys when you were a child?
Respondent: Some of them yes.
Interviewer: Do you think that influences you what you choose to buy now?
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Respondent: Absolutely.
Interviewer: Have you going back to the other one have you seen a toy at a friend's house and then thought that you might buy it for your son?
Respondent: Ya, so I guess ya that's a good way to put it. We don't talk about them but I certainly I mean buy our closest friends, my sister in some instances I hope I don't get passed down certain toys that they have in their house. I see what toys they do play with and don't play with does influence.
Interviewer: Does your child, does your son ask for certain toys?
Respondent: No.
Interviewer: No? Have other people purchased what you consider educational toys for your son that you agree?
Respondent: Ya.
Interviewer: Like who?
Respondent: Certainly the immediate family, I think makes an effort to look for toys that they think I will want, like durability preferably something that doesn't break right away, and I think when those things start to come together, I think they start looking for something that might be consider an educational toy.
Interviewer: Have you seen any of these types of toys in the daycare?
Respondent: Educational toys?
Interviewer: Ya.
Respondent: Oh ya.
Interviewer: Has that influenced what you choose to buy?
Respondent: No, no I, we were already in our pattern before we came to this daycare.
Interviewer: Would you say that your mentality on educational toys affected on your decision to out him in this particular daycare?
Respondent: No, it wasn't about toys particularly, it forms part of it but there are other aspects on how the learning is done here that definitely appealed to us.
Interviewer: SO m maybe your way on educational in general.
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Respondent: Ya.
Interviewer: Not necessarily educational toys but.
Respondent: Ya.
Interviewer: Have you had these types of toys recommended to you by people?
Respondent: Um no I can't say there is much chat about toys about what ones you should or shouldn't buy; maybe I should start asking that.
Interviewer: I know I'm kind of (MUMBLE) have you ever read books or magazine that recommended certain types of toys, educational toys?
Respondent: No I haven't.
Interviewer: Have you ever seen or heard celebrities using a certain toy?
Respondent: Hmm no.
Interviewer: Have your thoughts on educational toys changed at all, for example did you had a different perspective about an education toy or a type of educational toy before your child got one?
Respondent: Um.
Interviewer: Here I'm kind of thinking about the full spectrum of educational toys.
Respondent: Ya, can you ask it again? Interviewer: Um did you have a different perspective on educational toys in general or a specific education toy before your child got that toy?
Respondent: Ya I don't think so.
Interviewer: Has your perspective on educational toys changed at all due to learning something new about educational toys in any way?
Respondent: Ya that's probably true.
Interviewer: Can you expand?
Respondent: So I have not thought, I have not actively thought finding out information about better toys for the purpose of promoting development or as an educational toy particularly. I do read reviews of toys the odd times probably not very often maybe once or twice a year. I more my personal interest is in books I more interested in books I do more reading with books types of books, which probably falls in the category but when
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I'm thinking about toys I do read a little bit about it and the recommendation that come through which respect why it's a preferred toy or a parents choice or whatever award it is has to do with factors that are not just about educational but how the child plays with it and enjoys it and things like that. I haven't read all the criteria on what they use to characterization but it informs something about my decision making with respect to the ya I'm not sure how to characterize it but with respect to changing my mind about it or getting me to do something differently that I might not otherwise thought of I can't think of a specific example that would help explain that.
Interviewer: Ok my last question on here and (MUMBLE) will you buy more educational toys for your child?
Respondent: Yes.
Interviewer: How do you expect to choose which ones to buy in the future?
Respondent: Well just going through this exercise I think I have to put more effort into thinking about it. I suspect that I still won't be buying a lot of toys, my interest will continue in being in activities more book related, I'm not going to change the way I make decision about that, I suspect the toys that are given to us and hand-me-downs. I don't know things might change just having thought about it with you a bit more trying to put a bit more effort into sorting out what might promote education more in the future.
Interviewer: In one section here we talked about how you inform your opinions, and who or what informs your opinions I didn't have anything specifically that really referred to your case, thinking back about what you talked about I just want to explore the you talked about your husband.. .husband?
Respondent: Ya.
Interviewer: Have had children already from a previous marriage and through out what you said you kind of came together and made a decision about
Respondent: The no plastic toy.
Interviewer: Ya the type of environment just in general the environment you wanted to provide for your son right?
Respondent: Exactly ya.
Interviewer: And was this before he was born?
Respondent: Yes.
Interviewer: Ok so I think that's what might be, do you think that that might be a factor using your husbands previous experience?
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Respondent: Ya and the experience is very it's oddly intertwined because I've always known him, my husband you know. I've known him, since before, they are now teenage men. I've known my spouse in his previous marriage I knew him because we both went to university together, and so I saw these boys grow up, and the reflection of the type of play they did, interacting or personal preferences not to have so much stuff because we share those preferences. It wasn't just this experience but I saw that experience as well, and his ex-wife preferences were different so they didn't come to a consensus on those things when they had children, it is easier for us to come to a consensus because we both have similar preferences, we don't need a lot of stuff in any aspect of our life, we don't want to have a lot of possessions and so choosing what you do have in your house is important to making sure that he's not just playing with shoes and boxes.
Interviewer: I'm just curious I guess, if you had to pick what would be the biggest influence on your, that kind of general belief you have about toys?
Respondent: I know you asked for the biggest but the two things are how I was brought up and our preferences about how we live our life we try not to be consumptive as perhaps society is.
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