Message of the PresidentOn March 21st, the great festival of Norouz will be celebrated all over the

world, specially here in the ECO region, with great enthusiasm and joy. It hasbeen celebrated passionately for several millennia, by the people living in the"Norouz territory", because in essence, it is interlaced with the awakening orrebirth of the nature itself, after a barren winter.

Today, nations and countries need the guidance of universal values. They haveto make the transition from a culture of disintegration to a culture of dialogue,peace and cooperation.

We, in the ECO region, are very fortunate. We share so much in so manydiverse fields, apart from the bonds of faith and culture, history and heritage. Wehave strong commonalities in arts and crafts, language and Literature, prose andpoetry. These are in evidence in many of our precious manuscripts, ancient mon-uments and historical land-marks, which are living symbols of a history shared, ofa common past, of a life linked and lived together. Their glowing sparkles haveilluminated the whole world for centuries. That is why I call ECO region as the"Land of Sun". I never forget these words of my professor of political Philosophyin Lyon University of France who used to say: "We live in the West and you livein the East, but the sun of knowledge and science shines from the East".

At the threshold of the great ancient festivity of Norouz, ECO Cultural Instituteis also commemorating the Anniversary of the signing of the its Charter by theECO Member States in Islamabad, Pakistan, in March of 1995.

ECI has aims and objectives which bear directly on ECO's image and standing.It has a role most fundamental and important - a role in strengthening the foun-dation that holds ECO's edifice of regional cooperation. This edifice rests on ashared history, on a shared heritage, a visible affinity in culture and a continuingcommonality in faith. These are the bonds that bind us in one fraternity, in onefamily. ECI's function is to strengthen these ties, to sustain these linkages, toexpand these connections, to deepen this connectivity.

It is with great pleasure for me to state that ECI's performance has improvedsteadily and visibly in the past few months. It has taken some bold actions in theareas of arts and culture which has already won the appreciation from the 20thRegional Planning Council, held in Antalya, Turkey, 16-18 Feb. 2010. While RPChas greatly welcomed the new set of forward-looking initiatives taken up by theInstitute, it has also called on Member States to fully join ECI. That is indeed nec-essary, for cultural cooperation cannot be confined, cannot be compartmental-ized. It has to be inclusive, to have a fuller, regional impact.

At the conclusion, let me say that Norouz brings tidings of a happier year - ayear which, I hope, will be more peaceful, more prosperous for our people, forour land, for our region and indeed for all people of the Earth.

I extend to all of you my heartiest greetings and my warmest felicitations onthis great occasion of joy and elation. May the spirit of cooperation and peaceprevail over the forces of segregation and despair. Amen!

Hojatollah Ayoubi

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ECO Heritage Holds Round-Table Discussion

Glory Of Norouz

Colorful Jashn-e-BaharanCelebrations in Pakistan

The Development ofYasawiyah Path

ECI Co-Sponsors UNESCOWorkshop onMemory of the World

The Evolution of PersianPainting

Finding Hope AfterDisplacement, Afghan Refugees in Iran

Ishak Pasha Palace, Turkey Splendor in Isolation

The views expressed by the writers/authors of the articles, published in“ECO Heritage” do not necessarily represent the views of ECI, but arethe personal views of the authorsthemselves.

Economice cooperation organizationis an inter-govermental regionalorganization established in 1985 byIslamic Republic of Iran, slamicRepublic of Pakistan and Republic ofTurkey for the purpose of promotingeconomic, technical and culturalcooperation among the MemberStates. It was the successor organiza-tion of what was the RegionalCooperation for Development(RCD), founded in 1964, whichended activities in 1979. In the fall of1992, the ECO expanded to includeseven new Members, namely IslamicRepublic of Afghanistan, Republic ofAzerbaijan, Republic of Kazakhstan,Kyrgyz Republic, Republic ofTajikistan, Turkmenistan, andRepublic of Uzbekistan. ECO’s secre-tariat and cultural department arelocated in Tehran. ECO CulturalInstitute (ECI) is affiliated with ECOand aims at fostering, understandingand the preservation of the rich cul-tural heritage of its members throughcommon projects in the field of themedia, literature, art, philosophy,sport and education.

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Elements of Persian Carpets,Designs, Patterns & Motifs

Pakistan's Faiz Ahmed Faiz,The Dust of Passing Days

Tehran Museum of ContemporaryArts

Tajikistan's Rich and Old History ofArts & Crafts

Turkmen's Tamdyrlama, A Delicacy for a Patient Gourmet

The "Turkish House" Of TheOttoman Period

ECO HERITAGEI suee 12 . Vo l 4 . Winter 2010

Published byECO Cultural InstitueManaging DirectorDr. Hojatollah AyoubiPresident, ECIHead of Supervisory BoardHafiz Muhammad Jamil OwaisiExeletive DirectorSenior Cultural AdvisorAlSeyyed Mostafa AbtahiEditor in Chief & Project ManagerAli SabzalianEditorial BoardParisa FirouzkouhiFereydoun TarapourPrinting Mohammad Reza AlidoostGraphic Design Seyed Kianoush SaadatmandSeyedeh Sara shafieePhotographyKaveh FarahmandTaimaz Kaviyani

Advisory BoardAbdol-Ghafour Arezoo - AfghanistanHassan Aminian - IranHassan Anooshe-IranAli Akbar Ash'ari-IranMehdi Sanaee - IranMohammad Ali Shoaee-IranMohammad Rajabi-IranGalym Bokash - KazakhstanAli Arif - PakistanMirza Molla Ahmad - TajikistanShahmansoor Khajaev -TajikistanAli Temizel - Turkey

Address No. 27-Pardis St., Mola Sadra Ave, Tehran, (I.R. Iran)Post Code \ 1991953181P.O.Box \ 19395-6414, Tehran(I.R. Iran)Tel \ (+98-21)88795330-1Fax \ (+98-21)88792379Email \ info@ecieco.org

Front Cover:Patients in the Hope of Cure, UnknownArtist, Sa'adi's Boustan 2164,1562, Golestan Palace Museum, Tehran

6 ECO HERITAGE

ECO Heritage Round-Table

Discussion The Ancient Cultural & Commercial Ties in the

Region & It's Role in the Integration of ECO CountriesTranslation by: Ali Sabzalian

From Left to Right: Mr. Shah Mansour Khojaev (Tajikistan), Mr.Hasan Anoosheh (Iran), ECI President Mr. H. Ayyubi (Iran), ECI Exec.Dir. Muhammad Jameel Owaisi

Issue 12 - Vol 4 7

Najeeb Mayel Heravi(Afghanistan)

Among the contemporary humanbeings, those who base the foundationof their faith in the Hijra and pre- Hijracultural eras, are on the belief thathuman being's true homeland are themother- earth and the surrounding uni-verse.

Due to the distress caused by thepolitical upheavals in the world, we areforced to take well-planned culturalmeasures, to benefit ECO's political insti-tutions, through people with sensiblepolitical understanding. Because, eco-nomic development would come about,only when culture has a chance tothrive. The reverse process is also true,as it was witnessed in some societies inthe past.

I will try to offer a reference,expressed in the make-believe debate,between an "arrow and a pen" (teer vaghalam), composed by Masoud Ghomi,during the reign of Husain Byram, whichfortunately has been published and isavailable. This collection attests to thefact that no politics or economy wouldbear fruits without cultural considera-tions.

Therefore, institutions aspiring towarda globalized world through politicalmeans, should strongly consider cultureas a viable tool in their undertaking.Especially when "homeland"(vatan), doesno longer carry the same meaning as itused to have, for a great majority ofpeople today. Yesterdays' "homeland"with its thick ancient wall has shown itsvalue for the whole ECO countries.Therefore the collective cultural body ofthe organization should not allow thefortification of the existing political wallsamong the member states. On the con-trary, they should emphasize on theircommonality rather than any possible

Opening Remarks by ECIPresident, Mr. HojatollahAyyubi :

ne of our most impor-tant objectives in ECOCultural Institute is hold-ing of such meetingswherein compatible

experts would gather; present theirviews, so that the results of theirthoughts and ideas get published.Although we have active centers ofWestern, Eastern and U.S. studieshere in Iran but surprisingly, we donot know enough about our neigh-boring countries, which are actuallypart of our own cultural heritage.

Today, if we want to inquire aboutour luminaries and legendaries, wewould have to travel to our neighbor-ing countries, where we have manycommon customs and traditions, andif we decide to revive the Norouz rit-uals, we will have to both visit ourown cities and provinces as well astravel to regional countries, becausewe would find much of our forgottencustoms, languages and traditionsthere.

Therefore, meetings of this sort,have the capacity to even attract uni-versities to get involved in such issues.Furthermore, I am on the opinion thatsuch a small meeting could be benefi-cial to all countries of the region, if itwas held on more specialized basis.

In the past, Dr. Rajabi, (ECI's ex-President), paid great attention to thismatter, and I hope this trend wouldcontinue in the future, as we have thecapacity to engage in such activities.ECI's two existing journals could beproper channels to cover this devel-opment. There are also good groundsfor publication of books. Yesterday,we inked a Memorandum ofUnderstanding with one of the impor-tant publishing houses here; likewise,we spoke with other publishing com-panies and tried to encourage themto identify ECO region's prominent lit-erary figures and help them to publishtheir work and books.

The 1st round tablediscussion, focusing onthe "history of cultural

and commercial tiesamong the countries ofECO region and its rele-

vance toward today'sintegration of the

Member States" wasorganized by the "ECOHeritage", ECI's Englishlanguage quarterly cul-

tural /research Journal atthe conference hall of

the ECO CulturalInstitute, on Monday, 21

December, 2009.Mr. Najeeb Mayel

Heravi, a prominentscholar from

Afghanistan, Mr.Shahpour Ravasani, an

Iranian Professor of his-tory in German universi-

ties and Mr. HasanAnoosheh, a well known

research scholar fromIran, presented their

points of view on thesubject matter. The

meeting was moderatedby Mr. Shah MansourKhojaev of Tajikistan.ECI President, Dr. H.

Ayyubi, formally inaugu-rate the Meeting, wel-comed the guests andbriefed the floor about

future ECI programs. Atthe conclusion, the

speakers entertainedsome spirited questions

posed by the audience.

O

8 ECO HERITAGE

fied versions of these works. I hope ECIwould succeed in addressing those cru-cial issues which are the common dilem-ma of all culturally involved people ofour region. Thank you for your atten-tion.

(Prof.) Shahpour RavasaniToday, the issue of unity among the

ECO Member States as well as Easterncountries is a necessity. It is no longer akind of problem that could be leftto mere intellectual discus-sions of our past literaryworks. The AfricanUnity is currentlybeing shaped.African coun-tries, based ontheir socio-cultural com-monality areestablishing"UnitedStates" ofAfrica.

Since tenyears ago,efforts havebeen spent tocreate "Union ofSouth America". Therecent developmentbetween Venezuela, Boliviaand others is the product of theirextensive discussions since twenty yearsago.

Considering our current situation,establishment of "United States", on thebasis of common culture and shared his-tory among different people and nation-alities, is no longer an option but anecessity. It is not a detached classic dis-cussion around cultural affairs. Thisurgency also applies to us. It is with thehope of taking the first steps in material-

to us, in such a way, that we would feelthe sense of affinities among us and dis-cover the existing commonalities amongus.

The kind of researches which shouldbe considered at ECI, are those whichwould focus on descriptive and synchro-nized actions, which would allow us tohave a better understanding of ourtoday's state of affairs and give us a clearperspective of the cultural situationsamong the ECO member states.

The culture of ECO region, with itsvast and extensive setting seems so frailthat needs to be inspected in light. Doesthis culture, in its totality, posses enoughstrength to continue marching forward?

We should try to go beyond thesphere of "name" and enter the realm of"adjective", a path which was experi-enced in our culture throughout the his-

tory. Societies which remain stagnatedin the stage of "name" do not know their"adjectives". When they are not cog-nizant of their "adjectives" then thename also loses its merit.

Why should in Tajikistan, Molavi'sMathnavi or other cherished literaryworks of the luminaries be read throughalphabets which makes it impossible toreach their deep cultural reverberations.

Here, I would like to offer a modestproposal and a reminder to our friendsin ECI, even though; this may alreadyhave been acted upon and that is, maywe send unified collections of all literaryworks of our legendaries to all the coun-tries of the region, where these workswere authored, so that we all have uni-

discord among them. According to well documented evi-

dence, the commonalities among mostECO members, have well existed beforeand after Hijra, and there is no need tobe verified again. In the article, "let uspass this difficult night" (Bogzar ta az inshabe doshvar bogzarim) which I haveauthored twenty years ago, I have point-ed out for the need to further examinethe term: "homeland" in our region andits present day relevance.

What kind of culture does "nationalhomeland" carry? How urgent is theneed for the establishment of a "culturalhomeland"? What values do the other

cultures, positioned along the way, canteach and learn from us?

It is my wish that ECO CulturalInstitute can reach to such a high level ofdevelopment that will enable it to pro-vide a clear definition for culture, bothin terms of theory and in practice.Comprehension of the two is interrelat-ed.

As far as region's culture is concerned,we have been overly neglectful. Themain part of this negligence lies in ourfailure to truly get to know each otherand take advantage of the valuable eco-nomic and cultural capabilities available

Why should inTajikistan, Molavi'sMathnavi or othercherished literary

works of the luminariesbe read through alpha-

bets which makes itimpossible to reach

their deep culturalreverberations.

Naj

eeb

May

el H

erav

i

Issue 12 - Vol 4 9

do research on the common culture ofthe "East", from a cultural perspectiveand not from a political stance.

Hasan AnoosheThe cultural relations in this region

were so extensive that would defy anyexplicit boundaries or borderlines. Therewas only one territory or region, knownwith a common language, faith and cul-ture.

Abuali Sina, originally from Kharamarea would leave his place of birth tobecome a Vezir(Minister) in Isfahan andHamedan. We don't find such a situa-tion even in today's famous groupings,

such as European Union, that a Frenchman could become a Minister inGermany or a German individual couldoccupy this position in England.

Renowned scholars such as ZaheerFaryabi, of Faryab and Kamal Khojandiof Khojand would leave their hometown and chose to live in Tabriz. Thefamous Shoukat Bokharaei of Bukharawas buried in Isfahan. Likewise, greatphilosopher, Imam Fakhr-e Razi left Reyand was put to rest in Herat.

So, such cultural and political interac-tions did exist among our ancestors sincea long time ago. Even if there were polit-ical disputes among the political elites of

people of these countries since theancient times, we will discover that thecomposition of their languages havebeen developed through a very logicaland consistent pattern. For example; theOrientalists have developed for us, theancient Persian map, the Safavid map,the Achaemenian map, and etc.

The efforts which ECO has initiated,to survey our history, deserves greatcredit. It is not sufficient that we onlyrefer to our classic literature; rather wemust appraise our ancient past, our artand religion as well. We should considerthe start of our history from 8000 yearsago and not simply refer to the presentday border lines, so that we would notplunge into a nationalistic racism.

When we study our ancient history,we realize that we had only territoriesidentified as the Medes and Persians

which did not have border lines such aswhat we see today existing betweenIran, Afghanistan etc. They have had acommon culture for thousands of years,whereas today we only look at their his-tory since 150 years ago. It is for this rea-son that we are manipulated by foreignpolitical elements.

I hope what this Institute has started,would continue in the future, so that wewould revive our true past identity.Fortunately, there are enough docu-ments and factual evidences to supportthe undertaking. Unfortunately, we weredeprived of this opportunity, because wedidn't have such a center in the past todo the relevant research on the subject.I hope we will have the opportunity to

izing the idea of "United States of East"that I am addressing this gathering.

The Orientalists classified some peo-ple as part of the Achaemenian dynastyand still categorized the same, as part ofthe Assyrians, so that they may fill thehistory as desired.

They Intentionally modified the histo-ry and for each of us fabricated a sepa-rate history, as they wished. When welook at the geographical boundaries of

countries from North Africa toCentral Asia, all have been

created in the past 150years, while we realize

these countriesespecially the

ECO members,have a provenhistory of atleast 6000years. It is agreat dis-crepancyindeed.

Oil com-panies and

big govern-ments, based

on their politicalinterests, sliced up

fictitious maps andaccordingly created

false historical identities forthem, which are not based on

history religion or nationality and arenot even based on geographical identity.

If, we study these countries' ancienthistory, we don't find any of these bor-der lines. Political boundaries are fabri-cated ones, meant to separate us.

From the stand point of language, lit-erature, art and culture, we find aston-ishing similarities among the countries ofthe region.

By examining the languages of the

They Intentionallymodified the history asthey wished.When we look at thegeographical bound-aries of countries fromNorth Africa to CentralAsia, all have been cre-ated in the past 150years, Sh

ahpo

ur R

avas

ani

10 ECO HERITAGE

tory in Kashgar, but Iran never had anypolitical sovereignty over Kashgar.

2- The problem of "conspiracytheory" , a mental disease which hasbeen negatively affecting the countries ofthe region and doesn't allow these coun-tries to get to know each other better,specially, when we have commonality inlanguage, culture and to a large extent inour common belief.

Although, some positive steps havebeen taken to remedy the situation, butit seems, they are not enough. Last year,Sultan Saleem's collection were pub-lished which is a positive step forward.

It is my hope that cultural collabora-tion would enhance other kinds of col-laboration (among the ECO countries)and help people easily travel within themember states without Visa require-ments!

Question & Answer Session

Q: Many of our luminaries and leg-endaries do not belong to any particularpolitical persuasions and therefore divid-ing them on the basis of national bound-aries, like Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan,etc, would hurt cultural unity of theregion, because they all played roles inthe formation of civil and cultural fabricsof our region. How do you address thisproblem?

Hasan Anooshe: I think all suchbarriers could be removed if we onlyreject illusion and egocentricity. The eraof Pan-Turkism, Pan-Iranism, Pan-Arabism etc, have expired. They couldno longer can be revived or supportedand should be left to the history. Everycountry should live within its borders, befriend with its surrounding neighborsand still by means of those neighborsshould seek the friendship of other

Turkish minorities who comfortably co-exist among us with no difficulties andwe are not at odd with each other. Butwe know the bloodiest war of historywere fought in Europe, like the 2ndWorld War, in which 4 million peoplewere killed, 40 millions injured and agreat part of human cultural heritagewere lost.

Here, I am not suggesting that weshould build new relationships among usfrom the scratch, but rather we shouldrevive our past linkage.

Although, our relations have beengreatly enhanced since the Soviet disin-tegration, but those are not enough.

There are two main problems, whichhave adverse effects on our inter-relationdevelopment:

1-"Nationalistic Chauvinism" whichhas been growing steadily in the Central

Asia and to some extent in today's Iran.Of course, this notion has political roots.

It is true that we have had a distinctcultural entity, known as "Persian cul-ture", but that should not be mixed with"political culture".

The Persian culture had penetrated asfar as Bengal. Sudi Busnavi wrote com-mentaries on Hafiz and Saadi's Gulestanand Bustan in Bosnia - Herzegovina.Albania's Naeem Farshidi composed hispoetries in Persian language. Persianculture and Persia language (Farsi) hadonce reached near the borders of(today's) Italy. In Kashgar, (China),Saadud-din Kashgari composed poetriesand authored many books in Farsi.Haidar Mirza also wrote his book on his-

those societies, the common ordinarypeople did not have this problem.

For example, although the Persianshad their longest war with the Ottomansfrom Safavid's Shah Abbas toMohammad Shah of Ghajar dynasty,nevertheless there were normal culturalinter-relations among the people of bothsides.

In Central Asia, the indigenous gov-ernments, from the Sheibanese toManghities, were supportive of Persianculture and the same was true amongthe Persians.

Today, we have many poets inAzarbaijan who compose Turkish poet-

ries. Among the most famous of suchpoetries is "Haidar Babai Salaam". Therewere similar trend in trade.Transportation and commerce enjoyedfavorable conditions during that time.For example, they would export melon,a perishable fruit, from Bokhara toBagdad. Fabrics of Shushtar were sold inMaghrib-Aghsa.

In the Seyyedai Nasafi's collection, Icame across a word: "Sar esbeki" whichis in common use in MazandaranProvince in northern Iran and implies todo something in a hurry. Today, we havenumerous Turkmens, Kazakhs and

Abuali Sina, originallyfrom Kharazm area

would leave his placeof birth to become a

Vezir(Minister) inIsfahan and Hamedan.

We don't find such asituation even in

today's famous group-ings, such as EU

Has

an A

noos

he

The end result of 50 years of workled to the formation of the EuropeanUnion. They did not create the EUthrough the gatherings of their politiciansalone. Paris and London have had adeep political dispute but now theydon't talk about it. But we, in our history,had an imagery war with the Turks, asnarrated in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh butwe continue to pass on the story to ournew generations.

tasl, but if we don't start, it will never getdone. We have a duty to enlighten dif-ferent stratum of our society about his-torical facts. For example, here inTehran, we have an Iran- Pakistan-Afghanistan Friendship Association. Wecould invite them to discuss about theircurrent problems. There are many stu-dents of Central Asia, we could invitethem and talk about their common cul-tural heritage.

It took the European Union, morethan 50 years to be formed. They startedfrom kindergartens, grade schools andfamily circles. In their universities, theyestablished research centers, allocatedbudgets for them and required a studentto investigate about a particular country.

countries.

Q: There was a suggestion by some-one in the panel for the formation of"Eastern Union". How can you achievesuch an ambitious goal?

Shapour Ravasani: "East" is a cul-tural term. Can't we bring together stu-dents, cultural experts, anthropologists,of the countries of East and collectivelystart doing research on our ancient histo-ry? Of course this would be a difficult

Issue 12 - Vol 4 11

12 ECO HERITAGE

Glory OfNorouz

"The International Day of Peace" & The Common Cultural Heritage

of ECO CountriesCompiled by : ECO Heritage Staff Memmbers

Perspolis, Iran - depicting Norouz Festivities

Issue 12 - Vol 4 13

he ECO region is a token of more than seventhousand years of human history and it has nurturedmajor human civilizations of the world. In factnowadays we can consider this vast geographicalarea as the common homeland of all nations resid-

ing in this region, which enjoy profound historical and culturalcommonalities. Among the many ceremonies and festivals cel-ebrated by the people of ECO region, undoubtedly Norouzstands as one of the oldest and most significant one.

Norouz or as it is called Novruz, Nowrouz, Nooruz,Navruz, Nauroz or Nevruz in other ECO countries, is cele-brated on 21st of March, which is considered as New Yearholiday and the beginning of Spring. There are various cere-monies, rituals, and cultural events held within every familyand community.

It enjoys traditional games, special cuisines, respect fornature, performances in music and dances, oral expressionsand literature, handicrafts and painting masterpieces (in partic-ular miniature arts). Values of peace and solidarity, reconcilia-tion and neighborhood, cultural diversity and tolerance,healthy life-style and renewal of living environment are pro-moted and transmitted from generation to generation duringthis cultural event. Women play a major role in the culturalevent, by managing the ceremonies and disseminating the tra-ditional knowledge to the youth. It is a part of and strengthensthe cultural identity of the states parties involved.

International RecognitionBeside being inscribed in 2009 on the UNESCO

Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ofHumanity, on Feb. 24, 2010 with adoption of a resolution inthe United Nations, Norouz was named as International Dayof Peace. The resolution was adopted in consensus by mem-ber states of the UN among them most ECO countries wererepresented. In a joint initiative with Azerbaijan Republic,Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan andKyrgyzstan, Iran's permanent representative to the UnitedNations, prepared the resolution. All these countries celebratethe day as a national day. Norouz Day was approved in theUN General Assembly on its February 23, 2010 meeting inNew York in the framework of "Peace Culture."

"Norouz is not just a day in the calendars, but is a deep-rooted culture which brings hope, peace and happiness tomillions of human beings on earth" said the Resolution.

The Origin of Norouz To know the origin of Norouz, it may be stated that the

invention of Solar Calendar was a major step forward in theprocess of understanding time and having foreknowledge ofthe intervals between springs, summer, autumn and winter.Norouz is the name given to the first day of the first month ofSolar Calendar, Farvardin which coincides with March 21st.Beginning of the spring and the other at the outset of autumn,were the two significant origins for greatest feast Norouz.Norouz was in fact honored as the symbol of fire and was cel-

Tebrated as the seventh great feast of theyear and it was known as the New Day.The reason is that Norouz is the symbolof hope and the day which broughtwith it happiness to man who was tiredof and challenged by the "mixed uni-verse" and gave him new courage andcapability.

The ancient ceremony of Norouz isbeyond the call of refreshing the memo-ry of a long-standing civilization. In factit is a tie between the past, present andfuture. It is said that ancient feasts aredirectly rooted in culture, history, geog-raphy, and religious and moral fabric ofsociety. According to some ancient talesand narratives, the creation, fall ofAdam, and the Prophetic Mission ofProphet Mohammad (pbuh), have alltaken place on Norouz. Also, theancient people believed that along withthe renaissance in nature, the souls ofthe dead return to the material worldand spend a couple of days among theirrelatives.

All of the factors aforementionedhave caused Norouz to be a long-stand-ing and enduring ceremony in thecourse of time in ECO region and it isthus celebrated joyously to express grati-tude for all the blessing God has grant-ed. These nations celebrate the arrival ofthe New Year in the form of colorfulceremonies resting upon their own reli-gious, cultural and historical back-grounds:

NorouzIn the ECO RegionNorouz marks the New Year and the

beginning of spring across a vast geo-graphical area covering, inter alia,Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran,Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan,Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan and elsewhere in the world.It is celebrated on 21 March every year,a date originally determined by astro-

( Also spelled Norooz, Narooz, Nawruz, Newroz)

14 ECO HERITAGE

smoothly the year ahead would be a prosperous one. Seasoncleaning and performing different kinds of contests such asBozkashi are among the other ceremonies in this country.

Norouz in Azerbaijan: The people in Azerbaijan have deep enthusiasm and inter-

est in celebrating Norouz; therefore, they make variousarrangements to welcome the ancient tradition. They com-pose songs; plan puzzles, praises and curses, proverbs andadvice, and wits; prepare the Norouz ceremonial settings(Sofreh-ye haft Sin), etc.

Buying new clothes, performing the season cleaning, weav-ing new carpets, and floor covers are among the customs ful-filled prior to Norouz. Also, people pay more attention thanever to rituals such as fortune telling etc. For instance, on theeve of last Wednesday of the year, young single girls wouldmake a wish and hide themselves behind a half ope n door.They believe that, should the first words heard be favorable;

their wish would cometrue in the New Year.This encourages thepeople to avoid back-biting and remindingunpleasant things asmuch a' possible. Thereare impressive andmemorable customspracticed among thepeople in Azerbaijansuch as sending largetray (Khan) of"Samanoo" throwing offur hats to the doors,hanging cloth bagsthrough the holes in theroofs to demand gifts,etc.

Norouz in Iran: Each page of Iran's

history testifies thatNorouz has been themost ancient traditionand one of the mostcelebrated day among

Iranians. It is the heritage of the days to which nothing can sailbut legends and myths. Norouz has been a spiritual change inthe monotonous circle of years and serves as a mental flour-ishment- particularly by the Iranian nation who owes its veryexistence through the ups and downs of history to this sensi-ble and ancient tradition. Interestingly enough, Norouzbecame even more attractive in Iran upon the emergence ofIslam, since it became closely interwoven with Iranian culture.It even appreciated Norouz, for it mirrored admiration forbeauty, human values, affection, and amity.

nomical calculations. Norouz is associat-ed with various local traditions, such asthe evocation of Jamshid, a mythologicalking of Iran, and numerous tales andlegends. The rites that accompany thefestivity vary from place to place, rang-ing from leaping over fires and streamsin Iran to tightrope walking, leaving litcandles at house doors, traditionalgames such as horse racing or the tradi-tional wrestling practiced in Kyrgyzstan.Songs and dances are common toalmost all the regions, as are semi-sacredfamily or public meals.Children are the pri-mary beneficiaries ofthe festivities and takepart in a number ofactivities, such as deco-rating hard-boiled eggs.Women play a key rolein organizing Norouzand passing on its tradi-tions. Norouz promotesthe values of peace andsolidarity between gen-erations and withinfamilies, as well as rec-onciliation and neigh-borliness, thus con-tributing to culturaldiversity and friendshipamong peoples and var-ious communities.

Norouz inAfghanistan:

The famous bannernamed after Imam Ali(A) is erected in themorning of Narouz, and by so doingthe ceremonies of Jahanda Bala officialystarts and last for 40 days and nights.During this period, all of those whohave a heartfelt wish and the ailed stayat the foot of the banner and crave fortheir wish to come true. It is said thatmany of the patients have recoveredunder this very banner. They alsobelieve that should the banner be held

Buzkashi during Norouz in Afghanistan

Issue 12 - Vol 4 15

Norouz in Kazakhstan: In Kazakhstan, Norouz is considered to be the point of ver-

nal equinox, a time, during which everything becomesrefreshed and when the whole world is filled with joy andhappiness. The Kazakhs believe that Norouz is the beginningof the year and they have beautiful saying regarding it:"Norouz has been awaited for one whole year; Blessingsdescend at Norouz; and finally: The Azure gem of Samarqandwill melt at Norouz". The Kazakhs perform season cleaningbefore Norouz, for they believe it will push away all ailmentsand problems. They light two candles and hang it above thedoor since the moment of New Year to "Shab-e-Qazir". Onthe New Year eve, the Kazakh girls cook a dish with the lastportions of the horse meat called "Oyqi Ashar" and serve theirbeloved boys. The young men exchange presents such ascombs, mirrors and perfume as gifts. They believe that thisinterchange of gifts would increase love between them.

Another ceremony performed by young men is saddling anuntamed horse andsting a dull-their hand-made product- on it.They let the horse gal-lop through their placeat exactly three in themorning to wake thepeople up. This is asymbolic show repre-senting the arrival ofthe New Year.

There are well-known contests amongKazakhs on the occa-sion of Norouz, amongwhich "Qol-Tozaq" isone performedbetween men andwomen. Should thewomen win, theybelieve the New Yearto be one filled withprosperity and blessing.However, if the menwin, they consider it tobe unfavorable year."Koekpar", picking goatsby men riding on horses, "Avdar Yespaq", wrestling, "Qiz Qov"and "Alti Baqan" are instances of other contests and gamesheld on Norouz.

Norouz in Kyrgyz Republic: Only one day is celebrated as Norouz in Kyrgyzstan. The

entire ceremony had been forgotten under the Soviets; how-ever, upon the collapse of the ex-USSR it has gained furtherimportance and is celebrated in a better way each year. It isthe government that takes care of the celebration in the cities.

Nonetheless, senior citizens in the vil-lages are in charge of the ceremony inthe rural areas. The feast is held in thebig squares of the cities as well as vastlands around the villages. Cooking spe-cial dishes such as "Besh Barmaq","Mantah", "Borsak", and "Katma" is verypopular, particularly that the food is dis-tributed for free among the people.There are a number of contests going onat Norouz as well.

Norouz in Pakistan:Norouz is called

"Alam Afrouz" inPakistan meaning thenew day that illumi-

nates the world with itsarrival. It has an exclu-sive importance amongthe people, and there-fore, different socialand religious groups

elucidate in details about it in the calen-dars they publish. The calendar is calledJantri. Season cleaning, putting on newclothes, preparing certain sweets such as"Luddoo", "Golab Jamen", "Rus Malai" ,"cake", "Barfi" , "Shekar Pareh", "CreamRoll", "Souhan Halva", and giving andreceiving gifts (Eidi) is among the cere-monies practiced in Pakistan. DuringNorouz, people avoid unfavorable talks

Norouz became even more attractive in Iran uponthe emergence of Islam,since it became closelyinterwoven with Iranian culture.It even appreciatedNorouz, for it mirroredadmiration for beauty,human values, affection,and amity.

Norouz Celebration in Kazakhstan

16 ECO HERITAGE

On this day, Hakim-Bashi (the court doctor) would prepare acertain medicine called Norouzieh that included 40 sub-stances. It was believed that the drink would reinforce thephysical strength and heal many of illnesses. Norouz is consid-ered to be the revitalization of nature. It is also believed tocoincide with the holy night of Qadr', Innocence; the birthdayof Imam Ali (a.s), and his wedding with Hazrat Fatima (s). It isworth noting that Norouz was appreciated among the Turksuntil the prime of republicanism; however, it gradually lost itssignificance and presently exists in northern parts of Turkey.

Norouz in Turkmenistan: The arrival of the New Year is celebrated twice in

Turkmenistan: once in January when the international Christian year begins, and the other in Norouz as a marker

of reviving the ancient tradition in the country. They believethat when Jamshid, the fourth king in the Pishdadian dynasty,called the day of his take over as Norouz. The Turkmens cele-

brate Norouz by cook-ing special Norouz dish-es such as "NorouzKoja", "Norouz Bameh","Samani" and perform-ing different games andcontests by the youth.There are several otherraces held on Norouzsuch as horseback rid-ing, wrestling, leaping,rooster fight, sheepfight, chess, Mohre Baziand swinging. Visitingrelatives and friendstwice, has an elevatedposition among theTurkmens.

Norouz inUzbekistan:

Norouz known asNavruz in Uzbekistan iscelebrated as a popularoccasion.

Rokim's book andGulzori Kutub, which

are collection of poetic scripts were published in Bukhara in1915. It described the traditions and customs of Norouz, peo-ple's relationships and in particular, the fact that the celebra-tion of the event would unite all people regardless of theirreligions and nationalities. It describes how Navruz was cele-brated in the XIXth century. Another famous book:"Navrouznoma" also depicted various events related toNavrouz. The very fact that it gives information on Navrouztestifies that this was an important event and a well enjoyedholiday even in those days.

and follow a kind attitude towards eachother. Composing and reciting poems inUrdu, Dari and Arabic are quite trendyas well. Pakistani people believe thathope, peace, and amity in the Islamicworld are the destinations of Norouz.They believe that this way freedom, for-tune, happiness, fraternity, and equitywould rest in the souls-and hearts of thepeople.

Norouz in Tajikistan: Norouz is of great importance among

the people in Tajikistan-particularly for thosefrom Badakhshan whoconsider it as thenational tradition oftheir ancestors. Theyconsider it to hold thesecrets of amity andname the day as "KhidirAyam" (the great Eid).People in Tajikistan andparticularly inBadakhshan, performseason cleaning, andwash the dishes.According to an old tra-dition the lady in eachhouse strikes two red-dish brooms, whichhave been collectedfrom the mountains inthe fall, outside thedoor when the sun hasraised as much as twobeams of light. Theyconsider red to bebringing luck for thepeople. Cooking certain dishes andsweets is also customary among theTajiks. Contests such as wrestling, swing-ing, egg rolling, goat-killing, rooster andpartridge fight are also popular at thistime of the yea

Norouz in Turkey: Norouz was among the few occa-

sions Ottomans celebrated in Turkey.

Norouz Celebration in Tajikistan

Issue 12 - Vol 4 17

Novruz in the eyes of an

Azerbaijanichild

Novruz is a great holiday inmany Muslim countries.

Novruz is a great holiday inAzerbaijan, too. We usually

celebrate Novruz on the 21stof March as the beginning ofthe New Year. With the com-ing of Novruz the Sun beginsto shine brightly, the weather

gets warmer and warmer,snow begins to melt in themountains and fields, the

Earth awakes from her wintersleep, and birds of passage

return to their place and vio-lets and snowdrops begin topeep through the ground in

the gardens and forests. I mustsay that every family does his

best to meet Novruz as well aspossible. Grandmothers and

mothers prepare fa sali:shakarbura, pakhlava and

other cakes with great pleas-ure. They dye eggs in different

colors: red, yellow, blue,green and brown. On the eveof Novruz people clean their

flats, houses, yards and gar-dens. Everybody takes a bath

before Novruz comes. On theday of Novruz people put on

their new clothes, relativesand friends visit one another,

congratulate each otherheartily and wish every suc-cess to each other; peoplewho are at odds with each

other reconcile on that day.Children like the Novruz holi-

day best of all. People meetNovruz with great pleasure.

Gazanova Gulsum, School # l64

Norouz & Edible Ritual ofSamanu-

PazanTypology of foodstuffs, include the methods of preparation

and consumption, constitute part of our cultural identities.Passed over from one generation to another, the foodstuffsgenerally produced and frequently consumed by communi-ties, gradually give rise to development and subsequent propa-gation of an accumulated state of respect and holiness amongpeople.

Throughout the "Norouz territory", wheat enjoys the stanceas the most basic frequently used crop. All aspects related towheat, from the land on which it is cultivated and harvested,to the mill where it is ground, to the oven where it is baked, inone way or another, carry a ring of holiness and respect.

The whole range of the related activities encompass a richcollection of traditionally and ritually respected customs, all ofwhich having their roots deep in our people's sacred beliefs inthe region. These include pouching, reaping, threshing, clean-ing, dividing, weighing, grinding, kneading, baking, and insome cases, it involves the rituals related to the consumptionof the produced bread.

This is why wheat, its flour, the grass-plot grown out ofwheat grains (Sabze) and Samanu, the foodstuff prepared fromwheat sprout sap, all occupy a special place on the SofrehHaft-Sin (the Norouz table arrangement) and this is whySamanu always accompany Norouz festivities, whereverNorouz is celebrated. It may be hypothesized that the firstinstances of familiarization with the sweet taste of wheat mayhave, quite possibly been through absorbing the silver sprouts,grown out of the grains. The hypothesis could be further elab-orated to suggest that guiding the experience with the mysteri-ous taste, may have caused to develope some kind of belief-based behavior among ancient people. Both the silver sproutand the sweet sap must have presented the believing peoplewith some thoughts about the Hereafter or the life after death.

People, then, acquired cooking, by way of which they wereable to turn the sap into Samanu, and the latter into a medi-um linking them, the wheat consuming communities, to theholy bodies that had filled their worlds of religious beliefs.Today, all of the communities scattered on Norouz territory

By : Mohammad MirshokraeeThe Anthropology Cente, Iran Cultural Heritage,

Handicrafts and Tourism Organization

18 ECO HERITAGE

sprouting in the few days to come. In Kulyab, Tajikistan, the containers are kept in mosques,

around sacred places of pilgrimage, or on plains outside thevillages, where they are looked after by men.

The sprouts are then handed over to a gathering by neigh-boring women, headed by their oldest who prays and guidesthe older women to cut and the young to mash them inlarge stone mortars. Nowadays the fibers are cut in electricalminces. The extract is then strained and filtrated and filledin the cooking pot. Cooking starts after some wheat flour isadded. The mixture is continually stirred to be preventedfrom being burnt at the bottom. People take turns to stir theliquid with the skimmer while praying and vowing silently.The ritual which is respected throughout has the effect ofpreventing the dish from being destroyed. In some regions,men also take part in this stage.

The ceremonial cooking, together with a number of otherregional rituals and tra-ditions, performedbeside the pot, contin-ues until dawn.Samanu-pazan night rit-uals, include regionalgames for children, reli-gious recitals, especiallyrecitals of the life ofHazrat Fatimah Zahra,the Holy Prophet'sbeloved daughter (espe-cially in central Iran),dances and songs(Tajikistan andUzbekistan), folkloriccomic plays (Kulyab,Tajikistan), happy songsin praise of the HolyProphet's birth (Kurdcommunities of As-Sulaymanayah, as wellas other Kurd nations ofIraq), and prayers andvows for charitable ded-ications (the whole terri-tory), among others.

Different RitualsIn southern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan Samanu-

pazan is called Jaan-i Samanu, Toy Samanu, and Mile Samanu(all roughly means Samanu feast).

Respecting the related rituals and traditions, at dawn,Samanu is taken off the fireplace. In Iran care is taken tocover the pot with a piece of cloth before sunrise, which is toremain there till the time Samanu is to be distributed in smalldishes. Eastern and Central Iranian communities believe bythis time the trace made by Hazrat Fatimah Zahra's hand is

regard Samanu, as well as a number ofother foodstuffs obtained from wheatsprout, as ritual of feast.

SamanuPazan

The ceremony ofcooking Samanu

A collection of riteswithin the magnificentNorouz ritual ofSamanu-pazan, is con-

stituted by relatively richsets of componentialbehaviors in differentregions.

All nations involvedwith the ritual of Samanu-pazan con-sider it as a feminine-group job.However, at the initial preparatorystage with less ritual activities, men alsoare engaged in the cooking process.The usual cleansing and washing makeup the first step. The washed grains arethen poured into containers, wherethey are kept moistened by a cover ofwet thin cloth. The containers are,then, transferred to a suitable place for

The sprouts are then handed over to

a gathering by neighbor-ing women, headed bytheir oldest who prays

and guides the olderwomen to cut and the

young to mash themin large stone

mortars.

Samanu Pazan in Iran

Issue 12 - Vol 4 19

detectable on the Samanu, who is believed to come at dawnto bless the dish for abundance by touching it. AmongWestern Iranian, including Kurdish societies the same effect isattributed to Prophet Khizer. The effect is so highly regardedthat the claim prevails throughout that the sweet taste of thedish is obtained only after it has been blessed.

Here, the pot is taken to an empty room, where it is sur-rounded by mirrors, and henna, to wait until it is to be distrib-uted at sunrise. By this time, the needy light candles aroundthe pot and leave the scene. The rituals for distribution aremostly performed by one of the elders of the family or in theneighborhood. She starts with addressing the mentioned holyreligious figures and praying for all, especially those who havetaken part in the ritual, to remain healthy. In Mukri Kurdistan(near Mahabad, Iran) the woman calls Xeder Zinduk (everliv-ing Khizr) loudly to fulfill the practitioners' needs. In Kulyab,Tajikistan, Samanu travels round a sacred place for three timesby men, then the job ofdistribution is started bywomen.

Nowadays, inhabi-tants of large cities ofIran buy Samanu,together with the othercomponents of Sofre-ye Haftsin, in Nowroozmarkets. However Insmaller cities, as well asamong other nations,however, the feast isrespected together withall of its traditions andrituals: Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Afghanistan,Azerbaijan, andKyrgyzstan, are someprominent examples.

Norouz CookiesFoodstuffs of the

same natureTraditional Norouzfoodstuffs utilize wheat sprout in two different forms. Thefirst is cooked extracted sap which is known as Samanu,and the other fresh or dried sprout mixed with wheatflour, out of which different cookies or forms of bread areprepared. Sweet by the special taste of the wheat sprouts,such cookies are prepared in Central, Eastern, and South-eastern regions of Iran, as well as some parts of the CentralAsia and Afghanistan. These foodstuffs enjoy the sacredposition like Samanu and, include Komaje Sen, Halva-yeSen, Nan-e Samanu. and Koluae-ye Samanu, among othervarieties.

Komaj-e Sen Komaj-e Sen is specifically pro-

duced by Boaaqai nomads of Kermanand Sirjan (South-east Iran) and con-stitutes a principal component ofNorouz dish. The dough, formed ofwheat grain and sprout flour, is spreadon a large frying-pan, covered withanother piece of the same size, anddates, walnut, and special spices inbetween. When cooked, the mixtureis cut into small lozenges and added

to the components ofthe Norouz's Haft-seen. Originally,Komaj-e Seen used tobe cooked on theoccasion of Nowrouz.Today, however, con-fectionaries ofKerman produce itthroughout the yearamong their tradition-al regional cookies.

Halva-ye Seen The Iranian

Zoroastrians produce aspecial type of Halva(sweet paste) from theSamanu dough,known as Halva-yeSeen. The paste is dis-tributed among thepoor on Norouzevenings, in celebrat-ing the FarvardeganFeast, for their dead tobe forgiven.

Aangal or Aangmal In Central, as well as Eastern,

regions of Iran, the Samanu dough isfirst turned into a special kind ofHalvaa (an extremely thin regionaltype of bread). The bread is, then,mixed with dates, fat, and spices andthe product, classifiable amongNowrooz cookies, is known as Aangalor Aangmal.

Samanu Pazan in Turkmenistan

Jashan-e-Baharan usually begins inmid February and continues till midmarch. Though this festival is cele-brated throughout Pakistan but themost spectacular celebration ofJashan-e-Baharan is found in Lahore.Lahore is decked up appropriatespring attire during this festival. Thereare a plethora of events which takeplace during the festival whichinclude musical performances, art

20 ECO HERITAGE

One of the key festivals of Pakistan is called theJashan-e-Baharan or the Spring Festival. Jashan-e-

Baharan in Pakistan is Believed to be a pre-Islamicspring festival that marks the onset of spring. The fer-

tile province of Punjab has been intimately tied viaits agriculture to different seasons of the year.

The arrival of spring has always been an importantevent for all farmers and welcomed with celebration,hence the origin of 'Jashan' or celebration is meant to

welcome the arrival of 'Baharan' or spring. Jashan-e-Baharan is also known as the 'Basant' festival in some

parts of Pakistan.

Jashn-e-Baharan (SPRING FESTIVAL)

Celebrations in Pakistan

Compiled by : Dr. Sikandar Abbas Zaidi(ECI Staff Member)

Northern Frontier states of Pakistan par-ticipate in the Silk Road Festival but it isattended by Silk Road countries likeChina, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan,Tajikistan,Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. The arti-sans, crafts men and folk dancers andmusicians from all these countries partic-ipate in this prestigious Festival to show-case their indigenous art and culture.For centuries, the Silk Route remainedthe main trading route between thesouth Asia and central Asia.

This celebration of Silk Road festivaltakes place for a week along theKarakorum Highway in the high valleysof the Karakorum Mountains at differentlocations. Today, Silk Road Festival pro-vides a great opportunity for travelers toexplore the un-spoiled natural beautyrugged terrain of the Karakorum high-way and the erstwhile Silk route or SilkRoad.

They can also get a true insight intothe unique cultural and ancient tradi-

tions of the Northern areas of Pakistan.If you are contemplating a tour toPakistan, why not visit this uniqueFestival when you visit the country, andon your visit to Pakistan, don't forget toprocure some beautiful handicraft giftsfor your loved ones from the differentgift stores in Pakistan.

Jashn-e-Nowruz (3 Days,March 21-23)

Nowruz is the traditional Iranian newyear holiday celebrated in Iran, northernIraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan,Albania, Georgia, the countries ofCentral Asia such as Turkmenistan,Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan andKazakhstan, as well as among variousother Iranian and Turkic people in Syria,northwestern China, the Caucasus, theCrimea and the Balkans. Nowruz marksthe first day of spring. It is celebrated onthe day of the astronomical vernal equi-nox (start of spring in northern hemi-

and flower displays, books and handi-crafts stalls as well as the Canal Meladuring which decorated and illumi-nated boats and floats are displayedon Lahore Canal.

When you see artisans at work, youwill be surely tempted to buy Pakistan'straditional crafts as gifts for your lovedones. The endless variety of folk furni-ture, crafted utensils, embroidered gar-ments, gemstones and carved woodpieces are best gifts for a person wholoves ethnic things.

Silk Road FestivalThis charming Silk Road Festival or

Silk Route Festival in Pakistan has beenrecently introduced but it has gainedunprecedented popularity in these fewyears since it’s introduction. The quin-tessential feature of Silk Road Festivalinclude cultural programs like the localtribal dance and songs.

Not only the different tribes from the

Issue 12 - Vol 4 21

sphere), which usually occurs on theMarch 21st or the previous/followingday depending on where it is observed.

In Northern Pakistan (Chitral, Gilgitand Baltistan), Nowruz is celebrated as asocio-religious festival. It is also celebrat-ed with much fervor in Baluchistan andin almost all of Pakistan's major urbancenters. The day coincides with theSpring Equinox on March 21, but thecelebration continues for weeks.

In Baltistan, the main features ofNowruz are giving colored eggs tofriends and polo matches. InBaluchistan, the festival is marked withoutdoor feasts and the traditional jump-ing over a fire "to wash away sins" andusher in a fresh start. The origins of thisfestival are pre-Islamic and dates back towhen Pakistan was part of theAchaemenid and Sassanid PersianEmpires.

Nowruz is held in Gilgit withDivisional Polo football, volleyball andhockey tournament as the main high-light added with folk dances, music,local games, wrestling, tug of war, acro-batics etc, coupled by exhibitions andtraditional sports, exhibitions of handi-crafts, regional cuisines, dresses and jew-elry.

BasantThe Jashan-e-Baharan festival trans-

forms Lahore skies with a plethora ofcolorful kites. Celebrations of Jashan-e-Baharan in Lahore is so famous thatpeople flock from all over Pakistan aswell as different parts of the globe totake part in this vibrant Festival. Wholesky wears a look of a colorful canvas dueto a celebration named Basant Festival.

The Basant Festival heralds the end ofwinter and arrival of spring in midFebruary. It is celebrated in the entireIndian subcontinent and particularly inPakistan, with flying kites - perhapsbecause spring generally brings a clearsky and just the right amount of wind.For its fans, kite flying is pure fun.

The Festival is the quintessential fea-ture of Jashan-e-Baharan. AlthoughBasant Festival has no links with theIslamic culture, it is becoming very pop-ular and being celebrated in Lahore,every year with zeal and fervent by peo-ple of all religious backgrounds:Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus and Christians.Traditionally, celebrants dress in brightyellow or green and many people flykites from rooftops.

The city of Lahore marks the begin-ning of Spring with the Basant Festival,

an orgy of kite-flying, rooftop soirees,garden parties and equestrian events.

Lahorites and out-of-town enthusiastscome with glamorous clothes, in the yel-low and green of spring flowers bloom-ing citywide, to bid farewell to the frostsand fogs of winter and usher in spring.Nighttime kite-flying in the walled oldquarter around the 16th centuryBadshahi Mosque and Lahore Fortopens the festival. Ancient mughalpalaces throw open their doors for all-night parties to view the kites, illuminat-ed by spotlights, slashing the sky.

Stars from the local film industry per-form with classical Qawali musicians atparties in traditional haveli (large statelyhouse homes). White paper kites shim-mer in the night sky, diving and soaringas rival fliers joust in duels marked bybattle cries of "Pecha"! And victoryshouts of "Bo kata"! Bursts of drums andtrumpets mark the cutting of a kite'scord.

In the city of Lahore, the festival laststhree days. In most other cities, there isonly a one-day celebration.

Kite flying has been prohibited inPakistan in 2005 after a number ofdeaths connected to the kite battles, butthis temporarily ban has been lifted

22 ECO HERITAGE

and house of relatives of the participantsare fully packed with guests from all overthe country. Moreover some five starhotels also arrange this function on theirroof top for foreigners and other highclass gentry. They also arrange variety ofdishes with musical concert.

Lahore Horse and CattleShow (3 Days)

Cattle races, cattle dances, tent-peg-ging, tattoo show, folk music, dances,bands, cultural floats and folk games areheld at Lahore's Fortress Stadium at theend of February or at First week ofMarch. The show has been described asan eloquent expression of Pakistan's her-itage and an authentic account of itsagricultural and industrial achievement's.

The Fortress Stadium, the venue ofthe show is thronged by active partici-pants, foreign visitors and people who

watch the Festival with great enthusiasm.A large number of them are interested inwatching and appreciating the bestbreeds of livestock.

Many derive pleasure by watchingother activities such as parade of ani-mals, dances by horses and camels, polomatches, tent pegging, dog shows andtheir races, vaudeville acts of stuntmen,mass display of military band and rhyth-mically physical exercise performed bythe children.

Tastefully decorated industrial floatsand torch, light the tattoo shows.Additional attractions include a subtleinterplay of lights to weave enticingpatterns at night and breath takingacts by foreign groups. The showbegan as a modest exhibition organ-

ized by the army to project the cattlewealth of the country in the earlyfifties. Today, it is an internationalevent to which dignitaries fromabroad and many visitors and foreigntourists come to watch.

Dera Ismail KhanLocated 340 kilometers from

Peshawar, it features traditional sports,exhibitions of handicrafts, dresses andjewelry, camel and horseraces/dances, bull racing, tent peg-ging, concerts, colorful stalls and fire-

Issue 12 - Vol 4 23

Basant fairs are full of folkdances, arts and crafts exhibi-tions, musical evenings and foodfestivals. Hot and delicious cui-sine is a treat to the taste buds

especially for this festival. Basant is celebrated in a big way and

is an ideal time to exchange various gifts.Basant fairs are full of folk dances, artsand crafts exhibitions, musical eveningsand food festivals. Hot and delicious cui-sine is a treat to the taste buds. Mendrape themselves in embroidered shal-war kameeze with matching ankle-length scarves, little boys strut in threepiece suits and women coat their handswith henna and stack their arms withbangles.

It is said that Basant originated inChina about 5000 years ago. Hindus flykites at Basant Festival to enjoy it. Timepassed and Muslims who were livingtogether with Hindus in the sub-conti-nent also joined them in kite-flying.Since then Muslims are taking participa-tion in just kite flying at the time ofBasant calling it as Pala Urant. Now peo-ple of Lahore enjoy it by kite flying com-petitions and visiting the shrine of SaintMadho Lal Hussein, where they assem-ble to pay their benediction.

Lahore is becoming the main focalpoint for the celebration of this festival inPakistan. People traditionally fly kites onthe roofs of their buildings. It is com-monly observed that rest houses, hotels

works. Large display of handicrafts,regional cuisines, one of the largestdisplays of military bands and exhibi-tion of floats and many other attrac-tions are held here at the end ofMarch till 1st week of April.

Sindh Horse & Cattle ShowAt Shikarpur, about 42 kms from

Sukkhar, cultural activities, exhibitionsand traditional sports, exhibitions ofhandicrafts, dresses and jewelry, horseand cattle show, bull, camel andhorse races/dances, tent pegging,

music concerts and colorful marts,puppet shows, tug of war, wrestling,tent pegging, bull racing and manyother colorful cultural activities areheld in Sindh during the last week ofFebruary.

Jashan-e-LarkanaIt is celebrated in Larkana, Sindh

Province featuring traditional sports,exhibition of handicrafts, folk music anddances.

Lok Mela It is a Folk Festival held at Islamabad

for one week featuring Folk Music,songs, music contests, folk dances, crafts-men at work, exhibition, and sale ofhandicrafts. The Festival presents aunique opportunity to watch the cultureand craft of the whole country at oneplace.

Sibi FestivalIt is a festival of traditional sports,

handicrafts exhibition, folk music anddances held in Sibi, Baluchistan, dur-ing the last week of February. Till the15th century, the tribes in Baluchistanused to meet annually in Sibi to dis-cuss their internal feuds, which isknown as Jirga. The tradition contin-ued till the 17th century when largecaravanserais were built to accommo-date the tribal chiefs and their colorfulentourage.

During the British Empire in 1876,Sir Robert Sanderman was appointedagent to the Governor General inBaluchistan and in 1893 the Durandline between British India andAfghanistan was "fixed." To avoid the

24 ECO HERITAGE

bloody feuds amongst the warringtribes, Sanderman encouraged theannual Jirga.

The Jirga still takes place today asthe Sibi Mela to promote an annualgathering of tribes to exchange viewsand develop camel, horse and cattlebreeding in the area besides promot-ing handicrafts. The festival lasts foralmost a week in mid-February andmarks the beginning of spring, withtournaments, exhibitions, and trading.

Thousands of best camels from thedeserts, horses and cattle from villagesare brought to the show and tendedcolorfully by tribal people. The fairattracts Baluch tribal elders besidesimportant figures from all overPakistan, as well as tribesmen fromthe surrounding areas and is an excel-lent place to shop for local Baluchihandicrafts.

Chitral & Kalash FestivalThere are four main festivals which

make up Chitral and Kalash Festivals. Tothe people of Kalash tribes and the resi-dents of Chitral, these festivals are theculminations of religious life which theyunite the people of that area. The springfestival which is locally known as "Joshi

The Festival is held duringthe last week of March, next

to the shrine of a famoussaint outside Shalimar

Gardens, Lahore.

Issue 12 - Vol 4 25

/Chilimjusht" takes place in the middleof May and lasts for four days.

The spring festival celebrates theboon of the fairies on their lives and alsoprovides mystical safeguards, the goatsand shepherds before they go to thepastures. Every religious festival like"Joshi Chilimjusht" is accompanied bydancing and rhythmical chant to a beatof the drum. The women deck them-selves up in their best traditional blackrobes and adorn themselves with col-ored necklaces. The tribal chiefs in col-orful dresses hark back to the bygonedays and events.

Uchal FestivalUchal Festival in August marks the

jubilant occasion of the harvest of wheatand barley and bringing down of cheesefrom the high summer pastures. It is cel-ebrated in the areas of Rumbur andBumboret. This Ucal Festival forms aquintessential part of Chitral and KalashFestival. There is also Phoo Festivalwhich is only held in Birir area aroundend of September to celebrate the grapeand walnut harvest.

Last but not the least, the ChomosFestival is a quintessential part of allKalash and Chitral Festivals. As winter

begins around mid December, theChomos Festival starts. The Festival isobserved for the divine, the living anddead relatives, for the crops and thegoats to be safeguarded, while thecommunity, the village and the valleyare purified prior to the impendingNew Year.

ChowasAnother festival to be mentioned

here is "Kafir Kalash" Winter Festival towelcome the first snow falls in ChitralValley. All dance & music parties areheld indoors due to heavy snowfalland are celebrated in all the threeKalash Valleys. "Kafirs" are said to bethe descendents of Alexander's armywho came into this region in 327 B.C.however this could not be verified forcertain. Ever since, these people havenever stepped out of these valleys andtheir rituals, unusual habits & curiouscustoms attract thousands of touristsfrom all over the world.

PhoolIt is another colorful Kafir Kalash

Festival celebrating the reaping of grapesand walnuts in all the three KalashValleys of Chitral.

Utchal (1 Day)It is the Harvest Festival, celebrated

by Kalash people in Chitral, whichinvolves singing, dancing & feasting.

Shandur Polo Festival Held at the highest Polo Field of the

World at Shandur Pass (3750 Metersabove the sea level), this festive and col-orful tournament is played between thetop divisional teams of Gilgit, Chitral,Hunza & Skardu. The polo played hereis quite primitive and rough with veryfew rules. The festival is mixed with folkdances, music, local games, wrestling,tug of war etc. A tent village alongShandur Lake will be set up in coopera-tion with the local administration.

Mela Chiraghan (Festival ofMillion Lamps)

It is held during the last week ofMarch, next to the shrine of a famoussaint outside Shalimar Gardens, Lahore.Pilgrims from all over Pakistan gatherhere to celebrate the birth ceremony ofthe saint by offering one hundred thou-sand oil lamps at the shrine. The wholearea is decorated with lights and pilgrimsdance on the beat of huge drums.

TheDevelopmentof Yasawiyah

Path& It's Roots and

Causes in Central Asia

Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, was the12th-century head of a regional

school of Sufism, a mystic move-ment in Islam which some believe

began in the 9th century. He isregarded as a distinguished spiritual

personality among the the peopleof Central Asians; particularly thepeople of Kazakhstan who have

focused their attention on him aswell as the city of Turkistan(Yasah),for the purpose of reconstructing

their national identity.He was born in1093, and spent

most of his life in Yasah, dying therein 1166. He is widely revered in

Central Asia for popularizing sufism,which sustained the diffusion of

Islam in the area despite the con-temporary onslaught of the Mongolinvasion. The theological school hecreated turned Yasah into the most

important medieval enlighteningcenter of the area. He was also anoutstanding poet, philosopher and

statesman. Khoja Ahmed Yasawi(khoja corresponds to "master" in

Persian) was interred in a smallmausoleum, which became a pil-

grimage site for Muslims. The townof Yasah was largely spared during

the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmiain the 13th century. Overtime, the

descendants of the Mongols settledin the area and converted to Islam.

The town then came under thecontrol of the Timurid Dynasty inthe 1360s. To gain the support oflocal citizens, Timur adopted the

policy of constructing monumentalpublic and cultural buildings. In

Yasah, he put his attention to theconstruction of a larger mausoleumto house Yasawi's remains, with the

intention of glorifying Islam.The new mausoleum, now a

UNESCO World Heritage Site, wasbegun in 1389. Timur imported

builders from cities which he laidwaste during his campaigns, includ-ing mosaic-workers from Shiraz and

stone-masons and stucco-workersfrom Isfahan. The master builderswere led by Khoja Hosein Shirazi

from Persia. By: Dr. Mehdi Sanai*

26 ECO HERITAGE

years of Bolshevik rule, by studying the role played by theseSchools.

For many centuries various Schools of Mysticism andSufism viz. Naqshbandiyah, Kobraviyah, Qaderiyah, andYasawiyah prevailed in the Central Asian region. From theviewpoint of orientalists, as the symbols of "unofficial Islam",the followers of these Sufi Schools played a major role in safe-guarding the Islamic traditions, which constitute a significantpart of day to day life of the people of this region.Throughout this period, the Sufi sages were considered to bethe prime guardians of this "unofficial Islam" as well as guidesto their people.

Even though the advent of Islam in various Central Asianregions has taken place in different historical periods - insome regions it dates back to as early as the years immediate-ly following the Hejrah and in some other regions like someparts of Kazakhstan, it dates back to as late as the 18th and19th Centuries - the traditions and customs of these regionsare distinctively influenced by Islam. During the Abbasidreign, Transoxiana was regarded as one of the most importantcenters of the Islamic civilization, which presented the Islamicworld with many scholars who left behind a large number ofvaluable works in various fields of Islamic sciences.

Following the downfall of the Ghazan rule in mid-sixteenth

Issue 12 - Vol 4 27

A As a great personality and thefounder of a School of mysticism, KhojaAhmad Yasawi has left behind manyspiritual works for various communitiesof Central Asia. In his monumentalwork, "Manteq al-Tair", Farid al-Din Attarhas referred to him as the "Pir-eTurkistan" (lit. The Sage of Turkistan).

He was a popular mystic among thevarious Central Asian communities andthe School of mysticism attributed tohim, which is popularly known asYasawiyah, is an important Sufi Schoolthat has played a significant role in thereligious life of the communities of thisregion.

Keeping in view the fact that variousSchools of Mysticism and Sufism havebeen instrumental factors in the spreadand preservation of Islam in the CentralAsian region, it would only be possibleto analyze the essence of religiousbeliefs and traditions of a large numberof Muslims of the region and the man-ner in which these beliefs and traditionswere safeguarded, during the seventy

The Tumb of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi , Turkestan-Kazakhstan

28 ECO HERITAGE

It should also be kept in mind that itwould not be possible to deny the roleof the said bureaus and the official cler-ics all together, since they provided peo-ple and unofficial clerics with a suitableopportunity to disseminate true Islamictraditions and values. These mystic andSufi Schools, which shouldered theresponsibility of safeguarding andspreading Islam among the people, didnot allow their circles of sages and theirstudents and followers to break up.

The infiltration of the Russian culturein these regions, which started in theneighborhood of the Muslim societiesand then permeated into them, wasconsidered an element of cultural hege-mony. As a result, the mystic and SufiSchools began to positively reacttowards this cultural invasion and, thus,became instrumental in safeguardingthe Islamic traditions and customs; sincein the absence of these Schools it wouldbe impossible to withstand the effectsof the invading culture.

As a matter of fact, in the formerSoviet Union, the official Islam com-prised five bureaus with several Schoolsgoverned by them. These bureaus werein charge of publishing books andimparting theological training, aspiring

Century, Central Asia gradually came to be influenced anddominated by Russia. Nevertheless, until the early 20thCentury religious activities were widespread in the region andit was only after the establishment of the communist rule thatIslam and Muslims came under suppression and mosqueswere demolished.

The resistance put up by Muslims led to the emergence ofsome Islamic movements in certain regions of Central Asiaand Caucuses. This prompted the Bolshevik statesmen tothink of containing Islam within an official framework.Therefore, based on a plan dictated by the Central rule, fivebureaus (referred to as Qaziyat) were set up throughout theSoviet Union to cater to the affairs of Muslim population.One of these five bureaus was in charge of Central Asia andCaucuses, which was stationed in Tashkent, capital ofUzbekistan. This bureau had in turn established the two sem-inaries (Mir Arab and Imam Bukhari seminaries) with the aimof training clerics.

As a matter of fact, with the establishment of Bolshevikrule, the Islamic trend in this region, which previously influ-enced the social structure of the Muslims - and comprisedpowerful mystic and Sufi sub-structures, was altered into twotrends of official and unofficial Islam. The official Islam wasgoverned by the above-mentioned bureaus, which were setup by the Central rule but had no or very little impact on thesocial life of the Muslims.

The unofficial Islam, on the other hand, which existedthrough Sufi and mystic structures, had a deep impact on thelife of the Muslims. This trend could not be contained withina government framework, dictated by the communists andwas, therefore, in inviting people to some sort of intra-com-munal effort for safeguarding the original Islamic tradition andpractices.

The resistance put

up by Muslimsled to the

emergence of Islamic

movements incertain regionsof Central Asiaand Caucuses.This promptedthe Bolsheviks

to think of con-taining Islam

Issue 12 - Vol 4 29

young clerics. Although such activitiescould be considered as desirable tosome extent, the fact remained thatthese bureaus functioned in coordina-tion with the Bolshevik government.

The unofficial Islam, however, com-prised spontaneous religious fervor ofthe people, the activities of those cler-gies who were not recognized by theofficial religious centers, personal rela-tions with Islamic laws and values, andfinally, the existing communal traditionsand customs that facilitated and provid-ed a framework for the preservation ofIslam.

The Mystic and Sufi Schools acted asthe first and foremost institutions onwhich people could rely for protectingtheir religion and religious traditions. Inother words, though unofficial, theseSchools provided the necessary guid-ance to people on their social lives; par-ticularly those who lived in remoteregions.

As mentioned earlier, one of thegreatest Sufi and mystic sages whoseinfluence spread over a vast CentralAsian region was Khoja Ahmad Yasawi.According to historical records Yasawiwas born sometime in the fifth CenturyAH. The Great Encyclopedia of the

Soviet Union has recorded his year of birth as 1105 AD. Hewas born in a small township called Sayram which was situat-ed on the east of himkent, capital of Ongtustik Qazaqstan(South Kazakhstan) Province from where he migrated to thecity of Yasah and joined the Sufi circles and observed asceticpractices, which included forty days of fasting, meditation,prayers, self-denial, etc.

There are very few authentic and irrefutable evidences anddocuments available on the personality and life of SheikhAhmad Yasawi. Nevertheless, it is absolutely certain that hehad greatly influenced the people of the region. This hasprompted many scholars and academicians to carry out sepa-rate researches on him.

The city of Yasah, which was later on renamed as Turkistan(and continues to be known by this name) was one of theactive religious centers of Yasawi's times. Besides, Yasawah,which is referred to as the capital of Oghuz Khan in Kazakhlegends, was one of the important Sufi Centers ofTransoxiana. As per historical records, during this period aparticular mystic School was active in Turkistan, whose sheikhwas known as Arsalan Baba or Sheikh Baba Aslan.

After receiving his elementary education, the youngAhmad left Turkistan for Bukhara. Those days Bukhara wasunder the Saljuq rule and was considered to be the greatestIslamic center in the entire Transoxiana and thousands of stu-dents had entered it from the neighboring regions in order toreceive religious education.

Owing to his affiliation to the Khoja chain of mystics,Yasawi came to be popularly known as Khoja Ahmad Yasawiand since he was a student of Sheikh Yusof Hamadani, hewas, in fact a disciple of the Iranian chain of Sufism. It isworthwhile to mention that since the 4th Century AH (10thCentury AD) Sufi thought, which was, in fact, an offspring of

Turks. Led by Imam Baha al-DinNaqshband, the Naqshbandis estab-lished relations with the Yasawiyah witha view to gaining some influence amongthe Turks of the region.

From the viewpoint of some histori-ans, Naqshbandiyah emerged as a reac-tion to the Yasawiyah School ofMysticism, which was greatly influencedby the Iranian culture. According tothese historians the Naqshbandis madeefforts to create an independent ideo-logical framework for the Turks. Thereare also some historians who contradictthis view on the grounds that KhojaAhmad Yasawi had adopted the Turkishlanguage and literature for the purposeof propagating his thought.

The most important feature inYasawiyah's thought and School ofMysticism is a blend that has beenbrought about between a kind of cul-ture taken from the Iranian Sufism onthe one hand and the language andapproach used by the Turk communitieson the other.

Despite being well-versed withIslamic sciences as well as Persian lan-guage and literature, Ahmad Yasawichose to avail of common Turkish lan-guage and literature for the purpose ofpropagating his thoughts. He adoptedthe same approach for teaching his stu-dents and also composed poems thatwere commensurate with commonTurkish literature. These poems werelater on compiled in his most outstand-ing work entitled "Divan-e Hekmat".Since Sheikh Ahmad Yasawi lived andtaught in a conservative environment,he was compelled to adapt himself tothe prevailing traditions and customsamong the people of the region. Forinstance, there are some statementsrecorded in the works of his contempo-rary Naqshbandis, which indicate thatin the Zekr (lit. remembrance) sessionsheld in Yasawi's circle, in which alldervishes would gather, men andwomen participated simultaneously.

The influence of Sheikh Ahmad onhis community was so profound that

the Iranian mystic thought in Khorasan gradually permeatedinto the religious beliefs of the Central Asian Muslims.

The Sufi School of thought, which emerged in an organ-ized form in Khorasan, during the 3rd Century AH (9thCentury AD), is in its general sense, a blend of neo-Platonismand Gnosticism that aimed at revealing the hidden and eso-teric messages of the Holy Quran.

In the mid-Fifth Century AH, Khoja Yusof Hamadaniwhose full name isAbu Ali Ya'qub bin Yusof Al-BazinjardiAl-Hamadani came to be the pioneer of Sufism in Central Asia.It is recorded that after studying in Arsalan Baba's School for afew years Khoja Ahmad became a student of Khoja Yusof inBukhara. From among numerous other students of KhojaYusof Hamadani who were contemporaries of SheikhAhmad Yasawi mention can be made of Sheikh AbdolqaderGilani who later on founded another famous mystic School ofthought.

From the viewpoint of Bartoled5 Khoja Yusof disseminatedthe dervish order in Central Asia and his students played asignificant role in spreading Islam among the Turks. YusofHamadani studied Islamic theology in Baghdad and subse-quently settled in Marv where he became a Sufi under theleadership of Sheikh Abu Ali Fariyomadi. As per what hasbeen narrated Hamadani recited the Holy Quran ten thou-sand times, from the beginning to the end, and went to Hajjpilgrimage thirty seven times.

Yusof Hamadani died in the year 1140 AD and before hisdeparture named four of his disciples as his successor. Thesedisciples were:

. Abu Mohammad Bukharai,

. Khoja Ahmad Yasawi,

. Abdol Khaleq Qirwani, and

. Abdullah Boraqi.

These four prominent students and disciples of the Sheikhstayed with him and studied under him until the time of hisdeath. Being appointed by Sheikh Yusof as his successor,Khoja Ahmad returned to Yasah and began propagating hisown School of Mysticism. He founded a unique School ofMysticism in Turkistan and gained outstanding popularityamong the Kazakhs and steppe residing Kyrgyz.

The dervishes of Khoja Ahmad's circle spread his teachingsthroughout the Turkistan region, up to Volga, Caucuses, andAsia Minor. Khoja Ahmad's unique teachings are now popu-larly known as Yasawiyah. Yasawiyah first spread to the banksof Syr Darya, the surrounding regions of Tashkent, andEastern Turkistan and later on, as the result of the popularityof the Turkish language and culture, disseminated toTransoxiana, Khwarazm, steppe regions, and the Bulgarianregions. Despite the fact that Yasawiyah School of Mysticismhad spread to such an extent that it even reached Anatolia inthe 6th Century AH (12th Century AD), however, the emer-gence and spread of the Naqshbandiyah School in the 8thCentury AH (14th Century AD) reduced its position to a con-siderable extent; even though it remained popular among the

30 ECO HERITAGE

The Mysticand Sufi

Schools actedas the first

and foremostinstitutions

on whichpeople couldrely for pro-tecting theirreligion and

religious tra-ditions.

many poets that were not even his con-temporary adopted his style of compos-ing poems that was marked withYasawi's style of poetry can be witnessedin the poems of "Hakim Ata", "Abay",Makhtum Qoli Feraqi', and "YunosAmroh" who are among the mostprominent personalities of the Turkishspeaking Central Asian Republics andare considered to be poets of eminenceand whose poems are very popularamong common people.

Sheikh Ahmad Yasawi's book "Divan-e Hekmat" comprises wisdoms on ethi-cal and moral advice and guidance.These wisdoms consist of advices topeople to strongly adhere to Islamiclaws, complains about the world andworldly affairs, praise for the HolyProphet of Islam (Peace Be Upon Him),and some narratives describing the con-ditions in the heaven and hell.

Khoja Ahmad's wisdoms are verypopular among the people ofKazakhstan as well as other parts ofCentral Asia. There are many elderlypeople who know these wisdoms byheart and recite them to youths andadvise them on adhering to them.These wisdoms are in the form somesort of oral conversations, which aim atdisseminating Islamic and ethical values."Divan-e Hekmat" of Khoja AhmadYasawi comprises seventy wisdoms twoof which are quoted hereunder.

Wisdom No. 53:O son of Islam! what I am about to

say is of immense importance!At dawn when flowers blossom and

nightingales singRise from your bed; because you

receive your sustenance at this momentThose immersed in divine love know

the joy of being awakeat dawn. And it is at this moment that

God's blessings can be witnessedAt dawn the world is like heaven.

Thus, praise and thank your Lord atdawns.Wisdom No. 37:

Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him)

was the master of eighteen thousand scholarsMohammad (PBUH) was the commander of thirty three

disciplesMohammad (PBUH) fed and supported the poor and the

hungryHe was a mercy on his UmmahMohammad (PBUH) remained awake till dawnMany were guided through his lightEven the wrong-doers benefited from his blessings.

Some research scholars have raised doubts that the book"Divan-e Hekmat" was compiled in Yasawi's life time and areof the opinion that the book which is currently availableunder this title is a collection of poems by his followers anddisciples that have been composed in Yasawi's style of poetry.This claim is supported by the fact that no copies of "DivaneHekmat" have ever been found belonging to earlier than the10th Century AH (16th Century AD).

Gurdeluvsky who had traveled to Turkistan in the year1929 has recorded that while in Turkistan he heard of a veryold manuscript of "Divan-e Hekmat", which had been writtenon animal hide and was kept in Ahmad Yasawi's tomb beforeit was lost.8 Although it could be said with certainty that nocopies of "Divan-e Hekmat" have been found belonging toearlier period than the 10th Century AH (16th Century AD),there are some evidences that indicate the book was com-piled during Yasawi's lifetime. For instance, in his book

"Mehmankhaneh-ye Bukhara" (The Bukhara Inn), Fazlollahbin Ruzbahan Khanji has mentioned that he had seen andread Yasawi's book in his tomb. He further adds that the bookwas written in Turkish and was Sufistic in essence.

However, the author of "Mehmankhaneh-ye Bukhara" hasnot mentioned the name "Divan-e Hekmat" and has notreferred to it being a book of poetry either. In the words ofFazlollah Khanji: "One of the greatest divine blessings I havereceived is that I got to read one of Khoja Yasawi's (May AllahSanctify His Dear Soul) books and it was written in Turkishlanguage. I found so much knowledge on Sufistic truth in itthat I doubt if a book of this magnificence has been writtenon the purpose of divine journey, its various stages, and phas-es that the seeker has to pass through in order to attainenlightenment, etc.

Some western scholars including Damberry, Melliuransk,Martin Hartman, and Brokleman, who had carried outresearch on Islamic Mysticism, are also of the opinion that"Divan-e Hekmat" belongs to the 5th Century AH (11thCentury AD). These historians believe that the claim on thepart of some scholars that "Divan-e Hekmat" belongs to the16th Century lacks correct information.10

Nonetheless, whether "Divan-e Hekmat" actually belongsto Sheikh Ahmad Yasawi or not there is absolutely no doubtover the fact that this style of poetry was initiated by him andsubsequently spread through his disciples and followers and,therefore, it would be possible to understand Yasawi'sthoughts and personality by reading such poems.

Issue 12 - Vol 4 31

In the mid-FifthCentury AH,Khoja YusofHamadani,whose full-name is AbuAli Ya'qub binYusof Al-BazinjardiAl-Hamadanicame to be thepioneer ofSufism inCentral Asia

forty days should be prepared underthe supervision of the Sheikh.

In this School, khalvat consists of twostages viz. 'khalvate shri'ah" and "khal-vat-e tariqah' and it is only after thesuccessful completion of the first stagethat the disciple is permitted to take onthe second stage.

By devising certain rules and regula-tion Khoja Ahmad Yasawi had createdvarious circles of his disciples the num-ber of which, according to somesources, crossed ninety thousand andmany of whom were dispatched toother regions as his representatives oncompletion of their training.Undoubtedly Khoja Ahmad Yasawi hashad great influence on the people ofthe Central Asian region and many sto-ries have been narrated about himsome of which have taken the form oflegends. For instance, it has been saidthat when he reached the age of 63,the age at which the Holy Prophet ofIslam (PBUH) departed for his eternalabode, he went into a well in hismonastery where he lived for 130 yearsand during this period exhibitednumerous miracles.

The Yasawiyah School of Mysticismenjoyed a great status in the region and

Yasawi's wisdoms consisted of two basic elements. Firstly,Islam or what may be referred to as religious and Sufi ele-ment; and secondly, the national element of the commonancient Turkish literature. While the first element determinedthe ideology of Yasawiyah School the second element had aprofound impact on Khoja Ahmad's propagation methods aswell as the style of his poetry.

It is due to this factor that Yasawiyah has been consideredto be the first and foremost School of Mysticism to haveemerged in the Turkish regions, which was established by aTurk Sufi and in a Turkish environment. Despite the fact thatmany of Yasawiyah's beliefs are similar to those ofNaqshbandiyah, yet it has its own unique framework ofbelief system. The most basic fundaments of the YasawiyahSchool of mysticism comprise "Ma'refatollah" (lit. knowledgeof God), "Nobility", "Honesty", "Fana Fillah" (lit, annihilation inGod), and "Tawakkol" (complete reliance on the will of God).

The Yasawiyah has its own particular conditions for attain-ing the status of leadership and becoming a Sheikh and theperson is required to have gone through the various stages of"Elm al-Yaqin", "Ein al-Yaqin", "Haq al-Yaqin", absolute trust inIslam, "Sabr" (patience), and "Taqarrob". The urge for enlight-enment and steadfastness in Zekr are obligatory in thisSchool and there are a number of other recommended actsand traditions that the disciples are expected to observe.

However, the first and foremost basic principle in thisSchool is absolute faith the Sheikh, respect for him, andcomplete humility before him. Yet another important ele-ment that disciples are to observe is "Khalvat" (solitude),which lasts for forty days and during this period the disciplehas to strictly observe all the recommended obligations; it isbeyond the capacity of this paper to elaborate on this issue.Even the food that the disciple is to consume during these

32 ECO HERITAGE

was instrumental in the emergence ofthe Haidariyah School of Sufism inKhorasan in the 6th Century AH (12thCentury AD). It also had a significantrole in the establishment of "Baba'i",and "Takbashi" Schools of Mysticism,which emerged in the second half ofthe same century in Anatolia.

Following his death, Khoja AhmadYasawi's tomb has been a place of pil-grimage for his followers who eagerlytravel to Turkistan from various CentralAsian regions with their vows and offer-ings. Certain special programs are alsoheld in his shrine at different times ofthe year the most important of which isheld in winter in which thousands ofpeople gather around the tomb. Theauthor of "Mehmankhaneh-ye Bukhara"has highlighted the status of KhojaAhmad Yasawi and people's faith inhim in a poem the informal translationof which is as follows:

O you who are caught in distress!Take refuge in the Sheikh of YasahThe one person who is the com-

mander of the army of GodHe is no one but the King of Yasah;

Khoja AhmadHis shrine is the Ka'ba of hearts

His place is the best place for worshiping the LordThe cosmos drinks from his (divine) wineThe skies are radiated green with his light

Yasawi's tomb was renovated by some Iranian craftsmenon the behest of Tamerlane towards the end of the 8thCentury AH (14th Century AD) approximately 230 yearsafter his death. Several stories are narrated by the people ofthis region about the renovation of the tomb by Tamerlane.For instance, it is being narrated that when the renovationwork of Khoja Ahmad's tomb began on the order ofTamerlane it faced a lot of problems and the building col-lapsed several times.

Finally, Tamerlane had a dream in which he was asked tomake a tomb on the grave of Arsalan Baba, the Sheikh ofKhoja Ahmad, before he could make one for Yasawi'stomb.12 Arsalan Baba's tomb is situated near the city ofAtra (the birth place of Farabi, the ruins of which still stand)about thirty kilometers from the city of Turkistan. As per tra-ditions the pilgrims first visit the tomb of Arsalan Baba andpay homage to him and then proceed to Turkistan to theshrine of Khoja Ahmad Yasawi. Many pilgrims also spend anight at Arsalan Baba's tomb and leave for Turkistan the nextmorning. The building of Khoja Ahmad's tomb was con-structed by the Iranian craftsmen in a magnificent style. Theauthor of "Mehmankhaneh-ye Bukhara" who had paid avisit to this place, describes it these words: "A mosque thetall dome of which scrapes the sky and the excellence of itsbuilding reminds people of "Bait al-Aqsa". Its walls are remi-niscent of the walls of great temples and its marvelous doorsopen the gates of good deeds for the devotees; the GreatJama' of Yasah is an excellent mosque.

Fazlollah bin Ruzbahan Khanji then praises the building

Issue 12 - Vol 4 33

From the viewpointof some historians,Naqshbandiyahas emerged asa reaction tothe YasawiyahSchool ofMysticism,which wasgreatly influ-enced by the Iranian culture.

Although it looks like a single buildingfrom the outside, it is actually dividedinto eight parts. The main hall whichhouses the above-mentioned pot inthe center is a magnificent constructionthat has two verandas on its right andleft. The main dome has a diameter of18.2 meters and its height fromthetomb stands at 37.5 meters.

The people of the region believethat three pilgrimages to KhojaAhmad's shrine is equal to one Hajj pil-grimage and, therefore, they eagerlytravel to Turkistan with lots of vowsand offerings and on return are treatedlike the Hajj pilgrims. There have beenmany people who have claimed to beKhoja Ahmad Yasawi's descendent.However, since his only son, Ebrahimdied during his own lifetime, therefore,if at all, these people could only be hisdescendents through his daughter,"Gohar Shahnaz". Until recently manypeople from both Turkistan as well asthe territories under the OttomanEmpire such as Sheikh ZakariyaSamarqandi, Sha'er Ata of Escop (16thCentury AD), Oliya Jalapi (17thCentury AD), and Khoja Hafez YasawiNaqshbandi (17th Century AD) haveclaimed to be descendents of Khoja

in a poem the unofficial translation of which is given below:

I say these words with sincerity and not out of whimsGo and see Khan's mosque in the city of YasahIts dome resembles the dome of the universeRather it is even more beautifulIts courtyard is similar to the cosmosOne can hear the whispers of the celestial beingsEven if one claims that it is the mosque of AqsaIt would not be inappropriate; since it is located at the farthest place of the world

The names of the craftsmen who built this monumenthave been carved at different places of the building.Interestingly, the descendents of these craftsmen who hadoriginally come from Tabriz, Esfahan, and Shiraz presentlylive in Turkistan. Khoja Ahmad's tomb and its neighboringmosque have been compared, in grandeur, by some peopleto the Mosque of Bibi Khanom in Samarqand. There is alarge bronze cooking pot, the like of which may be very fewin the world, inside the shrine, which bears the name of itscraftsman i.e. "Abdol Aziz Sharaf al-Din Tabrizi". At presentthe pilgrims put their offerings in this huge pot which standsas tall as a man of medium height. Interestingly, in theTurkish culture, pot is considered to be the symbol of hospi-tality. This pot is 2.45 meters in diameter with a weight ofabout two tons and is decorated with lotus flowers andQuranic inscriptions that have been carved on its outer wall,which speak volumes about the rare mastery of its crafts-man.

After about six centuries the building of Khwaja's tomb isstill in its original shape and it has withstood dry cold, burn-ing sun, and natural calamities like floods and earthquakes.

34 ECO HERITAGE

Yasawi's tombwas renovated

by someIranian crafts-

men on thebehest of

Tamerlanetowards the

end of the 8thCentury AH

(14th CenturyAD) approxi-

mately 230years after his

death.

Ahmad Yasawi. Following Kazakhstan's independ-

ence from the former Soviet Union, lotof importance has been given toKhoja Ahmad Yasawi and the city ofTurkistan, which is being considered asthe spiritual capital of Kazakhstan.Yasawi is a means of national andIslamic identity for Kazakhstan, sinceon the one hand it distinguishes theKazakh culture from the culture ofRussia and on the other hand, servesas an obstacle towards the permeationof other Schools of thought and trendsthat currently exist in Transoxiana,Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.

As mentioned earlier special atten-tion is now being given to the city ofTurkistan by the government ofKazakhstan. Turkey, too, has beenshowing keen interest in this city onthe ground that it has once been oneof the old centers of the Turks anddespite the fact that Turkistan is nomore than a big village the governmentof Turkey has set up a university in thename Khoja Ahmad Yasawi next to histomb, which is gradually becomingone the greatest universities of CentralAsia. Currently, a number of universityteachers from the United States of

America, China, Egypt, Iran, and Pakistan teach in this uni-versity and more than four hundred students as well as fortyteachers from Turkey are engaged in studying and teachingin this university.

Since Khoja Ahmad's School of Mysticism has played agreat role in the history of this region, there remains nodoubt that its role in overcoming the future religious andsocial challenges of Kazakh people cannot be overlooked.Even though Yasawiyah did not become as famous andpopular as the other Sufi Schools and was overshadowed byNaqshbandiyah - once it had emerged - it has played a fun-damental role in preserving and spreading Islam among thesteppe residing people of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

Owing to various reasons such as the nomadic way of lifeof the Kazakh community, which is scattered at differentplaces and as well as the spread of Islam to the northernparts of the country (as claimed by some historians) it soappears that the status of Islam in Kazakhstan is not asstrong as it should be - when compared to Uzbekistan andTajikistan. However, there is no doubt that in the process ofovercoming their existing national identity crises - followingthe disintegration of the former Soviet Union - the Kazakhshave consciously turned to Islam and for this purpose theyare mainly relying on Khoja Ahmad Yasawi and hisYasawiyah School of Mysticism.

______________________________________________* The author is currently a member of Iranian Parliament. He

was the ex-President of the ECO Cultural Institute, and an AssociateProfessor of Political Science at the University of Tehran. Prior tothat, he was Iran’s Cultural Counselor in Kazakhstan.

Issue 12 - Vol 4 35

36 ECO HERITAGE

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of c

hess

Iran- Shahnameh Baysonqori

“We Should Not JustWorry About AncientBuildings, There Are

Other Kinds of AncientHeritage That We

Should Be ConcernedAbout”

Mr. Ray Edmondson,

Excl. Interview:Mr. Edmondson, What

brought you here fromAustralia?!

Well, I was invited by theIran National Library and theNational Commission ofUNESCO, to take part at theMemory of the World Programworkshop, so was Ms. BelinaCapul. The two of us werebrought here. I am the chair-man of the Asia/Pacific Memoryof the World Committee, ofwhich Iran is a member andMs. Capul is the immediate PastPresident and Council Memberof the South East Asia PacificAudio Visual ArchiveAssociation.

Would you tell us more about the nature of theMemory of the World Program?

You know that UNESCO has a World Heritage List inwhich mostly focuses on the preservation of buildings andsites of ancient value. But we should not just worry aboutancient buildings. There are other kinds of ancient heritagethat if neglected, would be soon extinct forever.

One of them is the documentary heritage of nations.Many libraries, archives and memory institutions are facingserious challenges to preserve their invaluable archive hold-ings and library collections. That is why UNESCO launchedMemory of the World (MOW) Program in 1992 as an inter-national cooperation strategy aiming at protection of the

The 1st International and the 3rdNational Workshop & Exhibition of"Memory of the World", was held atIran's National Library & Archives, 17-19Jan. 2010. During the 3-day event, co-sponsored by ECO Cultural Institute, incooperation with Iran's National Libraryand Archives and also Iran NationalCommission of UNESCO.

Mr. Ray Edmondson, the Chairmanof UNESCO Memory of the WorldRegional Committee for Asia/Pacific and(MOW CAP) and author of GeneralGuidelines for the UNESCO Memory ofthe World Program was present to leadthe workshop". Also present atthe workshop was Ms. BolinaKapul, UNSCO's senior experts,on "Memory of the World".

The "Memory of the World"is UNESCO's program aiming atpreservation and disseminationof valuable archive holdingsand library collections world-wide.

Representatives from ECOMember States of AzerbaijanRepublic, Kazakhstan, KyrgyzRepublic, Pakistan, and Turkey,participated in the workshop.

At the Inaugural Ceremony,covered by the National newsmedia, Mr. Ali Akbar Ashari,the Cultural Advisor to IranianPresident and Head of Iran's"Memory of the World NationalCommittee", and Dr. SaeidAbadi, Head of Iran's UNESCONational Commission, spoke on theimportance of the "Memory of theWorld" program. A Reception was alsoheld at the ECI Headquarters, in honorof the organizers and participants in theWorld work-shop program, on Jan 18,2010. The Editor of ECO Heritage hadan opportunity to interview Mr. RayEdmondson, the chairperson ofUNESCO Memory of the WorldRegional Committee for Asia/Pacific(MOW CAP):

Issue 12 - Vol 4 37

rare and endangered documentaryheritage and facilitating access to andits use.

How does UNESCO accomplishthe MOW Program?

To implement the Program acrossthe world, the MOW Program isadministered by a three-tier committeestructure: international, regional andnational. The basic purpose of thestructure is to ensure that memberstates are able to establish a mecha-nism at the national andregional levels in order tofacilitate the final selectionof the projects for the pro-gram.

Are there any subdivi-sions through whichMOW could facilitate itsperformance?

Yes, Regional Memory ofthe World Committees havebeen established to pursuethe Program's goals in eachregion. These are majorsections of the Program.They have been establishedto bring together peoplefrom two or more countriesin order to pursue theProgram's objectives.

The grouping may begeographically based or based on otherparameters such as shared cultures orinterests or grouped around regionaloffices of UNESCO. For the timebeing, there are three regional com-mittees in operation: Asia-Pacific, LatinAmerica-Caribbean and Africa.

What vision is the Program pur-suing?

The vision of the Memory of theWorld Program is that the world's doc-umentary heritage belongs to all,

should be fully preserved and protected for all and, withdue recognition of cultural mores and practicalities, shouldbe permanently accessible to all without hindrance.

What is MOW's main objective and how do youachieve it?

Well, there are objectives behind any program. In thiscase, I could say that the program was mainly designed tofind ways of facilitating the preservation of the world's docu-mentary heritage. We use direct practical assistance, distrib-ute advice and information and encourage training.

What methods do you employ to preserve theendangered documentary heritage?

Well, we ourselves use contemporary technology toreproduce the original version of the documentary heritageon other media and then make them available for public

access. We also encourage peopleto make digitized copies and cata-logues of the heritage and sharethem with others on the Internet,publish books, CDs, DVDs etc.Where access has implications forcustodians, these methods are veryuseful.

Is there any legal limitationas to what you can or can notreproduce?

Yes, MOW recognizes legislativeand other limitations on the acces-sibility of archives. Cultural sensi-tivities will also be honored andprivate property rights are secured.

It seems public awareness iscrucial for their preservation,how do you develop that?

Of course, one of the objectivesof the program is to increase the awareness of peopleregarding the existence and significance of this documentaryheritage. That is why registers are developed for theMemory of the World as well as media andpromotional/information publications.

So, you are the chairperson of the Asia-PacificRegional Committee, but what about your organization-al structure in other parts of the World?

Asia Pacific region is one of the five UNESCO regionsacross the Globe and includes 43 countries. Its RegionalCommittee for Memory of the World (MOWCAP) is a sub-sidiary of the International Advisory Committee (ICA) of the

38 ECO HERITAGE

Azerbaijan, Al-Qanun Fi at-Tibb

MOW Program. It was set up in 1998 during its FirstGeneral Meeting held in November in Beijing, China.

What role does MOW CAP play in this program?MOWCAP approves all inscriptions on the Asia/Pacific

Regional Register of MOW documentary heritage. It thenassesses the nominations received from member states forinscription through its concerned Subcommittee.

How can one prepare and submit nominations toMOWCAP?

Nominations for the Asia/Pacific Regional MOW Registermay be submitted by any person or organization, includinggovernment and NGOs. However, priority will be given tonominations made by or through the relevant NationalMOW Committee, or filing that, through the relevantUNESCO National Commission. Priority will also be givento documentary heritage at risk.

ECO Members, RegisterWorks at the MOW

The biennale of the "Memory of the World" is UNESCO'sprogram aiming at preservation and dissemination of valu-able archive holdings and library collections worldwide.Each time, UNESCO receives two cultural works of national,regional, or international significance from each country andin case the works are qualified, they are registered in the"Memory of the World". Works registered by ECO MemberStates include:

Azerbaijan Rep.- Medieval manuscripts on medicine and pharmacy - Zakhirai-Nizamshahi (Supplies of Nizamshah) by

Rustam Jurjani. - Al-Qanun Fi at-Tibb (Canon of Medicine, Second Book)

by Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna). - Al-Makala as-Salasun (Thirteen Treatise) by Abu al-

Qasim al-Zahravi (Abulcasis).

Iran- Administrative Documents of Astan-e Quds Razavi- Rab'e Rashidi Endowment Document - Shahnameye Baysonqori

Kazakhstan - Collection of manuscripts of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi - Audiovisual doc, of the International antinuclear move-

ment "Nevada-Semipalatinsk"

Issue 12 - Vol 4 39

Pakistan - Jinnah Papers (Quaid-I-Azam)

Tajikistan - Manuscript of Ubayd Zakoni's

"Kulliyat" and Hafez Sherozi's "Gazalliyt"(XIV century)

Turkey- Works of Ibn Sina in the

Süleymaniye Manuscript Library

Uzbekistan - The Collection of the Al-Biruni

Institute of Oriental Studies - Holy Koran Mushaf of Othman

A pa

ge o

f Al-Q

anum

- T

urke

y

40 ECO HERITAGE

The Evolution of Persian

PaintingBy: Abd -ol- Majid Hosseini RaadAssistant Professor, Tehran University

*After Hijra

The origins of Iranian painting unquestionablypredate the advent of Islamic civilization in Iran.From the 3rd century (AH)* onwards, with the emer-gence of local ruling dynasties and the growing influ-ence of distinguished Iranian figures at the Abbasidcourt, Iranian cultural and artistic traditions, whichhad remained stagnant for several centuries, werereborn under the compelling influence of Islamicteachings.

Because pre-Islamic Iranian art had been based onancient Iranian wisdom, it had the potential tobecome purified after coming in contact with themonotheistic outlook of Islam. Hence, Iranianpainters, quenching their thirst at the clear fountainof Islamic thought and mysticism, transformed theircanvases into mirrors of divine beauty.

Thereafter, until the downfall of the Abbasiddynasty in Baghdad in the 6th century (AH), Iranianartists painted a multitude of frescoes in mansionsand palaces, illustrated innumerable books andadorned countless vessels, most of which have unfor-

Majnun over dead body of Leyli, UnknownArtist, Nezami's Khamseh, 1536 - Tabriz School

Issue 12 - Vol 4 41

tunately disappeared. Mongol hordes invaded and devas-

tated Iran thrice during the 7th and 8thcenturies AH. Genghis Khan's invasionbegan in 615 AH and lasted until 619AH. Holaku Khan's army marched intoIran and razed Samarqand in 654 AH,before taking control of Baghdad andoverthrowing the Abbasid dynasty threeyears later. Other bloody onslaughts byother outside invaders, at the close ofthe 8th century AH left many Iraniancities in ruins and innumerable peopledead.

In the course of these savage inva-

sions, wall paintings inside palaces weredestroyed and thousands of manu-scripts, both illustrated and non-illustrat-ed, were burned to ashes whenlibraries across the country were put toflame. This explains the present-dayscarcity of pictorial works from beforethe Mongol invasions, either in theform of illustrated manuscripts or wallpaintings- an ancient Iranian traditiondescribed in some ancient texts.

IlKhanid Painting in TabrizPolitical stability gradually returned

to Iran after the last Ilkhans embraced

Islam and adopted the indigenousIranian culture and civilization. Thanksto the managerial skills and administra-tive experiences, the native Iraniansbrought to the IlKhans' government, sci-entific and cultural activities flourishedand cities began prospering anew.

During the reign of Ghazan Khan(694-703 AH, who later changed hisname to Mahmood), the physician andhistorian Rashid-od-Din FazlollahHamadani (ca 645-718 AH) rose to thepost of prime minister. He commis-

sioned and supervised the creation ofthe Rab-e Rashidi complex in the sub-urbs of Tabriz, which became the gath-ering place for numerous scientists, cal-ligraphers, artists and writers who soonbegan producing and illustrating sundrymanuscripts in its workshops.

It was during that era (IlKhanid peri-od, 8th century AH) that the TabrizSchool of Painting reached full maturity.This school best reveals its personalityand particularities in the illustrated copy

Saqi

, Rez

a Ab

basi

, Mor

aqqa

'e G

olsh

an, 1

619

of the Jame-ot-Tavarikh, compiled byRashid-od-Din himself and said to havebeen reproduced and illustrated inapproximately twenty Persian andArabic copies and in a copy ofFerdowsi's Shahnameh (ca. 735 AH),inaccurately referred to as the"Demotte" Shahnameh.

With their tall figures clad in amplycreased garments, their realistic depic-tion of men and horses and their use ofcontrasting dark and light colors to cre-

ate the illusion ofperspective, the illus-trations in the threeexisting copies of theJame-ot-Tavarikh,created at the Rab-eRashidi dated 707AH and containing70 paintings (Libraryof Edinburgh), anoth-er dated 714 AHand containing 100paintings and a third(a Persian translation)dated 717 AH(Topkapi Saray,Istanbul) all display avisage of Iranianpainting under thestrong influence ofMongol art and far-eastern painting.

By the end of the8th century AH, this

influence haddecreased. For example, although theypreserve some of the earlier characteris-tics, such as attention to realism andrepresentation of human moods andfeelings through their characters' pos-tures, the illustrations in a copy ofFerdowsi's Shahnameh, created around735 AH for Abu Sa'eed, display the fullrefinement and maturity of Iranian artin their decoration, coloring and com-position.

Their large format and the masterful

42 ECO HERITAGE

The illustra-tions in a

copy ofFerdowsi's

Shahnameh,created

around 735AH for AbuSa'eed, dis-play the fullrefinement

and maturityof Iranian art

in their decoration,

coloring andcomposition

Dancing of the mystic, Heidar Ali, Panj Ganj, 1521 - Tabriz School

Issue 12 - Vol 4 43

terms of composition and structure tothose of the Varqeh va Golshah manu-script. The decorative features, paletteand simple composition of the worksproduced by the School of Shiraz arebest visible in the paintings of aShahhnameh created around 732 AHand today preserved at the TopkapiSaray Museum in Istanbul (H. 1479).

Iranian Painting under theJalayerids

The end of Ilkhanid rule, after Abu-Sa'eed Bahador-Khan's death (736 AH),provided an opportunity for local gov-ernments to emerge across Iran. Thisperiod, which lasted until the end ofthe 8th century AH, was a golden eraduring which the painting styles ofwestern and southern Iran most effec-tively came together. In the interimperiod between the downfall of theMongol Ilkhans and the onset ofTimur's offensives, the Jalayerid dynastyenjoyed a more important position,which allowed it to rule from Baghdadto Tabriz for more than half a century(from around 740 -813 AH). This inter-val allowed the artists of these two cen-ters, each of which boasted a vigorousand longstanding tradition in the art ofthe book, to better benefit from theirmutual experiences.

Under Jalayerid patronage, especiallyduring the reigns of Sultan Oveis (739-776 AH) and Sultan Ahmad (784-813AH), who were both keen supporters ofpoets and scholars, this merger of expe-riences led to the emergence of a puri-fied style of painting at the Jalayeridcourt in Baghdad. In fact, contactsbetween the schools of Shiraz andBaghdad in the second half of the 8thcentury AH and the transfer of artisticexperiences through the artists of theSchool of Tabriz to the Jalayerid courtdeeply affected the development oflater schools of art, including that ofTimurid painting.

traditions of Iranian art more than anyof this country's other provinces.

The Ayuqi manuscript contains 71paintings laid out in horizontal rectan-gular frames in sequence with thePersian poetic text. Vegetal designscover the uniform backgrounds of thesepaintings and their characters and hors-es are usually as tall as the frames'height. In view of the characteristics ofthis manuscript and those of othermanuscripts produced in southern Iran,we shall see that, during the IlKhanidperiod, notwithstanding the powerfulimpact of Mongol dominion on the artsof western Iran, notably on the Schoolof Tabriz, this part of Iran was by andlarge able to preserve the traditions ofIranian painting and remain essentiallyunaltered by the Mongol presence.

Persistence of the Traditionsof Iranian Painting in Shiraz(8th century AH)

At the same time that painting andbook illustration flourished in westernIran around Tabriz, painting continuedits evolution in southern Iran, undergo-ing relatively different developments. Infact, escaping unscathed from theassault of Mongol hordes, the provinceof Fars witnessed the natural evolutionof Iranian painting traditions, free fromMongol influence and compositionsinvolving imposing figures, symmetricalstructure, purer colors and more elabo-rate decoration were perpetuated by itsartists. The persistence of the paintingtraditions of this region, which wasmore in touch with the evolution of theSchool of Baghdad than was Tabriz, isbest exemplified in the illustrations ofthe Varqeh va Golshah manuscript andis also clearly perceptible in the paint-ings found in a copy of Mohammadebn-e Badr-e Jajarmi's Muness-ol-Ahrar,created around 741 AH in Shiraz.

The illustrated pages of the lattermanuscript, parts of which are nowpreserved in different museums, consistof three horizontal illustrated bands andtheir paintings, which represent theconstellations of the zodiac, are all exe-cuted on a uniform red background.These paintings are quite similar in

execution of their characters clearlyindicate that 8th century AH Iranianpainting had almost entirely shunnedthe influence of far-eastern painting. Inaddition, given the consistency ofexpression between the illustrations inthis manuscript and the stories in theShahnameh, in which its most dramaticscenes are depicted, we can but rankthese paintings among the most superbexamples of IlKhanid Iranian painting.

Undoubtedly, the paintings of otherillustrated manuscripts produced in the7th century AH in Tabriz, such as aKalileh va Demneh (ca. 775 AH) and aShahnameh (ca. 772 AH) preserved atthe Topkapi Saray Museum in Istanbul,more clearly show the dominant role ofcharacteristics typical of Iranian paint-ing.

These can also be seen in the illus-trations of some 7th century AH manu-scripts, including those of the famouscopy of Ebn-e Bakhtishu's Manafe-ol-Hayavan. In this copy, illustrated inMaragheh before the creation of theRab-e Rashidi in the late 7th centuryAH, animals are realistically depicted inlandscapes filled with plants, trees andcolorful birds that more accurately rep-resent their natural habitats. Thenotable characteristics of this manu-script's illustrations is their markededges and detailed figures, their repre-sentation of relief by means of hatch-ings and their use of colored grays todepict animals and their natural behav-iors.

As we already noted, these scenesinvariably occur against a backgroundin which the characteristics of Iranianpainting are dominant. This atmosphereis even more perceptible in works ofthe 7th century AH, Shiraz School ofPainting (such as the illustrated copy ofAyuqi's Varqeh va Golshah at theTopkapi Saray Museum), because Fars,with its wealth of ancient Iranian relics,has experienced and safeguarded the

44 ECO HERITAGE

Shiraz enabled the painting school ofHerat to flourish. A fine point in Doost-Mohammad's notes is his description ofAhmad Mussa is "the revealer of theimage". He assesses the painting of histime as the latter's patrimony and men-tions the Me'raj Nameh as being one ofhis works. The illustrations in a copy ofthe Me'raj Nameh at the Topkapi SarayMuseum in Istanbul, (H 2154) appearto be the ones mentioned by Doost-Mohammad. They are suffused withthe atmosphere, coloring and painterlycharacteristics of Iranian painting.

Shiraz School of Painting inthe 8th century AH

The path toward the revival of theIranian School of Shiraz, whichoccurred in the second half of the 9thcentury, was paved during its first half,when Timur's sons, Eskandar Sultan(812817 AH) and Ebrahim Sultan (817-837 AH), governed Fars. After Timur'sdeath and Shahrokh's accession inHerat, these two princes, both keenpatrons of artists and writers, succes-sively ruled Fars.

Fortunately, like many other descen-dants of Timur, they were captivated byand immersed themselves in Iranianculture and arts. Painting and bookdesign acquired great esteem in theircourts. The illustrations of one of themost important manuscripts preparedin 813 AH for Eskandar Sultan (Jang-eEskandar Sultan) and those of aShahnameh prepared after him forShahrokh's son, Ebrahim Sultan, are themost significant products of the ShirazSchool of Painting in the first half of the9th century.

Some artists active at the court ofthese two princes had come to Shirazfrom Samarqand and Herat, contribut-ing their experiences to the local schoolof art. As a result, a greater maturity isperceptible in this city's painting of thefirst half of the 9th century. Works pro-

Mention must also be made here ofJoneid's art, which masterfully com-bined the heritage of the Shiraz Schoolwith the experience of the artists ofTabriz, producing superb works in thelate 8th century AH, including the illus-trations of Khaju-ye Kermani's Divan,created in 799 AH. The works ofJoneid and Khajeh Abd-ol Hayy, anoth-er painter active at Sultan AhmadJalayer's court, may be considered tohave paved the way for the develop-ment of the School of Herat.

The extent to which the merger ofthe experiences of artists belonging tothree major schools of art (Shiraz,Baghdad and Tabriz) in the Jalayeridperiod contributed to the foundation ofTimurid art and the emergence of thehighly regarded school of Herat maybe measured by the personal notes ofthe 10th century AH copyist andpainter, Doost-Mohammad Govashi'mi.

While introducing Ahmad Mussa asthe developer and promoter of Iranianpainting under Abu-Sa'eedKhodabandeh, to whom he attributesthe Abu-Sa'eed Nameh, Kalileh vaDemneh, Me'raj Nameh and Tarikh-eChangizi, he notes that Amir Dowlatyarand Shams-od-Din were his pupils dur-ing Sultan Oveis Jalayer's rule inBaghdad. He then elaborates onShams-od-Din's tutorship under KhajehAbd-ol-Hayy. After Timur's conquestsand the fall of Baghdad, besides work-ing at Sultan Ahmad's court, Shams-od-Din joined Timur's camp at Samarqand,where he began promoting his style ofpainting and that of his masters (theheritage of the schools of Shiraz, Tabrizand Baghdad) before turning to teach-ing students, notably Pir-AhmadBaghshomali, who joined Shahrokh'scourt in Herat after Timur's death andwas active in Baysonqor Mirza's (802-838 AH) workshop until his death atthe age of fifty.

In preparation of his new library andworkshop in Herat, Baysonqor Mirzaalso summoned several painters, book-binders, calligraphers and illuminatorsfrom Tabriz. In this way, the artistic her-itage of the 8th and early 9th centuryAH schools of Baghdad, Tabriz and

In prepara-tion of his

new libraryand work-

shop inHerat,

BaysonqorMirza also

summonedseveral

painters,book-

binders, cal-ligraphers

and illumi-nators from

Tabriz

Issue 12 - Vol 4 45

and rebellions among provincial gover-nors, he eventually secured his ruleoverall Iran and Transoxiana. Hedevoted considerable energy to thedevelopment of Herat and other cities,thereby providing an opportunity forthe school of Herat to flourish.

A manuscript created for Shahrokharound 828 AH was Hafeze Abru'sMajma'-ot-Tavarikh. Its surviving pagesare unfortunately scattered today.Several pages of this manuscript, pre-served at the Reza Abbasi Museum,represent the School of Herat at thetime of Shahrokh. The illustrations ofthe Majma-ot-Tavarikh are simplecompositions of large aligned oropposed characters depicted on a rel-atively bare background topped by ablue sky.

Concurrently with Shahrokh, hisson, Baysonqor Mirza, established alibrary of his own, where he gatheredthe most talented painters, book-binders, illuminators and calligraphersof his time. The painters Haj-AliMossavver, Amir-Shahi Sabzevari andSeyyed Ahmad Naqqash, the book-binder Qavam-od-Din Sahhaf and therenowned calligrapher Mowlana Ja'farTabrizi were among the artists busy inthe workshops of Baysonqor Mirza'slibrary.

Baysonqor Mirza was a man of let-ters and a calligrapher and the work-shops under his patronage greatly con-tributed to the progress of the Schoolof Herat. In fact, as noted above, thisprosperity of the School of Herat tookplace under the influence and as anatural result, of the evolution of bookillustration in the schools of Tabriz,Baghdad and Shiraz. The beautifulpaintings of two superb manuscriptscreated in this period, a Kalileh vaDemneh dated 833 AH (TopkapiSaray Museum, Istanbul, No.1 022)and the Shahname-ye Baysonqori pre-served at the Golestan Palace -

the work in approximately ten years(from 882 AH to 892 AH). The illustra-tions of the Khavaran Nameh display aparticularly rich palette.

They follow an easy, symmetricalcomposition, as is characteristic of theSchool of Shiraz. Their decorativeclouds with small windswept ends, theirgolden backgrounds filled with vegetalpatterns, the manner in which theircharacters are drawn all bespeak theprosperity of late 9th century AH paint-ing in Shiraz. Some of the illustrationsof this manuscript bear the signature ofFarhad, the painter from Shiraz.However, as the paintings indicate,

other painters have also collaboratedwith Farhad.

Painting at Herat in theTimurid Period

Ninth century Iranian painting,inextricably linked with the name ofHerat, is known as the Timurid Schoolof Painting. Timur's son, Shahrokh,had been appointed governor ofKhorassan, Sistan, Rey andMazandaran in 799 AH. After Timur'sdeath (807 AH), he succeeded on thethrone in Herat and ruled until 850AH. Although initially faced with feuds

duced during this period display moreprecise symmetrical composition, morerefined landscaping and better relation-ship between text areas and pictorialelements. A lighter palette, the use ofdecorative elements, more masterfullydesigned characters and refined silhou-etting of rocks further add to theirrefinement.

The characteristics of the School ofShiraz at its peak during the second halfof the 9th century AH are best repre-sented in the illustrations of a Khavaran

Nameh dated 882 AH. The major partof this manuscript is preserved at theGolestan Palace-Museum, Tehran.Created and completed in 830 AH byEbn-e Hessam Khossafi (d. 875 AH),the Khavaran Nameh is an epic poemon wars conducted by Imam Ali (pbuh)and his generals. As some of the adven-tures depicted in this book are but purepoetic imagination, they have providedan opportunity for the artist (or artists)in charge of its illustration to complete

King

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46 ECO HERITAGE

Museum, clearly show the mastery ofartists active in the first half of the 8thcentury AH in Baysonqor's workshopsand the development of the School ofHerat in that period.

The famous Shahname-yeBaysonqori, dated 833 AH, containstwenty-two paintings attributed tothree artists: Mowlana Ali, MowlanaQiam-od-Din and Amir Khalil. In anextant report, Ja'far Tabrizi(Baysonqori), the calligrapher responsi-ble for the texts of this manuscript,writes about its paintings: 'The portraitsof this manuscript were created byMowlana Ali, whereas its scenes arethe work of Mowlana Qiam-od-Din,because Mowlana Ali's eyes hardlygave him any service near the end ofhis life. Amir Khalil is another painterof the Shahname-ye Baysonqori's illus-trations."

With their original compositions,the rich palette of their natural ele-ments, their indigo blue or goldenskies, their colorful bushes, luminousblossoms and lush trees, their narra-tives, at times intense and at othersserene, the masterful design and exe-cution of their characters and sponge-like rocks, their decorative architectur-al elements and their attention tolandscaping details, the paintings ofthis manuscript constitute master-pieces of their time. Similarly, the illus-trations of the Kalileh va Demneh welldepict the fabulous atmosphere of itsedifying scenes of animals' livesthrough their inspired coloring, finedecorative rendering of rocks andflowery bushes and realistic design ofanimals. These illustrations are closelyrelated in design and coloring to thoseof the Shahname-ye Baysonqori andthe proximity of their creation datessuggests that some artists active atBaysonqor Mirza's workshops probablyworked on both manuscripts.

Creation dates of several illustra-

for the paintings of Behzad and hiscontemporary artists to develop.

After Shahrokh's death in the sec-ond half of the 9th century AH, theworkshops of Herat remained idleuntil Sultan Hossein Bayqara's acces-sion in 873 AH. Sultan Hossein's reignover Herat, which lasted until 911 AH,witnessed the revival of artistic and lit-erary activities. Assisted by his eruditeminister, Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i (848-906AH), he gathered prominent artistsand men of letters at his court, creat-ing a circle of learned and talented fig-ures in his entourage. Notable figuresin this circle were the famous calligra-pher Soltan Ali Mashhadi, the histori-ans Mirkhand and Khandmir, the illus-trious poet and mystic Abdor-RahmanJami, the painters Amir RoohollahMirak and Shah Mozaffar, and thegreatest artist of the time, Kamal-od-Din Behzad.

The brilliant art produced by thistalented team in the fourth quarter ofthe 9th century AH illumined theentire body of Timurid art, to which itowes the best part of its universalrecognition. Fortunately, after theTimurid period, a considerable portionof this magnificent heritage was trans-ferred, thanks to Safavid patronage, toTabriz, where it gave birth to the mostsublime gems of Iranian art.

Some of the works produced in thelate 9th and early 10th centuries AH,including those of Kamal-ed-DinBehzad, can be admired in theMoraqqa-e Golshan and in a copy ofthe Zafarname-ye Timuri dated 935AH (No. 807), both preserved at theGolestan Palace-Museum Library,Tehran. This copy of the Zafarname-yeTimuri was written by SultanMohammad Noor and contains 24paintings attributed to Kamalod-DinBehzad and two illuminated fron-tispieces by Mir Azod. The illustrationsin this manuscript bear all the charac-

tions of a Kalileh va Demneh pre-served at the Golestan Palace-Museum, Tehran (No. 2198) areunclear. This manuscript contains atotal of 35 unsigned illustrations whichsome experts attribute to MowlanaKhalil and believe to have been creat-ed in Shahrokh's workshops in Heratin the early 8th century AH. The illus-trations of this manuscript bear greatsimilarities to those of the above-men-tioned copy of this book preserved atthe Topkapi Saray Museum in Istanbul.Their animals are realistically depictedand their exquisite landscapes of col-orful flowers and ragged rocks invokea dream-like vision of the animalworld. If this manuscript was indeedproduced in Shahrokh's workshops inthe early 9th century AH, it probablyserved as a model for BaysonqorMirza's artisits in their creation of theKalileh va Demne-ye Baysonqori.

Two other manuscripts contain illus-trations which bear great importancein the study of the School of Herat inmid 9th century AH. One is Mir-Heidar's Me'raj Nameh, dated 840 AHand preserved at the BibliothequeNationale in Paris. All the pages of thismanuscript contain illustrations whosevibrant colors and brilliant gildingmake them excellent examples of theapplication of the traditions of Iranianpictorial art, in which the metaphoricatmosphere of Iranian painting is mostperceptible. The other is a Shahnamehcreated for another Timurid princeand known as the Shahname-yeMohammad-e Juki.

As concerns the particularities ofIranian painting in the first half of the9th century AH, one may say in gen-eral terms that they involve livelier, lesssymmetrical scenes than their contem-porary counterparts produced inShiraz. Their sophisticated colors, theprecise design of their human and ani-mal characters, their attention to thereproduction of nature's idyllic land-scapes and their relationship to archi-tectural elements constitute importantachievements of the School of Heratin the second half of the 9thcenturyAH. Hence, this school paved the way

Issue 12 - Vol 4 47

teristics of Behzad's art in terms oftheir composition, the design andmotions of their characters and theiratmosphere. Although all or part ofthese paintings may not be the workof Behzad himself, the battle scenesand the warriors' postures in fight aretypical of the master. Because little isknown of Behzad's works after theadvent of the Safavid dynasty and histransfer to Tabriz, the illustrations inthis copy of the Zafar Namehe arecrucial to the surveyof Behzad's activityin the 10th centuryAH.

In their portrayalof diverse charactersin various posturesand from differentangles, Behzad andhis pupils have beenkeen to depict theirindividual tempera-ments as well. Thecharacters ofBehzad's paintingsare alive, lookingafter their business-es in their day-to-day environment.His treatment of hissubjects' faces tendsto emphasize theirindividual qualitiesand feelings. InBehzad's works, rather than merebackgrounds to historic or fabulousevents, his landscapes and buildingsare linked to the characters' actionsand other aspects of the composition,creating a unified environment filledwith life and motion. Behzad's paletteis masterfully diverse, his compositionsare balanced, and their constituentelements, including the text areas, allcontribute to make the artwork a uni-fied whole.

Behzad's style of painting and the

Whilepainting andbook illus-trationflourishedin westernIran aroundTabriz,paintingcontinuedits evolutionin southernIran, under-going rela-tively differ-ent devel-opments

Festivities for the return of Timur to Samarkand, Attributed to KamaloddinBehzad, Zafarnameh-ye Timuri (No. 708), 1528 - Herat School

48 ECO HERITAGE

century AH. Behzad's appointment tothe direction of the royal librarybespeaks the esteem in which ShahEsma'il held the master, as well as hisdesire for the royal workshops ofTabriz to flourish, and indeed, superbworks were created there under ShahTahmasb.

The Tabriz School of Painting,whose illustrious artists were able tostep beyond their heritage of Turkmen

and Timurid art, soon gave birth toworks of incomparable magnificence.In line with political changes occurringin the country, the art that took shapein this school first affected painting inQazvin and Mashhad and thenreached Herat, Isfahan, Shiraz andelsewhere. The influence of Safavid arteven crossed Iranian frontiers and, justas Iranian art had penetrated Bokharain Timurid times, made its way intoTurkey and India, whose painters wenton emulating the work of Iranian

launched a campaign towards Herat,which he soon conquered. Althoughsome are of the opinion that, ShahEsma'il had some of the artists of theworkshops of Herat, including Behzad,move to Tabriz, this is quite improba-ble, because the stability needed forthe workshops of the Safavid court todevelop did not exist in Tabriz at thetime. More likely, as Mostafa Ali hasrecorded in his Manaqeb-eHonarvaran, Shah Esma'il kept Behzadconcealed in a cave during the chaoticdays of the Ottoman armies' pillage of

Tabriz in 920 AH and the Battle ofChaldoran, later taking him, alongwith several other artists, back toHerat.

They remained there until 928 AH,before eventually moving back toTabriz in the company of the heir tothe Throne, Tahmasb Mirza, becausethe edict appointing Behzad directorof the royal library and workshopsdates from that year. Be it as it may,the presence in Tabriz of Behzad andother artists from the workshops ofHerat played a significant role in thedevelopment of the Tabriz School ofPainting in the first half of the 1Oth

innovations he introduced in the artsof his time influenced his contempo-raries and pupils, includingSheikhzadeh and Qassem-AliChehregosha. This influence remainedperceptible, alongside that of theSchool of Tabriz, in the works of Mir-Mossavver, Mir-Seyyed-Ali and theirsuccessors, Mohammadi and RezaAbbasi. Although Behzad was themost famous artist of his time, only afew paintings bear his distinctive signa-ture, '''Amal-e al-abd Behzad." Thedate of Behzad's death in Tabrizappears in an Abjad-encodedhemistich of a poem by AmirDowlatshahi quoted by Doost-Mohammad as "Nazar afkan be khak-eqhabre Behzad," which yields the fig-ure 942 Clues to the importance ofBehzad's personality and art are foundin an edict issued on 27 Jamadi-ol-Avval 928 AH by the Safavid ShahEsma'il, appointing him director of theroyal library and its workshops inTabriz and ordering their entire staff,including scribes, painters, illumina-tors, frame draftsmen, gilders andwater colorists, to obey him.

Tabriz School of Painting inthe Safavid Era

The Safavids accession to power inthe 1oth century AH brought Iran reli-gious and political unity and develop-ment, as well as historical and culturalprogress and artistic prosperity. ShahEsma'il (892-930 AH), the grandson ofSheikh Safi-od-Din Ardebili (who wasthe founder and first monarch of thisdynasty), conquered Tabriz and allAzarbayejan in 907 AH. From there,he went on to conquer Isfahan, Yazd,Kerman and southern Khorassan,before eventually taking control ofBaghdad and Diar-Bakr in 914 AH, tothe detriment of the Aq-Qoyunloodynasty.

After these conquests, Shah Esma'il

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The mostmagnificentmanuscriptillustrated inthe royalworkshopsof Tabriz was the copy ofFerdowsi'sShahnamehprepared forShahTahmasbFortunately,188 illustratedpages of this bookexist.

Issue 12 - Vol 4 49

Mohammad's son, Mirza Ali; MirMossavver's son, Mir Seyyed Ali;Mozaffar Ali; Khajeh Abd-o-Samad;Khajeh Abdol Aziz, SheikhMohammad; Qadimi and AbdolVahhab.

The most magnificent manuscriptillustrated in the royal workshops ofTabriz was the copy of Ferdowsi'sShahnameh prepared for ShahTahmasb. Fortunately, 188 illustratedpages of this book, whose paintingsrank among the most preciousachievements of Iranian art, werereturned to Iran after the IslamicRevolution. The fate of thisShahnameh is a sad example of themisfortune that has befallen much ofthis country's valuable artistic heritagein recent centuries. After long years ofincessant skirmishes and bloody battlesbetween Safavid Iran and theOttoman Empire, the Treaty ofAmasia, signed in 969 AH betweenShah Tahmasb and Shah Solayman,put an end to the hostilities.

After Shah Solayman's death in 974AH, in an attempt to consolidate theterms of this treaty with Sultan SalimII, Shah Tahmasb dispatched a missionof high-ranking officials and traders tohis court, sending him jewels andother valuable presents, including aHoly Koran and a copy of Ferdowsi'sShahnameh prepared especially forthe king himself.

This Shahnameh, whose illustrationtitles were listed among the notes ofSultan Salim's librarian, was part of thecollection of the Ottoman CourtLibrary until late in the 18th centurywhen its whereabouts becameunknown.

It reappeared in 1903, on loanfrom Baron Edmond de Rothschild tothe Exhibition of Islamic Art, Paris. In1959, it was bought by ArthurHoughton, who, with tax exemptionsin mind, donated 78 of its illustrated

artists for several centuries. More than in any other period of

Iranian art, paintings produced in theSchool of Tabriz in this era aregrandiose and dazzling. They repre-sent the peak of the mystical art ofIranian artists and depict scenes whichcan only be the products of a spiritualview of the world. It is as though theartists of the School of Tabriz havefound the eyes of their hearts openedto truths concerning the real worldwhich cannot be seen by those lackingspiritual vision. Their idyllic landscapesfilled with lively flowery bushes, tallcypresses and blossom-covered treescreate metaphoric images of paradise.

Their works combine forceful char-acter design, accomplished coloringand masterful composition with ameticulous decoration involving pre-cise architectural elements and superbgeometric and vegetal patterns. Theirindigo-blue skies strewn with surrealclouds, the colorful birds flying amongtheir foliages and the angels appearingon earth every now and then, addinga spiritual and poetic touch to theirworks -all seem to indicate that theartists of the School of Tabriz havecome to perceive the spiritual and thephysical worlds as inseparable. Thesecharacteristics are visible in the mostoutstanding works of the School ofTabriz, in the copies of Ferdowsi'sShahnameh and Nezami's Khamsehprepared for Shah Tahmasb, as well asin the Divan -e Hafez created forSam-Mirza.

The Safavid Tabriz School ofPainting is inextricably linked with sev-eral illustrious artists, notably theincomparable Master Nezam-od-DinSultan-Mohammad, who raised paint-ing to "heights yet unseen by the uni-verse, which has witnessed a thousandthings," and who had mastered theQezelbash manner better than all oth-ers when Behzad came to Iraq fromHerat; Aqa Mirak, a painter from thecourt at Isfahan; Mir Mossavver, whocame from Badakhshan and whosename was Mansoor; Sheikhzadeh, alsoknown as Doost-Mohammad orDoost-e-Divaneh; followed by Sultan-

50 ECO HERITAGE

pages to the Metropolitan Museum in1970 Since then, other illustratedpages of this manuscript (62 in total)have been sold in different auctionsand the remaining 118 illustratedpages and the gilded and burnishedcover have been brought back to Iran.One of the paintings on display,Bahram Chubin Slaying Saveh Shah,belongs to the Reza Abbasi Museumand was acquired in 1977.

Another important manuscript,whose illustrations are probably the

work of artists activein Tabriz in the earlysecond half of the10th century AH, isa copy of Nezami'sKhamseh preservedat the Library ofShahid MotahhariTheological School(No 0400). Thepaintings of thisbook, which coverits pages entirely,reveal the influenceof the early 10thcentury art of theTurkmen courts ofTabriz. ThisKhamseh was writ-ten by Morshedebn-e Khajeh MirakShirazi in 956 AHand contains 20superb paintings

and 4 unsigned illuminated fron-tispieces.

With their dense compositions andrich palette, the paintings of this man-uscript extend beyond the top marginsof the pages, so that an important partof the compositions, which depicts dif-ferent scenes of the narrative, occurabove them. These paintings appearwithin tall rectangular frames and aresimilar in their details and atmosphereto the paintings of an early 10th cen-

Transfer ofcapital from

Tabriz toQazvin, with

ShahEsma'il'sdoubts

regarding hissupport of

paintingworkshopscaused theartistic pro-duction of

these work-shops to

decline

A page from Alam-Ara-ye Shah Esma'ili, Attributed to Moein Mosavver, 1693, Isfahan School

royal palaces near the end of ShahAbbas' reign, as well as paintings exe-cuted in the same period, clearly showthe influence of European paintingstyles. Records also exist of Europeanpainters working at the court inIsfahan, including several Dutchpainters, such as Lucas van Hesveldand Jean le Hollandais, as well as apainter by the name of Jules, who wasborn in Greece and grew up in Italy.According to Figueroa, the SpanishAmbassador to the court of ShahAbbas, Jules executed wall paintings inone of Shah Abbas' palaces in 1027AH. A number of foreign artists,including Philippe Angel and Lokar,sent by the East Indian Company toteach drawing to the Shah, alsoworked at the court in Isfahan underShah Abbas II.

Generally speaking, during the 11thcentury AH, the costly arts of the bookwere supported exclusively by thecourt. Wall paintings and single-pageworks of art were also in demand,commissioned by rich merchants anddignitaries as well as by the court. Thispopularity encouraged the productionof inexpensive single-page paintings,which artists created using less paint orin the form of succinct sketches. A fewleafy branches or colorless cloud out-lines adorned the backgrounds ofthese paintings, whose subjects con-sisted of portraits of princes, noblemenor young men or couples depictedstanding or sitting.

This trend caused portrait paintingto prosper and greater attention to bepaid to the anatomy and proportionsof the human body.

The most renowned figure amongthe multitude of painters active in thisperiod was Reza Abbasi. Yet, despiteextensive scholarly studies carried outin this regard, his personality remainsmore or less obscure. One reason forthis uncertainty is that several artists by

first half of the 10th century AH. Atthe same time, the simple, geometricdivisions of these paintings into orderlyframes and the sparse vegetation oftheir backgrounds are evocative of thecharacteristics of the schools of Shirazand Herat.

In this context, mention should bemade of Ebrahim Mirza's (946-984AH) appointment to the governorshipof Mashhad, where he established aroyal library, gathering several artistsfrom the School of Tabriz and thelibrary of his uncle, Shah Tahmasb, inits workshops.

The most excellent product ofEbrahim Mirza's court workshops wasan illustrated copy of Jami's HaftOwrang prepared for and under thepatronage of this prince. Today, thismanuscript is part of the Freer Galleryof Art's collections and its illustrationsrank among the most beautiful Iranianpaintings from the second half of the10th century AH. Such great artists asMirza Ali, Mozaffar Ali and SheikhMohammad have contributed to itsillustrations, which clearly show theevolution of Safavid court paintingfrom the creation of Shah Tahmasb'sShahnameh and Khamseh in the firsthalf of the 10th century AH to thebooks produced in Mashhad in its sec-ond half.

Schools of Painting ofIsfahan

In the early 11th century AH, thecapital was transferred from Qazvin toIsfahan. Artists active in Qazvin andother important cities began migratingtowards Isfahan, which became thecountry's centre of artistic activities.Painting workshops flourished and inaddition to book illustration, wall-painting became popular in the deco-ration of palaces and mansions. UnderShah Abbas, increased commercialand political relations with Europeancountries and India, along with thetransfer of the Armenians of Jolfa toIsfahan, enabled some features ofWestern painting to find their way intoIranian art.

Some wall paintings executed in

tury (901-911 AH) Khamseh preservedat the Cairo Museum. Apparently, thepreparation of the illustrations of thisold Khamseh was begun before theSafavids accession to power in Tabrizand continued into the early years ofShah Esma'il's reign.

The transfer of the capital fromTabriz to Qazvin, along with ShahEsma'il's second thoughts regarding hissupport of painting workshops in theearly years of the second half of the10th century AH, caused the artisticproduction of these workshops todecline. At the same time, the migra-tion of some artists from the royalworkshops of Tabriz resulted in thedissemination across the country ofthe artistic heritage and invaluableexperience of the Tabriz School.

There are two manuscripts whoseillustrations were probably painted inTabriz or under the influence of theSchool of Tabriz. One is a copy ofAbdor-Rahman Jami's Panj Ganj, writ-ten in 928 AH by Ali al-Hosseini al-Heravi and preserved at the GolestanPalace - Museum Library (No. 709).The ten exquisite paintings of thismanuscript are unsigned, but attrib-uted to Master Behzad's pupils in theSchool of Tabriz.

Indeed, they display all the charac-teristics of the school of Behzad andhis disciples. This is attested to by laterattributions, which include thepainters' names. In view of the cre-ation date (928 AH), the illustrations ofthis manuscript may have been paint-ed by Behzad and his pupils duringthe master's stay in Tabriz at the headof the royal library and workshops.

Another copy of Nezami'sKhamseh, dated 933 AH, is in posses-sion of the National Museum of Iran(No. 4363). Although their origins areunknown, the splendid illustrations ofthis manuscript bear the unmistakableinfluence of the School of Tabriz in the

Issue 12 - Vol 4 51

52 ECO HERITAGE

Mossavver. The imposing appearanceof their characters and the succinctrendering of their architectural ele-ments and landscapes have given thepaintings of this book greater visualmotion. The lines of text appearingabove and below them display a sim-pler layout scheme as compared totheir 11th century AH counterparts.

Another manuscript in this categoryis the Reza Abbasi Museum's Abu-Moslem Nameh, which brings togeth-er paintings from the School of Isfahanunder Shah Abbas II.Written byAbdor-Rashid Deilami in the first halfof the 11th century AH and preservedat the Golestan Palace Museum, thismanuscript contains 93 unsignedpaintings, which are excellent exam-ples of the purified and vivid style ofthe School of Isfahan.

Qazvin School of Paintingin the 2nd half of the 10thcentury AH

After Shah Tahmasb's death,Esma'il Mirza ascended to the throneas Shah Esma'il II. His reign, howev-er, lasted no more than 16 monthswith his death by opium poisoning.His accession to the throne cameafter a twenty-year-long detention,which probably explains his embit-tered, cruel character.

Indeed, during his brief reign, hehad many members of the royalfamily, including three of his broth-ers and his cousin Ebrahim Mirza,the governor of Mashhad and patronof Jami's Haft Owrang, assassinated.

Notwithstanding his ill temper andthe atrocities he committed, ShahEsma'il II summoned several paintersfrom Mashhad, Tabriz and Shiraz toQazvin, entrusting them with themission of reviving the royal libraryand its auxiliary workshops and evencommissioning a copy of theShahnameh. Thus, during Shah

the same name, or with the same sig-nature, have existed at different times.Moreover, Qazi Ahmad's description,in his Golestan-e Honar, of a painternamed Aqa-Reza, who was so infatu-ated with wrestling that he abandonedpainting and was banned from thecourt, further added to this ambiguity.This painter was the son of the talent-ed portraitist Mowlana Ali AsgharKashani, who had been admitted tothe court of Shah Abbas I, when onlya youth and later been given the titleReza Mossavvar-e Khasseh. In anycase, the illustrious Reza Abbasi signedhis works "Raqame Kamineh RezaAbbasi", as can be seen on his paint-ings after 1020 AH.

Reza Abbasi's style tends towardsreproducing nature and recording thenatural motions and postures of hischaracters in a simple, fluid mannerHis sketching relies on smooth sinuouslines of the brush or the reed pen andhis pen strokes emulate the curvaturesof the shekasteh nasta'liq script. RezaAbbasi's style was emulated by hispupils into the early 12 century AH.Following his working methods andsketching style, his numerous disciplesdeveloped his art into a purified stylewhich became predominant in theIsfahan School of Painting. Hence, theSchool of Isfahan has always been alsoknown as the School of Reza Abbasi.Mohammad-Qassem, Mohammad-Yussef, Mohammad Ali Tabrizi, Afzalai-Hosseini and Mo'in Mossavver wereamong Reza Abbasi's followers. Mo'inMossavver, one of master's pupils whoremained most faithful to his style, hasleft behind a portrait of Reza Abbasi,on which he has recorded his date ofdeath as 1044 AH.

Among the manuscript illustrationsand single-page paintings that bestdemonstrate the evolution of theSchool of Isfahan, the paintings ofthree other very important manu-scripts stand out.

One is the Alam-ara-ye ShahEsma'ili (Reza 'Abbasi Museum, No600), which recounts the life and warsof Shah Esma'il I. Nineteen paintings ofthis manuscript are attributed to Mo'in

In the early 11th

century AH,painting

orkshopsflourished

and in addition to book illus-

tration, wall-painting

became popular in

the decora-tion of

palaces andmansions

Issue 12 - Vol 4 53

experimentation of the artists of theSchool of Isfahan.

At the end of MohammadKhodabandeh's reign, Abbas Mirza(the future Shah Abbas the Great),then aged 17 and governor of Herat,came to Qazvin and seized thethrone. Shah Abbas reigned some 42years, until 1038 AH.

A keen admirer of painting, archi-tecture and urban planning, heimmediately appointed Sadeq BeigAfshar (an accomplished poet and askilled painter who had learned hisart under Mozaffar Ali and served atthe courts of Shah Tahmasb andShah Esma'il) director of the royallibrary.

There are two very importantmanuscripts containing exquisiteillustrations painted in the royalworkshops of Qazvin during thereign of Shah 'Abbas I: the QavamShahnameh, written in 1000 AH byQavam-od-Din Mohammad Shiraziand preserved at the Reza AbbasiMuseum containing 38 paintings anda copy of the Shahnameh-yeQassemi, which describes ShahTahmasb's military feats as compiledby Mirza Qassem Gonabadi. Whileremaining faithful to the style of theSchool of Tabriz, these illustrationsdisplay the evolution of Iranianpainting in the closing years of the10th and the early years of the 11thcentury.

Fate of Iranian Painting The outset of the 12 century AH

saw political and social turmoilresulting from the inept rule of thecorrupt and weak monarchs whocame to power after Shah Abbas II.In the absence of traditional royalpatronage, crude, unsophisticatedworks began replacing the beautifuland refined masterpieces of the past.Shah Abbas II's successor, Shah

unrelated to them. They serve toshow the evolution and the continu-ation of the style of the mastersactive at Shah Tahmasb's court andhis nephew, Ebrahim Mirza, in theHaft Owrang.

After the brief reign of ShahEsma'il II and that of his blind broth-er, Mohammad Khodabandeh, inter-nal turmoil and persistent Ottomanand Uzbek menace on the country'swestern and eastern borders causedillustration workshops to againdecline and illustration paintingcame to a standstill MohammadKhodabandeh's blindness probably

explains his indifferent attitudetowards painting.

It also probably explains therenewed migration of artists previ-ously summoned to work at ShahEsma'il's royal library in Qazvin. Atthe same time, the artists' shift totaking inexpensive commissions, inthe absence of royal patronage, gavebirth to a distinct, simpler style ofdesign and drawing involving morepopular subjects, as can be seen inthe works of Mohammadi, SheikhMohammad and Sadeqi. This man-ner later formed the basis of the

Esma'il's tumultuous reign in Qazvin(984 AH), calligraphic and artisticwork began on a Shahnameh, whichappears to have never come tofruition, even though fifty paintingswere completed. Shah Esma'ilil'sShahnameh, as it is known, was as illfated as many other masterpieces ofIranian painting.

After being exhibited in the early20th century in Paris by the art col-lector and dealer, Demotte, it wastorn into separate pages, which were

sold to different buyers. A few pre-cious pages of this Shahnameh,belong to the Reza Abbasi Museum.They are signed Siavash Gorjestani,Sadeq-Beik Afshar, Ali-AsgharKashani, Mir-Zein-ol-Abedin, andMorad. Although not comparable interms of beauty and quality to thoseof Shah Tahmasb's Shahnameh, andappearing much more simply exe-cuted and finished, the illustrationsof this Shahnameh are not altogether

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Solayman, who ruled from 1077 AHto 1105 AH, was a vile and violentdrunkard.

He was succeeded by his son,Shah Sultan Hossein, who reigneduntil 1135 AH. The reign of thisweak monarch, who became wearyof running the country's affairs, ledto utter chaos. Rebellion spreadamong warlords, and Safavid ruleeventually came to an end under theassaults of Afghans.

Thereafter, until the early Qajarperiod, even though some paintersactive from late Safavid to mid Zanddays were still alive and busy train-ing pupils who were to found theZand School of Painting, no notableworks were created that have sur-vived. The only important manu-script whose illustrations bear his-toric and artistic value, embodyingthe transition from late Safavid toearly Qajar art, is Mirza MehdiAstarabadi's Tarikh-e Jahangosha-yeNaderi, dated 1175 AH, which con-tains 23 superb paintings.

Besides a few inconsequentialbooks, the most important illustratedmanuscript created in Qajar times isthe Golestan Palace MuseumLibrary's "The Thousand and OneNights," by Abd-ol-Latif Tasuji. Thisbook consists of six illustrated vol-umes and its paintings were madebetween 1269 AH and 1276 AH bySani-ol-Molk and his pupils inTehran.

The illustrations of this book dis-play the Qajar style, evolved fromlate Safavid and Zand arts. Despitethe influence of Western art, whichhas affected the evolution of Iranianpainting ever since the Safavid peri-od, the Qajar paintings in this manu-script exhibit due respect for theparticularities and traditions ofIranian painting in their depictionsof historic events.

Realistic portraiture and the decora-tive, naturalistic representation offloral elements became popular dur-ing Jahangir's reign and remained sountil the 19th century.

The illustrations of Jame-ot-Tavarikh-e Rashidi, dated 1004 AHwere mainly painted by local artistsactive at Jahangir's court (La'l,Meskin, Bassavan and Nanhai, incollaboration with Iranian paintersand are typical of the compositestyle of painting in vogue after AkbarShah). The other is as a copy ofTarikh-e Akbar Shah, completed inthe first half of the 13th century AH,which, in view of the names appear-ing below its illustrations, probablyincludes paintings from the 11th and12th centuries AH. In comparison tothe Tarikhe Akbar Shah's illustrations,those of the Jame-ot-Tavarikh appearmore mature and more elaborate indesign and execution. Both thesemanuscripts belong to the GolestanPalace Museum Library. The twoalbums mentioned above alsobelong to the Golestan PalaceMuseum Library. They bring togethera precious collection of Iranian andIndian paintings. One is theMoraqqa-e Hendi, which dates backto the first half of the 11th centuryAH. Several of its pages are attrib-uted to Gordehen, Sahifeh Banoo,Masoor and Mohammad-Yusef. Ahandsome "bird and flower" decora-tion appears in the margins of someof these pages. The other album isthe world-renowned Moraqqa-eGolshan, a unique collection ofpainting, calligraphy and illumina-tion masterpieces by Iranian andIndian artists from the 9th to the11th century AH.

Jahangir, a famous connoisseurand supporter of the arts and artists,who occasionally expressed opinionson the qualities of various artists,

Indian Gurkani CourtSchool of Painting

The influence of Iranian paintingupon the arts of neighboring coun-tries, including Gurkani India, hasalready been mentioned. Apparently,when Homayun (937-963 AH), thesecond Indian Gurkani monarch, vis-ited Iran (951 AH), he asked ShahTahmasb to send Mir-Mossavver tohis court in exchange for a gift of1000 Tomans (1 USD). Upon hear-ing the news, the artist's son, Mir-Seyyed-Ali, joined his father on thejourney to India.

After them, Abd-os-Samad Shirin-qalam also went to India, where hebegan preparing a copy of theHamze Nameh. In fact, manyIranian painters had migrated to theIndian court by the second half ofthe 10th century AH and it wasbecause of their presence that theIndian Mongol School of Paintingcame into being. The Timurids ofIndia, especially Homayun and afterhim Akbar and Jahangir, were keenadmirers of the arts and held theIranian painters residing at theircourts in great esteem. This prompt-ed more artists to join them in thefirst half of the 11th century AH.These included Aqa Reza Heravi,who was given the title "Jahangiri" byJahangir and is responsible for themargin paintings of some pages ofthe Moraqqa-e Golshan ; his son,Ab-ol Hassan, who was awarded thetitle of "Nader-oz-Zaman"; Farrokh-Beig; Qolam; Hashem; Mansoor,given the title "Naderol-Asr" byJahangir and Mohammad-ShafiAbbasi. Their activity at the Indiancourt, alongside their Indian col-leagues, brought immense prosperityto its library workshops.

While retaining the characteristicsof indigenous Indian art, the paintingstyle of the Indian Mongol courtbecame intertwined with those ofEuropean painting under Homayun'sson, Akbar Shah. The outcome ofthis fusion was a school that lastedsome three centuries in India.

Issue 12- Vol 4 55

had the unique heritage of his fatherand grandfather (Homayun andAkbar) brought together into severalalbums. One of these albums wasthe Moraqqa-e Golshan, measuring40 x 24.5 cm. It contains signedworks by Kamal-ad-Din Behzad;Abd-os-Samad Shirazi; Farrokh-Beig;Nanhai; Roqayyeh-Banoo and RezaAbbasi.

Valuable paintings by Aqa-RezaJahangiri, Dowlat and Beshandas, allcreated by the orderof Jahangir, adornits margins.Included are por-traits of famouspersonalities andartists, such asAkbar Shah;Jahangir; 'Abd or-Rahman Jami; Ab-ol-Hassan (Nader-oz-Zaman);Manuhar;Beshandas;Gordehen andDowlat himself.The influence ofEuropean art isconspicuous in thenaturalistic render-ing of these por-traits as well as inthe realistic pos-tures of their sub-jects. Explanationsconcerning the individuals represent-ed and the name of the artistresponsible for the portrait accompa-ny each of these paintings.

.................................................................Published by Tehran Museum ofContemporary Arts in association with theInstitute for Promotion of Visual Arts

ManyIranianpaintershad migrat-ed to theIndiancourt and itwasbecause oftheir pres-ence thatthe IndianMongolSchool ofPaintingcame intobeing

Changiz Khan defeats Tayan, Jame-ot-Tavarikh-e Rashidi - Indian Gurkani School

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Issue 12 - Vol 4 57

Throughout three decades of instability and insecurity,from the trying years under Soviet occupation in 1979 to thepresent Taliban re-insurgence, nearly 5 million Afghanrefugees and immigrants have traversed the mountainousborder, into Iran desperately seeking a better life for them-selves and their families. Most recently, many debates havearisen regarding the future health of this population in lightof the increased instability and insecurity following nearly adecade of war in Afghanistan. According to the UnitedNations High Commissioner of Refugees (UNHCR), theIslamic Republic of Iran is the world's second largest hostcountry of Afghan refugees. In June 2009, the Commissionerreported that Iran hosts approximately 933,500 registeredand documented Afghans, while the number undocumentedAfghans living in Iran, estimated 1.5 to 2 millions, remains at-large.

Iran as a Host-Nation - Brief History andContext of Asylum

Prior to the Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911): politi-cal activists and criminals sought asylum in holy shrines or inforeign embassies. Following the Constitutional Revolution,new laws were implemented: "asylum evolved to meanseeking protection from a State when one's life or propertywas in danger"; and stronger laws were enacted so politicalactivists and criminals would not seek protection in holyshrines or embassies. Since the Constitutional Revolution,Iran has further developed its refugee laws. It has adoptedthe United Nations Convention relating to the Status ofRefugees, July 28, 1957 and the Protocol relating to theStatus of Refugees, January 31, 1967. Iran has a sovereignand detailed procedure for seeking asylum based on theGovernment of Iran's By-Laws of December 16, 1963. TheBy-Law defines a refugee as follows: "A refugee is a personwho for political, religious or racial reasons or for member-

Finding Hope After

DisplacementAfghan Refugees in Iran

By: Nazir Olangian*

58 ECO HERITAGE

ship of a particular social group fears persecution or a threatto his life or that of his family members supported by himand seeks asylum in Iran." As documented in Article 155 ofthe Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran: "The govern-ment of the Islamic Republic of Iran may grant political asy-lum to those who seek it unless they are regarded as traitorsand saboteurs according to the laws of Iran" (194). TheMinistry of Interior's "Permanent Committee for Refugees" isin charge of refugee affairs in Iran. The Committee has theauthority to accept or deny refugee status and manages allother refugee affairs. According to Article 4 of the RefugeeBy-Law, refugee status is recognized when: '"(1) The applica-tion is free from any mala fide;' and '(2) The purpose of theapplication is not to seek employment'" (188).

Ministry of Interior andUNHCR Cooperation

The three generations of AfghanDiaspora that have flowed in and out ofIran are the result of political instabilitystretching over three decades. TheIslamic Republic of Iran acknowledgesthe breadth of the humanitarian crisisfacing displaced Afghan refugees andaccordingly many initiatives have alsobeen taken to ameliorate the future flowand stability of this population.

Starting in 2002, the TripartiteAgreement signed between UNHCR andthe governments of the Islamic Republicof Iran and Afghanistan enacted a jointprogram for the voluntary repatriation ofregistered Afghan refugees. Through theTripartite Agreement, UNHCR in Iranhas recorded that nearly 1.8 million

Afghan refugees have safely returned to their home country,either assisted or spontaneous. According to figures given bythe Foreign Affairs office at Iran's Ministry of Interior, in 2002approximately 436,000 documented Afghan refugeesreturned to their homeland, compared to 2005 when nearly47,000 returned and in 2008 when approximately 3,000returned. The sudden reduction in repatriation of Afghanscoincides directly with the political and economic volatility inAfghanistan caused by the U.S. and NATO led war and theTaliban's reemergence.

By virtue of their nature, illegal Afghan migration pattersweaken the shared border and security between Afghanistanand Iran. Often, unregistered foreign nationals entering Iranillegally will subvert necessary border inspection and medicalexaminations. For this reason, BAFIA (Bureau of Aliens andForeign Immigrant Affairs) has undertaken the responsibilityof managing refugee camps since 2004. In spring of 2008,

According tothe United

Nations HighCommissioner of Refugees

(UNHCR), theIslamic

Republic ofIran is the

world's sec-ond largest

host countryof Afghanrefugees

Issue 12 - Vol 4 59

(Association of the Blue Sunshade), in eastern Tehran to re-engage with their distanced Afghan culture. With over 380regular members, men, women and children of varyingbackgrounds and occupations come to the cultural center tocelebrate-even discover- their Afghan heritage.

Sayeban-e Abi's co-founder, Ms. Yalda Baktash, notes thather students find an overwhelming passion to reunite withtheir distanced culture and heritage. Honoring Sayeban-eAbi's diversity, Ms. Baktash said, "we've welcomed a widedemographic to Sayeban-e Abi: from our adult actors, artists,or political refugees that fled from the Soviet invasion in the80's; to our youth who are at first shy but quickly realize ahidden talent and appreciation for Afghan art and culture."

........................................................................*The Author is Ex-ECI Research Fellow, currently studing at theUniversity of Puget Sound, Washington State, USA

Seyyed Taghi Ghaemi, director of BAFIA, claimed that Iranplans to deport all Afghan nationals in Iran without validrefugee documents. In addition, BAFIA, UNHCR's mainoperational counterpart, aims to broaden its charity andorphanage operation to meet the increasing demand.

UNHCR reports that in the last two years "Iranian authori-ties have deported more than 700,000 Afghans they allegehave broken immigration laws and are working illegally.They also report that "an estimated US$500 million is sentback to Afghanistan in remittances per year - some 6 percentof Afghanistan's national gross domestic product (GDP)."According to UNHCR, the "reliance on clandestine migrationis costing both the Iranian and Afghan governments morethan US$221 million a year in lost revenue."

Realizing the necessity for increased bilateral cooperation,BAFIA and UNHCR have set out to constructively addressthis difficult humanitarian dilemma. In 2009, both partieshave coordinated participatory assessments with refugeewomen and men, along with government ministries, in thefive areas of the Islamic Republic of Iran where UNHCRoperates. Based on their assessment, BAFIA and UNHCRhave identified three current necessities.

First, increase job opportunities to meet the increasedcosts of living and to pay the municipal taxes and servicecharges. Since 2007, UNHCR has managed to allocate US$2million on vocational training projects, "the programme hastrained nearly 6,000 Afghan refugees; last year women out-numbered men in the programme, but this year the numbersare equal."

Second, provide adequate health care in view of the risingcosts of treatment and refugees' exclusion from the nationalinsurance policy. This year, UNHCR has increased its primaryhealth care budget to US$8 million, which is to be allocatedstrictly to refugees . And lastly, provide basic and affordableeducation for refugee children and increased adult literacy.

However, in consideration of the changed socio-economicsituation and the planned withdrawal of government subsi-dies, UNHCR will have to independently meet higher finan-cial requirements in 2010-2011. In addition to the aid andsubsidies it receives from the Ministry of Interior,Education and Health, UNHCR will have to find othersources for financing its 2010-2011 budget of US$38,826,564 as compared to its 2009 budget of US$13,273,109.

Anjoman-e Sayeban-e Abi UNHCR's increased budgets will greatly

strength their mission to address educationaland medical needs. However, with regards tocultural development, Afghan-Iranians turnto non-governmental organization to enrichtheir sense of historical agency and identi-ty. Every Friday afternoon, dozens ofAfghan expatriates gather at the culturalcenter, Anjoman-e Sayeban-e Abi

60 ECO HERITAGE

Splendor in Isolation Built on Anatolian, Iranian and

North MesopotamianArchitectural

Tradition

Ishak PashaPalace

Compiled by: Parisa Firouzkouhi

Second Court with Mosque & Mausoleum

Issue 12 - Vol 4 61

The palace is built on a hill at theside of a mountain 5 km east ofDogubeyazit. It was the last large mon-umental structure in the OttomanEmpire in the "Lale Devri" (TulipPeriod). It is one of the most distin-guished and magnificent examples ofthe 18th century Ottoman architectureand is very valuable in terms of art his-tory. The construction of the palacebegan in 1685 under the rule of IshakPasha's father, Çolak Abdi Pa?a andwas completed in 1784 when itacquired its present form with IshakPasha's second round of additions.The completion of the palace in 99years since its beginning in 1685 isamong the clues to its splendor.

The protracted period of construc-tion of this palace cannot be explainedmerely in terms of its splendor, ofcourse. As hands changed, its owner'sconcept of luxury changed as well andmany years were required for all theadditions that had to be made before itassumed its final form.

A story worthy of a film lies behindthe construction of this palace:

In a landscape steeped in history, Ishak Pasha Palacegreets visitors with all the majesty of the years when itdominated the city. Standing some 5-6 kilometers fromthe city center, Ishak Pasha Palace is the most famous ofthe palaces built in the decades shortly after the TopkapiPalace in Istanbul. It is a semi-ruined palace which onceused to be the administrative center of the Ottoman sub-province of Beyazit in Agri province of Turkey.

According to UNESCO World Heritage Center "IshakPasha Palace on the Silk Route near the Iranian frontier, issituated on a high and vast platform of strategic impor-tance on an area of 7600 sqm. It has rather a mixture ofAnatolian, Iranian and North Mesopotamian architecturaltradition. The traditional model used in the constructionof the Royal Palaces in the capital cities like Bursa, Edirneand Istanbul was taken as an example in thedesign of Ishak Pasha Palace. The westerninfluence in Ottoman architecture during

the post-classical period can beobserved in Ishak Pasha Palace."

The Palace is more of a complexthan a palace; it is the secondadministrative campus after theTopkapi Palace in Istanbul andthe most famous of the palacesbuilt in recent decades.

Pala

ce F

loor

Pla

n

62 ECO HERITAGE

"Although the period coincided with the empire's decline, anumber of successful figures who governed on the extensiveOttoman lands were heard of by the central administrationand rewarded in various ways. Ishak Pasha was one of them.Following his political successes, he was first appointed tothe Kars Principality and then made governor of Tiflis. IshakPasha felt and used the turmoil at the center, and as rumorhas it, he used a portion of the taxes he should have sentback to Istanbul to build his palace and was consequentlydismissed from the governorship and exiled.

StructureAs the ground building sits on a valley slope, it is rocky

and hard. Despite the fact that it is at the center of the OldBeyazit city, its three sides (north, west, south) are steep andsloped. There is a suitable flat area only to the east. Theentrance of the palace and also its narrowest façade is onthat side.As the palace was built in an age when castles withno special roles as firearms were developed and were abun-dantly available, its defense system towards the hills on theeast is weak. Its main gate is the weakest point in thatrespect.

The structure of the main gate is no different than thoseseen in the palaces built in Istanbul and elsewhere inAnatolia and has a neat stone workmanship and carving. TheIshak Pasha Palace is a rare example of the historical Turkish

Ishak PashaPalace is a rareexample of thehistoricalTurkish palaces.It boasts someof the mostoutstandingexamples ofbaroque andrococo stonemasonry andrelief carving,dazzles the eyeat every step.

Bird’s-eye view of Palce

A Room in Harem Section

Issue 12 - Vol 4 63

palaces. It boasts some of the most outstanding examples ofbaroque and rococo stone masonry and relief carving, daz-zles the eye at every step.

The interior and exterior architectural wealth of the IshakPasha palace could be endlessly described. Whether thepalace is taken as a whole or its rooms and buildings studiedindividually, success, order and mastery is all to be foundthroughout. Ishak Pasha Palace stands in a desolate valleytoday and the fact that it was the subject of various legendsand stories adds to its magnificent atmosphere some colorand mystery.

First CourtyardAll the structures here are formed around the two central

courtyards. At the first courtyard, there is a guard roomstanding to the left and a large fountain inscribed 'Water andMilk Fountain' to the right. According to various sources,water used to flow from one and milk from the other end ofthis fountain, from which the local residents also benefitted.

Apart from its fountain and guard room, the first courtyardhas also a waiting room, as well as sections that were used as

dungeons. Descending a steep stairwayinto the gloom does not strike a personas very inviting but they worth a visit.Pitch-dark, the dungeon has a row ofwidely spaced windows that let in a lit-tle light, but of course these windowscan only be opened from the outside.There used to be other buildings in thefirst court which have been destroyed.

Second CourtyardThe second courtyard has a rectan-

gular ground plan and is surroundedwith buildings on four sides. A 10-meter high gate, delicately inscribedwith cypress motifs, marks theentrance of the yard. On the right sideof the entrance, there is yet anothercourtyard, known as the 'Selamlik' orMen's Quarters Courtyard. Then, thePalace's fascinating interior structuresbegin to show their faces: the Palacemosque, a mausoleum and the mainbuilding in all its glory.

Mosque

A Ro

om in

the

Har

em S

ectio

n

A typical Palace Window

64 ECO HERITAGE

The mosque's interior is practicallythe only building that has not beendamaged by man or nature over thecenturies. Each hour of the day, itreflects a fresh beauty depending onhow the light falls upon it. Its simplearchitecture and impressive decora-tions instantly impress all those whoenter.

MausoleumThe mausoleum, built for Çolak

Abdi Pa?a and Ishak Pasha, is built withcut stones. This octagonal mausoleumis in the shape of the "kümbet" (cupo-las), which is one of the most typicalexamples of the traditional Seljuk mau-soleum architecture and has two sto-ries. Its walls are decorated with geo-metric motifs.

Main BuildingThe palace section has two stories

consisting 366 rooms. Each room has astone fireplace. The cavities within the

stone walls indicate that the building had a central heatingsystem. Built in a style that exceeded the architectural con-cept of its day, Ishak Pasha Palace manifests this most clearlyin its heating, sewage and water supply systems, which werenot the norm for the period of its construction. The heatingsystem in particular is awesome, based on the circulation ofheated water through channels.

The reception hall is 30mx3m. It has stone walls andfloor: the walls are decorated with couplets and verses fromthe Koran in the decorative examples of the Turkish calli-graphic art. Among these a couplet, which in very free trans-lation goes: "Ishak, upon will, made the whole world a placeof benevolence and the date to witness this was one thou-sand one hundred ninety nine" and indicates that the palacewas completed in 1784 A.D.

The main building, with its gigantic harem, a soupkitchen, entertainment halls, rooms for workers and guests, alibrary and a court of law, puts new dreams in a visitor'spocket, with the result that those days of splendor arerevived anew in every guest that comes here.

Ceremonial Hall

Entrance to the Mosque

Issue 12 - Vol 4 65

RestorationA lengthy process of restoration against the damage from

which the palace has suffered is about to be completed.Severely affected by rain, snow and sunlight, the restorationof the palace's inner buildings is being completed as plans arealso being laid for a glass cover to reduce those effects to aminimum. The glass used will not only be non-breakable butwill also filter out the sun's harmful rays. Protective in pur-pose, the glass cover's impact on the visual appearance of thepalace will only emerge once it is in place.

What to EatDon't return without tasting some of the meat dishes of

Dogubeyazit, which, thanks to its geographical features,

boasts some of Turkey's tastiest red meat. Among them youcan try Abdigor köfte or meatballs made from beef and alocal dish called 'selekeli', which consists of fresh goat or lambbraised on a red-hot metal plate. Both are available at restau-rants on Dogubeyazit's market street.

Where to StayIf you'd like to tour other touristic areas in the region

besides Ishak Pasha Palace, you can stay at one of the certi-fied tourist hotels in the town center. There are nine hotels inDogubeyazit, which is currently boosting its accommodationfacilities due to an influx of tourists.

Built in a stylethat exceeded

the architectur-al concept of its

day, IshakPasha Palace

manifests thismost clearly in

its heating,sewage and

water supplysystems, which

were not thenorm for theperiod of itsconstruction

patterns as artworks. Probably, designing began hundreds

of years ago with representations oftrees, flowers, birds and clouds which,through the creative and the innovativegenius of Persian art, became more andmore stylized with each succeedinggeneration.

The most common motif for allPersian rugs, especially the larger ones,is a large central medallion. Yet, even ifthey are basically the same in design, notwo medallions are ever exactly thesame.

Over the years, art scholars and car-pet experts have attempted to classifythe Persian carpet patterns. The resultsof their researches have revealed thatthere are 19 groups of patterns which

very rug has its own story; yet,it is important to remember thatthe Iranians are art-loving peoplein whose view; patterns are

pieces of art work themselves. When anartist chooses a pattern, it is oftenbecause he likes it and it has alsobecome a traditional feature in theweaver's design repertoire.

In the world of "Oriental" carpets, thePersian carpet is acknowledged as supe-rior in every aspect. Like a child blos-soming into young adulthood, yourPersian carpet will be a continuingsource of pleasure, while its investmentpotential increases as it ages.

The great aspect of Persian designhas always been its intricate, symbolicpatterns. Nature supplies the greatestinspiration to the carpet designer. So thedesigns mostly reflect the Persian's closeaffinity with nature and a pure love of

The Persian Carpet is the finest and the most exquisiteform of artistic expression and an inseparable part ofIranian culture. It is a piece of brilliant art indicating thezenith of imagination, creativity and perfection and isamongst the highest levels of art ever achieved bymankind.

For centuries, collectors in the West have eagerly soughtfor Persian rugs and carpets, knowing that genuine PersianCarpets create a unique atmosphere and are valuableproperties. Their richness in design, symbolism, delightfulcolors and the weaver's imagination all combine to forman unmatched gift of timeless beauty.

In the world of Oriental carpets, the Persian one isregarded superior in every aspect. Like a child blossominginto young adulthood, the Persian carpet will be a continu-ing source of pleasure, while its value increases with aging.The following article is a brief introduction of the patterns,motifs and their symbolism meaning in Persian Carpets:

Designs, Patterns & Motifs

Elements of PersianCarpets

E

66 ECO HERITAGE

Compiled by ECO Heritage Staff Members

Issue 12 - Vol 4 67

are as follows:

1 -Historic MonumentsIn creating these patterns, the design-

ers have been inspired by the tile work,structure and geometricshapes of ancient build-ings. From the original pat-terns in this group, artistshave made many sub-pat-terns some of which arecalled: Takhte-Jamshid,Taghe-Bostan, Taghe-Kasra(Eyvane Madaen) and ZireKhaki.

2 - Shah AbbasiIn this group, the princi-

pal motif - a special flowerknown in Iran as ShahAbbasi - is set off by otherfloras and leaves in thebackground and border.Sub-patterns includeAllover, Medallion, Tree,Animal, Sheikh Safi,Embellished Shah Abbasi,Bush and Plain Ground.

3 - SpiralThe original pattern of

this group is made of spi-raling branches surround-ed by leaves. The end ofeach branch splits toresemble the jaws of drag-on. The branches areornamented with foliatespurs known as Eslimis.Among the sub-patterns ofthis group are Allover,Spiral and MedallionSpiral.

4 - Allover All parts of this kind of

design is usually related and connectedto each other. In the drawing of such

68 ECO HERITAGE

original Persian designs with roses inlight and dark colors. Sub-patternsinclude Rose, Bijar Flower, MostowfiFlower, Panel Flower, Flower Bouquetand Rose and Nightingale.

13 - Vase In these patterns, vases are used in

different sizes: a large vase may coverthe whole carpet or a small vase may berepeated throughout the ground.Among the many sub-patterns areKhatai Vase, Two-way Vase, MehrabiVase, etc.

14 - Intertwined FishAlthough varied and enriched by

modern designers, this pattern, origi-nally product of the nomadic imagina-tion, retains its tribal character. Firstwoven in Birjand in the province ofKhorassan, the design spread tobecome common as far away asHamadan and Azarbaijan, where eacharea made its own distinctive alter-ations. Hence, we have Heart Fish,Farahan and Beehive fish, Semeh(Sanandaj) or Kurdestan Fish, tiny Fish,Fragmented Fish and interconnectedFish.

15- MehrabIn this type of pattern, the prayer

leader stands and is ornamented withpillars, chandeliers and floras. Amongthe sub-patterns are Tree Mehrab,Vase-Column Mehrab, chandelierMehrab, etc.

16- StripedThis name is applied to the designs

repeated in stripes running across thelength of the carpet, each stripe havingits own special motifs and colors. Insome places in Iran, this pattern is calledGhalamdani (pencase). Sub-patternsinclude Overall Pencase, Tiny Flower(with one background color) and paisley

8 - TreeAlthough stylized branches are a

common motif in Persian carpetdesigns, the so-called tree patterns aredistinctive for their close resemblance tonatural forms. Among the sub-patternsare Animal Tree, Green Field Tree, PanelTree, Cedar Tree and Vase Tree.

9 - TurkomanIncorporating geometrical shapes and

broken lines, Turkoman patterns are ofthe nomadic tribal type - products ofthe weaver's imagination rather thanreproduction of the drawn designs. Sub-patterns of this group are known asTurkoman Ghabe Yamouti, CombTurkoman, Ghazel Goz Turkoman,Akhal Turkoman, etc.

10 - Hunting Ground As with the tree patterns, the animals

depicted in these carpets are lifelike.Sub-patterns include Tree HuntingGround, Panel Hunting Ground,Medallion Hunting Ground and AlloverHunting Ground.

11 - Panel The basis of this design is a multi-

sided motif. Sub-patterns are SpiralPanel, Korean Panel and Column Panel.

12 - European FlowerThese patterns are compositions of

designs, the designer's pen is never liftedbut continues from beginning to end,with the exception of a pattern in whichthe branches and leaves are scattered inthe background. For this reason, thename Allover (Afshan) has been given tothis group. Among the numerous varia-tions are Allover Spiral, Allover Khatai,Allover interconnected, Allover Broken,etc.

5 - DecorativeSome of these patterns resemble

designs woven in the border areas ofIran. Careful study shows that some ofthem were originally Persian and bor-rowed by our neighbors. Well-knownpatterns in this group are Afghani,Caucasian and Gobelin.

6 - Bandi (Interconnected)When a small piece of design is

repeated and connected throughout thelength and breadth of a carpet, theresulting pattern is called Bandi (inter-connected). Sub-patterns of this groupare many:

Interconnected Spiral,Interconnected Ivy, InterconnectedBroken, Interconnected Katibeh,Interconnected Mostowfi,Interconnected Varamin,Interconnected Minakhani,Interconnected Mub-brick Mold orDiamond, etc.

7 - PaisleyThe basis of these designs is the

head-bent paisley motif common inboth Indian and Iranian patterns fromancient times. In Persian carpets, thedesign takes different shapes and sizes,some of the best known sub-patternsbeing Tufted Paisley, Deer Horn Paisley,Saraband Paisley, Kherghei Paisley,Esfahan Pencase Paisley, KordestanPaisley, etc.

Over the years, artscholars and carpet

experts haveattempted to classi-fy the Persian car-pet patterns. Theresults of their

researches haverevealed that thereare 19 groups of

patterns

Issue 12 - Vol 4 69

(with different background colors).

17- CompositesIn addition to the original patterns,

each of which has a special name andhistory, with the passage of time newpatterns have been created by combin-ing two more of the original patterns.Sub-patterns of these composites arecalled Twisted Branch Medallion, ChainMedallion, Interconnected Vase andSpiral, Landscape Floral Bouquet, GreenField, Plain Ground and interconnectedFloral Bouquet.

18- GeometricAll the carpets in this group are deco-

rated with linear elements composed ofvertical, horizontal and diagonal lines orformed by a repetition of the samemotifs. Carpets with geometric designsare woven by nomadic tribes with par-ticular motifs and designs. These motifsfacilitate the attribution of a carpet to aparticular tribe or place of origin.

19- Tribal They are the oldest & most original

70 ECO HERITAGE

patterns reflecting the imple creationsof tribal imagination, inspired by natu-ral surroundings. The sub-patternsinclude: Heibatloo, Ghashghai Paisley,Afshari, Khatouni, Ardabil, Mazlaghan,Khamseh, Saveh, Tafresh

SymbolismThroughout the history of Oriental

Rugs, cultural and religious beliefsinfluenced the artistic motifs used inrug design. Rugs and weaving playedan important roll in the life ofnomadic and herding peoples.Particular patterns, symbols and colorswere chosen for their belief orientedlife-protecting and life-enhancing

attributes. In the ancient Orient, for example,

specific colors were chosen to activatea particular spiritual sensation in one'slife, alleviate symptoms of disease orassist in one's living in harmony withnature.

Here's a small directory of whatcertain symbols have meant through-out history.

Issue 12 - Vol 4 71

Hand:Prayer Rug

Herati:Water Garden, Fish-Mahi

Mihrab:Gateway to Paradise

Star:Spirituality, Good Luck

Dove:Peace and good omens

Carnation:Happiness

Meaning of Colors inPersian Carpet

Green: The holy color attributed toProphet Mohammed (peace be uponhim) - it's used sparingly in placesleast likely to be walked on. Hope,Renewal, Life, Spring

Red: Beauty, Wealth, Courage,Luck, Joy, Faith

Blue: Power or force, solitude -Allusion to the After Life

Orange: Humility and pietyYellow: The Sun, Joy of LifeWhite: Purity, CleanlinessBlack: Usually only found in out-

lines. Mourning, DestructionGold: Power, WealthBrown: Fertility

Symbolism has survived in thedesign of Persian carpets down to thepresent day, though the appearancehas changed somehow because of theinfluence of modern times. But sym-bols still play their role in the designof Persian carpets.

Lily: Purity, Spirituality

Lotus:Rebirth, Immortality

Peony:Power

Blossom: Youth, Spring, Newly Wed

Rose:White-Innocence Red-Passion General

Tulip:Prosperity

Cypress:Serenity, Rebirth, Survival in the after-life

Leaf:Endless Regeneration

Pomegranate: Fertility, Riches in abundance

Hyacinth: Regeneration

Amulet: Thwarts Evil Eye

Boteh: Flame, Universe

Ewer, Jug: Purification

Comb: Cleanliness

Cross: Faith

Diamond:Signifies Women Two diamonds attached together represent a man and women

Symbolism in PersianCarpet

Camels: Wealth and happiness

Man: Depiction of Weaver inRug

Chicken, Rooster: Protection from evil eye

Dragon:Power

Snake:Guardian, Wisdom

Bird: Faith, Fertility

Eagle:Power

Duck, Swan: Marital Fertility,Enchantment

Parrot:Escaping from danger, Protection, Love

Peacock: Immortality, The sacred bird

Dog:Protection, Trust, Defense

Paradise Bird:Paradise

Tree of Life:Direct path from Earth to Heaven, Eternal Life

Iris:Religious Liberty

72 ECO HERITAGE

Faiz Ahmed Faiz

"The Dust of Passing Days"

Pakistan’s

By: Dr. Sikandar Abbas ZaidiECI Staffmember

Issue 12 - Vol 4 73

aiz Ahmed Faiz wasborn in 1911 in SialkotPakistan, the birth place ofAllama Iqbal near Lahore.His early education, in

Sialkot, was that of an orthodoxMuslim, including the memorizingof holy Quran and a thoroughgrounding in Arabic, Persian andUrdu.

He later attended the ScottishMission School and went to Lahorefor his university education, obtain-ing degrees in English in 1933 andArabic in 1934.

He took up teaching to beginwith and was a lecturer in M.ACollege Amritsar in 1935-40.He

joined the ProgressiveWriter

Association(P.W.A) and becamefounder in 1936 together withSajjad Zaheer, a Marxist leader, ofPunjab Urdu branch of P.W.A.

He became the editor of theUrdu literary monthly "Adab-e-Latif"from 1938-1964.In 1941, he pub-lished his first volume of verse"Naqsh-e-Faryadi". Those who wereyoung at that epoch can rememberthe effect this entirely new vice cre-ated in the Urdu speaking world.He married Alys George, an EnglishSocialist, by Islamic rites.

Faiz was exonerated and releasedin April 1955. During his imprison-ment, he wrote two volumes ofverse "Dast-e-Saba" and "ZindanNama" which contributed to hiscelebrity.

He was again arrested in 1958but was released quickly and ledthe Pakistan delegation to the pro-gressive Writers' AssociationConference inTehran.

In 1957, hewas elected as

Vice-

President ofthe Association Press of PakistanArts Council, Lahore (1958-1962).In 1962, he was awarded the LeninPeace prize, which he received inMoscow.

He spent the next two years in

England, traveling extensively in1963, when he visited Europe,Algeria, the Middle East, Russiaincluding its Central Asian Republicsand Sinkiang, and also brieflyChina. His poem on the six dayArab-Israeli war of 1967, Sar-eWadi-e Sina(Over the Valley ofSinai), bears the elements of theprophetic and succeeds in confirm-ing the status of Faiz as a poet ofgreat power.

On his return to Pakistan fromEurope in 1964, he became theprincipal of the Haroon College inKarachi and President of HajiAbdullah Haroon Trust from 1964 to

1972. He was also the President of

Pakistan National Academy of Arts.

He was awarded the highestdistinction of the countrythe "Nishane- Pakistan" by

the Government andreceived the award of the

Lotus in 1976

F

74 ECO HERITAGE

From 1972 to 1974, he was the cul-tural Advisor to the Ministry ofEducation of Pakistan.

He was awarded the highest dis-tinction of the country the "Nishan-e-Pakistan" by the Government. Hereceived the award of the Lotus in1976, and was asked to becomeeditor of their publication.

He accepted and remained in

self-exile in Beirut from 1972 to1982 where he witnessed the Israelibombing of the city.

He wrote a series of poems in thevolume "Mire Dil Mire Musafir"(Traveler, my heart, 1981), dedicat-ed to Yasser Arafat.

He returned to Pakistan inNovember 1982 and died in Lahore

in November 1984. His last volumeof verse "Ghubar-e-Ayyam" (the dustof passing days), was publishedposthumously.

Faiz's poetry has been translatedinto numerous languages of theworld, including English, FrenchRussian, Hungarian Czech, Persian,Arabic, Japanese, Mongolian,Bengali, Hindi, Nepali and others.One English translation(V.G.Kiernan) was published underthe aegis of UNESCO.

In the terms of structural innova-tion and origi-nality of con-tent, FaizAhmad Faizundoubtedlyachieved theeasy harmonywhich mightappear to belacking in theword of many afree-verse poet.Faiz wroteenough politi-cally and social-ly orientatedpoetry to allowhim the luxuryof the occasion-al romanticpoem.

Faiz's nameis widely known among both literaryand political circles. He was soondisillusioned by the lack of progressin democracy and social justice inPakistan, and he used both poemsand Ghazals (lyrics) for covert andovert criticism of the oppressors ofthe people.

He adopted ancient poetic formssuch as the Ghazal (lyrics) or theQawwali to modern preoccupationsand gave them a powerful, sociopolitical resonance.

His hope was not for Pakistanalone, but for all suffering humanity,wherever it might be, and withoutreference to caste, color or creed inthis world.

He was a true Sufi and at thesame time, a great modern human-ist. Faiz, like Iqbal, became investedwith the qualities of personalityassociated with greatness and inspi-ration, commanding vast audienceof all classes and creeds.

Gifted with an accurate under-standing of human emotions, hewas a master at translating thoseemotions into words and as a result,his admirers are many and wellspread throughout the world.

If anyone wants to experience thetrue class of Faiz Ahmed Faiz andthe accuracy he possessed in dis-playing emotions then, reading"Meray Dil Meray Musafir", "Bol KayLafz Azaad Hain Teray" and "Hum JoTareekh Rahoon Par" should suffice.

The reference to the treasure ofpain evokes, in the mind of theUrdu speaking reader, the wellknown verse of Hafiz:

"The mentor asked me, besidespain, what else can love bestow?

Go your way, Sage full of reason,what better gift than this?"

Thus in his last Ghazal, written afew days before he died inNovember 1984, he says:

The Last GhazalLife gave us, or little, what regrets

can there be,The treasure of pain is ours what

He was a true Sufi and at thesame time, a great modernhumanist. Faiz, like Iqbal,became invested with the

qualities of personality associated with greatness

and inspiration, commandingvast audience of all classes

and creeds

Issue 12 - Vol 4 75

fresh significance and a new vitality. His position in the literary pan-

theon of Urdu was thus a secureone and the authority which hispoetic utterance command is testi-mony to the great appeal whichUrdu poetry continues to exert overthe Muslims of South Asia, especial-ly in Pakistan.

matter the quantity?It's a lifetime since, know, anddon't explain it now to me,

What kindness is, beloved, andwhat iniquity?

If the world's not set on fire, ofwhat use is a verse?

Vain tears that fill the eyes, andmove not humanity,

Out of regard,someone may

walk part of theway with him,

Khizr, theGuide, no longer,has any authority.

Commands arebeing issued,borne by thehand of Fate,

None knowswho will be listedin today's warran-

ty.Prepare thefeast, sing

Ghazals, let thecup be ever full,

If the world'swoe is great, is

there not wine inplenty?"

"The Dust ofPassing Days"

Faiz succeededin establishingnew symbols inUrdu poetrywhile imbuingthe old thematiccomplexes with

76 ECO HERITAGE

On the invitation of Dr. Ayyubi,ECI President, a delegation com-

prised of ECO Secretary General, M.H. Maroufi, Ambassadors of Pakistanand Turkey as well as representatives

of Tajikistan and TurkmenistanEmbassies accompanied ECI officials

and paid a visit to Tehran Museum ofContemporary Arts on Dec. 14,

2009. Welcoming the guests, Shalouee,

Director General of Visual ArtsDepartment of the Iranian Ministry

of Culture and Islamic Guidance andPresident of the Museum, briefedthe delegation about the ongoingexhibition on paintings of Sohrab

Sepehri, the renowned Iranian con-temporary poet & painter, Being one

of the world's top 10 art museumsholding more than 4000 master-

pieces of contemporary artworks inpainting and visual arts, Tehran

Museum of Contemporary Art wasinaugurated in 1977 and built adja-

cent to Tehran's Laleh Park. Themuseum design has elements of tra-ditional Persian architecture such as

Badgirs, and yet has a spiralingdesign reminiscent of Frank Lloyd

Wright's Guggenheim.The Treasures of the Museum are

among the richest modern art treas-ures of the world. The Muesum

holds an impressive variety of worksnotably. works by the following

artists are kept there: Claude Monet,Camille Pissarro, Van Gogh, James

Ensor, Edouard Vuillard, AndréDunoyer de Segonzac, Jules Pascin,André Derain, Louis Valtat, Georges

Rouault, Fernand Léger, Pablo Picasso,Alberto Giacometti, Francis Bacon,Max Ernst, René Magritte, GeorgeGrosz, Diego Rivera, Jasper Johns,Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Jim

Dine, Peter Phillips, JamesRosenquist, Fritz Winter, Joan Miró,

William Turnbull, Victor Vasarely,Adolph Gottlieb, Richard Hamilton,Georges Braque, Jean Paul Riopelle,

Edvard Munch, Pierre Soulages, EdgarDegas, Mary Cassatt, Maurice

Prendergast, František Kupka, MaxBeckmann, James Whistler, EdwardHopper, Giorgio Morandi, Noreen

Motamed, Giacomo Balla and MarcelDuchamp.

Issue 12 - Vol 4 77

escribing things, whichin the daily life are takenfor granted as obviousphenomena or tenets, is

usually difficult. Amongst these, "art" haspreoccupied and challenged the differentschools of thoughts throughout the histo-ry of science and philosophy. Describingart is difficult. This is not due to a compli-cated mystery, but rather to its infinitesimplicity and of course its constantmovement, evolution and flow.

Art seems like a spring with an evidentorigin, but taking a new form along theturn of a rock, and in every body or ves-sel, without which, mere looks would bepowerless of definition and description.Sometimes we erroneously see only thebody and vessel, but we are all apparent-ly capable after a moment of hesitation topoint and say this is art or a work of art.

However, we cannot analyze our per-sonal reasons or feelings. We expressthings or cite criteria, which are all to befound in art, but not all of these are art,and art is also not all these. The secret ofeternity of this heritage seems to be theamazing anxiety to see what phenome-non or event will next be called art, anentity, which is definitely born out of therepeated structural form and originatedfrom a unique and exceptional mind togreet the joyfully expecting eyes.

There is no doubt that art, as an aspectof culture and the gauge of human dis-

Tehran Museumof ContemporaryArts Published by Institute for Promotion of Visual Arts in

association with Tehran Museum of Contemporary Arts

D

tinction and greatness, is the result of themental maturity and talent of artists,which is a continuation of an exclusiveand long experience, and whose dailyanalysis is a window to the bright worldbetterment and wisdom. The treasury offoreign masterpieces in the Museum ofContemporary Arts is a significant andintegrated collection showing the evolu-tion of modern art at an internationallevel. Among these, one can find numer-ous milestones of modern and avant-garde artworks, which have occasionallyextended the frontiers of art by creating anew and prolific definition; and famousnames who have always presented ahigher and different insight to innovativeand artistic creativity to curious andsearching audience.

Moreover, in this midst there are worksby artists who lived and had their day, butfor a fleeting moment were left behindthe circle of fortune -in such a way that ingeneral the quantity, quality, associationand the historical order of these workshave turned the present collection intoone of the most sensitive and valuablereference for the study and research onthe contemporary visual arts, and a focusof attention as an art center in the regionand even the world.

For this reason, the display of all orsome of these rare treasures at differentopportunities and occasions and duringvarious domestic and international eventscannot satisfy either the visual sense or anenthusiast's hunger. One must not forgetnor ignore the national treasures and theoutcome of the considerable capacities ofthe precious Iranian artists, which havegained a special status alongside the for-eign works, the same famous and someapparently not so famous artists, whoseworks will in a very near future steal thespotlights in faraway coasts and shinealongside the world elite. May there alsobe an opportunity for their display. Thecurrent article is the spectacular tributaryof this turbulent and bountiful river,warming the heart and invoking pleasureand exhilaration in the midst of breeze

and color. It is a window to promises, toreveal the hidden and to quench thethirsts no matter how large the cup.

*Mahmoud Shalouee Director General,Visual Arts Affairs, Iranian Ministry of Cultureand Islamic Guidance and Supervisor, TehranMuseum of Contemporary Arts

Artists & their WorksClaude MonetHe is considered as the main leader of

the impressionist movement, but in hislater paintings and from many aspects, hehas been called the harbinger of abstractexpressionism. He spent his youth in theport of Le Havre, where he met Boudinwho encouraged him to take up land-

scape painting instead of drawing carica-tures. He went to Paris to study art.

He met Cezanne and Pissarro in theSwiss Academy. He experimented paint-ing in the open air with his studentsRenoir, Sisilei and Bazille. Whileexchanging experiences close to the endof the 1860s, Monet and Renoir createdthe first purely expressionist paintings. Heclosely studied the works of Turner andConstable in London.

By offering a number of his paintingsto the government, Monet joined amovement for peace. Ironically, despitehis fear of darkness, which he consideredabove his fear of death, Monet was near-ly blind at the time of his death.Cezanne's famous saying "Monet is only

an eye: but what a clear sighted one"describes perfectly the nature of Monet'spaintings. He always tried to paint a sub-ject as he saw it and not as he knew itbefore.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Environs de Giverny

Paul GauguinHe is the creator of a new painting

concept, who has had a significant andconstructive influence on the art of thetwentieth century. He was born in Paris,but spent his childhood in Lima (Peru).He obtained a well-paid job as a stockbroker and in this midst became interest-ed in painting. He used to paint in hisfree time and was among the buyers ofimpressionist works. Encouraged byPissarro, he devoted more Time to paint-ing and finally at the age of thirty five, heleft the comfort of his life and family totake up painting full time. He left forPont-Aven where Bernard and a numberof young artists became attracted to hispersonality and his views on aesthetics.He spent two adventurous months inArles in the company of Van Gogh.

Thereafter, he joined his followers. Hislast years of life were spent in poverty,solitude, illness and constant dispute withthe officials of French colonies. At thetime of his death in the Iles de Marquises,he left behind a large collection of oil andwater color paintings, carvings, engrav-ings, sculptures, potteries, journals andletters. He was among the first Europeanartists attracted to the ancient orient andpre-Columbian arts. He left the naturalis-tic tradition of Europe and reacted againstthe realistic approach of impressionismand the scientific interpretations of theneo-impressionism. When he was stillunder the influence of impressionists, heshowed his talents in processing colorsand while keeping in mind the visualprinciples, he often paid close attentionto the psychological significance of colors.The fauvist and expressionist movements

78 ECO HERITAGE

Cezanne's famoussaying "Monet isonly an eye: but

what a clear sightedone" describes per-fectly the nature ofMonet's paintings

Issue 12 - Vol 4 79

pursued his principles.Works on display by this artist in

the Museum:-Nature Morte à Estampe Japonaise

Henri de Toulouse LautrecDue to his clear and concise expres-

sion in design, Toulouse Lautrec is consid-ered as the pioneer of modern art. Healso revolutionized the poster art throughhis innovations. Born in an aristocraticfamily, in his youth he broke both feet,which never grew further.

He studied in Paris under the tuition ofBona and Corman (1882 - 1885), but hesoon turned away from the academicprinciples and began working in his ownstudio, finding fame by designing his firstposters and prints (1891 -1892).

During his travels to United Kingdom,he became acquainted with Oscar Wilde

Paul

Gau

guin

, Nat

ure

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te à

Est

ampe

Japo

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e, 1

889

Claude Monet, Environs de Giverny, 1883

80 ECO HERITAGE

and Beardsley. His short but fruitful artis-tic life is representative of the tumultuousand unconventional era of late nine-teenth century Europe.

He recorded whatever he saw withoutprejudice. His sharp vision could cutthrough the society to extract the essenceof reality.

His innovation laid in the fact thatthrough dynamic and fluid lines, he couldfind a pure image for the most fleetingmoments of reality. He met Bernard andVan Gogh in Paris, but it was Degas andhis views, choice of subject and style ofwork that affected him most. Van Gogh,Seurat, Rouault and young Picasso wereinspired by Toulouse Lautrec.

Works on display by this artist inthe Museum:

-Fantaisie de Carnaval from Album de la Rue Blanche

Hen

ri de

Tou

lous

e La

utre

c, F

ille

à l'A

ccro

che

Coe

ur, 1

889

Georges Braque, Guitare, Fruits et Pichet, 1927

Issue 12 - Vol 4 81

-Fille à l'Accroche Coeur -Le Jockey

Vincent Van GoghHe is amongst those who created new

concepts in painting through the expres-sive and symbolic values of colors andforms. He spent his youth working in anart brokerage firm and travelling to theHague, London and Paris (1869 -1875).He then entered the ecclesiastic schoolbut left early to become a missionaryamong the miner community orBourinage (Belgium).

Finally, he turned to painting and onhis brother's advice, took up residence inParis where he met such artists as Pissarro,Seurat, Gauguin, Bernard and ToulouseLautrec. He cooperated with Gauguin fora period of two months, which ended inan angry separation.

Gauguin returned to Paris and in a fitof fury, Van Gogh severely injured his ear.He was voluntarily hospitalized in theSaint Remy Mental Asylum, where hefinally took his own life at the height ordepression. Fully aware of the richness ofimpressionist colors, Van Gogh aban-doned the "Grey" painting, but did notturn to representation of visual symbolsand the different features of light andenvironment.

Under the influence of Seurat, hestudied closely the color cycle and con-sidered color as an independent quality,whose aspects followed a specific set ofrules. Munch was the first artist to followVan Gogh, and then the German fauvistsand expressionists also benefitted greatlyfrom Van Gogh's accomplishments.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Worn out: at Eternity's Gate

Georges BraqueHe is among the pioneers of modern

art and is counted among the founders ofCubism. He was greatly influenced by theworks of fauvists displayed in the FallSaloon (1905). This influence can be eas-

ily seen in his landscapes, which arepainted with fragments of pure color (Portof Antwerp 1906).

Braque considered these landscapesas his first creative works. He precededPicasso in creating polished and woodentextures on canvas.

Braque and Picasso created a newinterpretation of the visual reality by look-ing deep at the structure of objects andset the scene for next evolution of paint-ing and sculpture. However, in compari-son to the previous works, the pictorialdiscipline was then reduced. The quali-ties that separated the paintings of Braquefrom those of Picasso, including the char-acter of painting, became more apparentin the works of this period (Guitare et

Vase -1927). This stage of polished art ofBraque presents beauty in its classicalsense and is based on balance and orderin a new form.

Work on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Guitare, Fruits et Pichet -Hymen

Pablo PicassoDue to his seeking and pro-active per-

sonality, innovations and impact on hiscontemporaries, Picasso is the mostprominent artist of the twentieth century.Son of a drawing teacher, he learnt theacademic principles of art from his fatherand in the Academy of Barcelona. The

passion of youth took him to Paris wherehe met the avant-garde intellectuals suchas Apollinaire, Jacob and Gertrude Stein.

At first, he began painting the Parisianlife in the style of Toulouse Lautrec, butsoon showed his personal talent in theBlue and Rose periods (1901 -1906). Hishistory making change began with thepainting of Demoiselles D' Avignon(1907) and continued with the experi-ences of Cubism. He then travelled toRome where he cooperated with theDiaghilev Ballet Troupe. During this peri-od, he produced a number of classicaland cubist paintings.

The impact of the crisis in Europe, theSpanish Civil War and the German occu-pation of France greatly affected the con-tent and contexts of his paintings leadingto the creation of such masterpieces andthe Guernica, while the fauvist move-ment strengthened his experimentingtemperament.

Picasso was never constrained by aspecific artistic style or medium, andshowed his unique capacities by adopt-ing different impacts.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Baboon & Yang-La Femme qui Pleure-La femme qui Pleure II-Le Peintre et son Modèle-Portrait de Femme II -Jacqueline Lisant -Fenêtre Ouverte sur la Rue de Penthièvre

René MagritteRene Magritte is without a doubt one

of the most prominent representatives ofsurrealism in painting who invented thevisual pun. He studied in the BrusselsAcademy and visited France, UK,Germany and the Netherlands.

His early works were influenced byFuturism and Cubism and through publi-cation of journals of Esophagus and MarieZed, he launched the surrealist move-ment in Belgium (1925). Thereafter,

Pabl

o Pi

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o, F

emm

e au

Ban

deau

, 196

2

under the influence of Kay Ricco's style ofprose, who showed him the superiority ofpoetry over painting, he created his ownpersonal style, which made a greatimpact on poster making, advertisementand graphics.

Magritte presented his poetic inspira-tions in the frame of his photo like paint-ings, but would not use the realist stylewith the intention of showing the visibleaspect of objects, highlighting insteadtheir mysterious and secret presence orfunction. For this reason, his surrealistapproach has been described as magicalrealism.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Le Thérapeute -Le Chemin du Ciel

Salvador DaliHe is the most famed promoter of irra-

tionality in art. He left his studies in theAcademy of Madrid to travel to Paris,where he joined the surrealist movement(1929) and shoed his own perception ofsurrealism in paintings such as "the con-tinuation of mind" (1931).

In collaboration with Luis Bunuel(Spanish Director), he produced twomotion pictures "The Andalusia Dog" and"The Golden Age". He took up residencein New York at the beginning of the warin the year 1939, but returned to Spain in1955. He was also interested in religiousthemes (Crucifixion 1951).

The illustrations of the book "Alice inWonderland" (1969) are among his lateworks. Through his inclination towardsthe revival of Pre-Raphaelites and bypraising the academic painters of thenineteenth century, Dali in practiceturned his back on the experiences ofmodern artists. His works portray thesymbolic elements founded on theFreudian interpretation of dreams with arealistic process and the technical skillused is quite intense Dali described hisworks as "photos of dreams that are col-ored by hand". For this reason, there are

clear distinctions between his works andthose of other surrealists such as Massonand Arp.

Work on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-The Dream

Jean DubuffetHe coined the expression of Raw Art

and ardently pursued this interpretationof art. He left for Paris in the year 1928 tostudy, but above painting, he spent manyyears to pursuit different business activi-ties. His early works were marked by arough texture on the background madeof material such as gravel, cement andcoal bearing different carvings (agitatedlife 1953). In later years, he created stat-

ues out of worthless materials such asnewspaper, used sponge and wires,calling them fragments of the fictitiouslife.

He concentrated more on sculp-ture at the end of sixties. He also pub-lished prints made by lithography (thewalls collection 1950). Works byDubuffet, which sometimes borderspure abstraction, has a primordialquality that challenges logic. He pre-ferred spontaneity over deliberationand immaturity over professionalism.Nevertheless, the rich texture in hisworks are the results of his great expe-rience in the application of incongruousmaterials.

Works on display by this artist in the

Museum:-Le fil de Jours -L' habitant de l'Oasis -Train Arriére Autobus Gare Montparnasse

Joan MiroHe is among the prominent figures of

abstract surrealism. Despite similaritieswith the works of Klee, his "childish" andinnocent style is quite personal and dis-tinct. Miro studied in Barcelona (1907-1915). His initial works were influencedby Cezanne and the Fauvists.

After settling in Paris, he was influ-enced by Picasso and Gris, throughwhom he was introduced to the works ofHenri Rousseau. The simple colors andthe expressive symbols in his paintings ofthe thirties impressed Kandinsky andprobably Picasso.

Thereafter, many contemporaries suchas Gorky and Calder were influenced byhis works. Miro's paintings are a mixtureof joyful indifference and a serious digni-ty. Surrealism paved his way for completeexpression of his thoughts, but he nevergave free rein to the elements of hisworks. He always took inspiration fromthe artistic culture and heritage of hishomeland of Catalonia.

From 1937 onwards, he turned moreand more towards abstract and originalforms. Nevertheless, he preserved hisimaginative humor and his personal formof expression. At the height of its maturi-ty, the innovative style of Miro containedelements or surrealist detachment,abstract construction and decorativeinclinations.

Works on display by this artist inthe Museum:

-Le Matador -Oiseaux des Grottes -Trace sur la Paria V

Wassily KandinskyBeing one of the effective figures of the

twentieth century for his creative mindand new language, Kandinsky is general-

82 ECO HERITAGE

Works by Dubuffet,which sometimes

borders pureabstraction, has aprimordial quality

that challengeslogic

Issue 12 - Vol 4 83

ly considered as a pioneer of abstractpainting. His early works resembled thoseof the Russian Symbolists and theirbranches. While in Paris, he wasimpressed by the Nabis and the fauvists.

Later on, he distanced himself greatlyfrom nature through his landscapes titled"The Improvised" and in paintings such as"View with Church" (1913). He took thelast steps towards pure abstraction. Nextcame the abstract geometric forms underthe influence of Russian Supremacist andConstructivist Movements.

However, the geometric Corms didnot eliminate the dynamism in his works.Miro's influence on his works appearedafter his residence in Paris, with a morefluid forms taking a surrealist quality.Although his views were rooted in theGerman romantic philosophy and theoriental spiritualism, he always sought tofind a scientific basis for his outlooks.

Vinc

ent V

an G

ogh,

Wor

n ou

t at E

tern

ity’s

Gat

e, 1

882

Jean Dubuffet, Le Fil des Jours, 1976

84 ECO HERITAGE

He always believed that apart from itsdepictive and decorative functionalities,painting has a power to evoke deep sen-timents or mental experiences and onthis basis, he paved the grounds for theabstract expressionist movement.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Tensions Claires

Jackson PollockHe is without a doubt one of the most

brilliant figures of abstract expressionismwho by the sheer force of his genius,boldness and frenzy was able to takeabstract expressionism well above anyother modern art styles, while paving theground for future efforts in passing themedium of painting.

He studied art in Los Angeles and NewYork (1929 -1931). His first works show

Was

sily

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ky, T

ensi

ons

Cla

ires,

193

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Jackson Pollock, Mural on Indian Red Ground, 1950

Issue 12 - Vol 4 85

the influence of Ryder imaginative paint-ings. He was then attracted to the muralartists in Mexico and cooperated withthem.

In the late thirties, he becameacquainted with the works of Picasso andMiro and surrealists such as Masson andfinally chose the abstract style. He had avery irritable deeply introvert character,but contrary to other legendary figures ofthe world of art, he was not sentimental.

Nonetheless, Pollock's name is associ-ated with the all encompassing painting.In this style, all emphasis is avoided andno specific detail can be singled out overthe canvas. Consequently, the traditionalconcept of composition and structure, inthe sense of the interrelation of the com-ponents, is completely rejected and allparts of the painting have a single value.

This composition, which is based onthe sinuous movement of lines coveringthe entire canvas in a nearly uniform andequal manner, creates a kind of aestheti-cal and apparently random order. Thislegendary art figure died in a crash in theyear 1956, while he was obsessed withdeath for some times.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Mural on Indian Red Ground

Alberto GiacomettiThe rich philosophic and visual con-

tents of Giacometti's works have placedhim among the prominent sculptors ofthe twentieth century. He was the son ofa painter and began his artistic endeavorsin his youth. He entered the GenevaSchool of Art in the year 1919. During hisstay in Italy, he studied the works of oldmasters, particularly the works of Giottoand Tintoretto (1920 1922). In Paris,Giacometti was trained by Bourdel andexcept for the Second World War years,chose to live in Paris.

He ignored the academic principles ofsculpting and joined the surrealist move-ment to create imaginative works. Healso experimented with cubist percep-

tions of sculpture. At the end of the thir-ties, he concluded that his statues, in thecurrent of reduced dimensions and elim-ination of details, resembled the modelwhen they became narrow and elongat-ed. His style of sculpture was shaped dur-ing years of relentless efforts of buildingand reconstructing. His later depictions ofman resemble a thin woven string as ifpressed from all sides.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Yanaihara-Walking man I -La Cage -Grand Buste-Standing Woman I

Francis BaconDue to his independent and personal

style in portraying the disastrous condi-tion of the modern man, he is consideredas one of the most prominent contempo-rary expressionist artists. Bacon was bornin Dublin but chose to live in Londonduring his youth. He first began his workas an interior decorator. Then in the thir-ties and without any academic training,he switched to painting. With his contro-versial works of three studies of personal-ities for crucifixion in the year 1944, heattained a prominent position in theEuropean painting.

His works usually consists of distortedfigures on three plates, which are mostlyshocking and traumatic. The relationbetween the plates is not so much based

on continuity but is more visual, in asense that the space are independent ofeach other but are somehow intercon-nected. His paintings have beendescribed as the visual equivalent of "theliterature of critical situations, whichappeared in the late forties. Bacon tookhis inspirations mainly from radiographicphotos, serial images and cinema. Amongthe old masters, he preferred the works ofRembrandt, Velasquez and Goya.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Reclining man with sculpture -Richard Hamilton

Victor VasarelyHe has been called the father of Op

Art. He is among artists who stressed thefunctionality of abstraction. He studied inBudapest Art Academy. ThroughMoholy-Nagy, he became acquaintedwith the works of Malevieh, Kandinsky,Gropius, Le Corbusier and Mondrian.

He was greatly impressed by the aes-thetics of constructivism and the function-ality of Bauhaus. He started his work as agraphic artist and then turned to painting(1944). After a while, he experimentedwith colors and visual deceptions and byremoving the frontiers of painting andsculpture, he proposed the general con-cept of two dimensional and threedimensional arts. His goal was to createvibrations in the viewer's retina. His earlyworks consisted of black and whitedesigns on paper or transparent sheets ofplastic or glass. However, in the sixties, heused geometrical forms: square, circle,triangle, rectangle and polygons, byapplying bright and clear colors accordingto mathematical principles to create afeeling of leap convexity and concavity.

Works on display by this artist in theMuseum:

-Basilon II-Caillouxs-Quasar-Fuge- OB-NEG

Albe

rto

Gia

com

etti,

Yana

ihar

a, 1

960

The artistic culture of Tajikistan reach-es back to more than 8000 years ago.First on the rock images discovered byarcheologists in Shakhty Grotto in GornyBadakhshan (the Pamirs) at the altitudeof 4,100 m above sea level. They belongto the so-called "marcansuf" culture,mountainous culture of the Stone Age inthe world.

The Tajiks had a rich and old culturalhistory as witnessed by the excavationsat north Tajikistan (wild ram's head castof bronze - 3rd century BC, a magnifi-cent example of Scythians "animal style",at south Tajikistan (gold buckle fromParkhar 1st - 2nd century), at Penjikent(wall paintings, wood-carvings and claysculptures - 7th century A.D), the archi-tectural monuments of Samarkand,Bukhara, Istravshan, Khudjand and bymany illuminated manuscripts.

Prior to the spread of Islam in CentralAsia during the eighth century, artistsand artisans were not limited in thechoice of subject matter for the decora-tion of their walls, textiles, costumes,jewelry and everyday objects of wood,metal and clay.

Patterns and motifs reflected ancientand deeply embedded animist andshamanist beliefs and traditions from thenomad world, as well as the long-termcross-cultural aesthetic influences ofPersia, Europe, China and India, and thereligious influences of Buddhism andZoroastrianism. The brilliant period forthe art of the 6th through the first

Arts and

86 ECO HERITAGE

Tajikistan's Rich and Old History of

decades of the 8th centuries was inter-rupted a little later in the late 8th centu-ry by the Arab conquest followed theIslamization of the western Central Asia.Later on, the art in Tajikistan becamemore and more decorative like that ofthe whole Islamic world.

Under Islam, decoration became pre-dominantly geometric and ornamental,composed of stylized plants and geo-metric patterns. It's worth mentioningthat Early Muslim art of the ArabCaliphate was fed not only by theByzantines and Iranians but also theSughdians and Tokharistanian cultureand artistic traditions. On-rock image ofPaleolithic Age, monumental wall paint-ings and lace carving of Middle Age,miniature paintings and masterpieces ofapplied art - all these are part of histori-cal cultural processes in Central Asia,Iran, Afghanistan, India and Pakistan, inwhich the Tajik masters were active par-ticipants.

However, the art of illustration anddecoration of illuminated manuscriptswhich had attained perfection in themiddle Ages, gradually declined, whilethe masters of decorative art working onarchitectural monuments confinedthemselves to the use of conventionaldevices. It was only in such crafts asmetalwork, pottery and embroideryassociated with the manufacture ofhousehold objects, that the national tra-dition flourished. For many centuries upto the Soviet times, the creative talent ofthe Tajiks found its outlet only in an

Courtesy of the Government of the Rep. Tajikistan for ECOTourist Guide-Book prepared by ECO Cultural Institute

Tajik Pottery

unusually wide range of folk art. Soviet policy set out to transform tra-

ditional craft workers into workers forthe state. Existing craft guilds werereformed as professional unions andcraft workers themselves gradually cametogether, first into ateliers and workshopcooperatives and then, with the intro-duction of modern machinery, into fac-tories. Women's labor was required inthe economically vital cotton fields,resulting in less time at home. Skills suchas wood and ganch carving, brass work,leatherwork, embroidery and weaving,practiced in the towns and villages havebeen retained and even encouraged, thesurvival of others was threatened byfactory- made goods. Craft- based pot-tery in particular has suffered from theintroduction of aluminum, enamel andfactory-made chinaware.

After Russian Revolution in 1917,

Crafts

Issue 12 - Vol 4 87

contemporary figurative art was bornappropriate to the new times, assertingCommunist ideals of transformationdeconstruction of life. In the 1920s pub-lication of the first political, agendaposters and illustrated books in the Tajiklanguages as well as the organizations ofprofessional raining in oil painting, draw-ing and round sculpture were all con-nected with Samarkand, then the capitalof Uzbekistan, of which the TajikAutonomous Republic was a part.

The local masters began to learnabout western art through Russia, andinternationalization of the Tajik culturebegan in the turn of XIX-XX centuries.Painting by oil on a canvas became oneof the main conductors of European artpractice. Painting in workshops and inmany genres such as portrait, sill-life,and sculpture and monumental artdeveloped gradually. During 20-40 of XXcentury the art went through a transi-tional stage from a traditional nationalplastic system with planar image to anabsolutely opposite principles ofEuropean art culture. Modern Tajik artwas generated in the middle of the cen-tury.

Soviet Tajiks studied modern arts, bal-let and classical music in Russia(Moscow, St- Petersburg /formerlyLeningrad/) and Latvia (Riga), promotedthe secular Persian-Tajik literature clas-sics, social realist painting and built out arepublican network of theaters, muse-ums and libraries. Now, about two hun-dred fifty artists live and work in

Tajikistan. Their works has been repre-sented in National Museum named afterK. Behzod and various modern art gal-leries in Dushanbe and Khudjand . Thearchitectural appearance of Dushanbediffers from other cities of Central Asia.Main Heroes of the Tajik people are thePersian speaking poets; Rudaki, Firdousi,Ayni, coryphee of science Avicenna(Abu Ali Sino).

Many local inhab-itants know and canread by heart frag-ments from classicalTajik poetry. Duringthe 90 years of XXcentury, Tajik cultureaspired to revive itsown great spiritualtraditions. In variousregions of the coun-try monuments ofthe outstanding fig-ures of the Tajik cul-ture like AbulkasimLahuti (sculptorMilashevich), MirzoTursunzade inTursunzade (sculptorBicasiyon), BobojonGafurov's bust in Dushanbe (sculptorlvanov) were erected.

The artist K.Nodirov created a panel"History of Tajikistan" for the B.Gafurovmuseum in Khudjand. In 1999, newmonumental ensembles were created,in connection with the celebration of thell00 anniversary of' Samanid State. In

Dushanbe, the memorial "Vakhdat",(architect B.Zuhurdinov, sculptor I.Cerbel and in Kurgan-Tyube- the monu-ment of Ismail Samani on a horse (sculp-tor A.Bicasiyon) were erected.

The significant contribution of Tajikfine art in XX century have been madeby such masters asM.Khoshmuhamedov, A.Khaydarov,A.Kamelin, .Rakhimov, P.Falbov,

S.Kurbanov, S.Sharipov,M.Beknazarov, and alsoA.Sayfutdinov,V.Odinaev,R.Safarov, A.Mirshakar,M.Kholov, F.Khojaev,N.Narzibekov, A.Akilovand many others.

The ethnic variety ofregions of Tajikistan isreflected in its nationalart. There are manyancient centers that havepreserved traditionalcrafts: Khudjand ,Kulyab, Istravshan (for-merly Ura-Tyube),Kanibadam, Isfara,Darvaz, Karategin, theTajik Pamirs, Hissar,Karatag etc. Nowadays,

alongside the traditional crafts, skilledcraftsmen even more often use originalmixed technique, and their worksbecome intricate in form. The artists falloutside the customary limits, enrichinginner contents of their works.

Now, about two hundred fifty artists live andwork in Tajikistan. Their works has been rep-resented in National Museum named after K.Behzod and various modern art galleries inDushanbe and Khudjand

88 ECO HERITAGE

Skull-Caps

EmbroideryWonderful monuments of carving,

remnants of ancient embroidery, majes-tic paintings and other pieces are evi-dence of the high interest in art andhandicrafts. Until recently there wereblocks of weavers, potters, braziers, andsmiths in the towns. Within the last 100-200 years, the Tajik handicrafts have notremained unchanged.

Nevertheless, some of the ancienthandicrafts, especially the more artistictypes have been preserved. Embroideryin particular may be seen on clothes(waist shawls, women's dresses, andembroidered skull- caps) and on every-day domestic articles. A distinguishingfeature of the applied arts of Tajiks is theextraordinarily rich development of dec-orative patterns and the scarcity of picto-rial subjects as a result of Islam's prohibi-tion of the depiction of living creatures.

Skull-capsSmall-sized embroidery has long

been used both in the valleys andmountains of Tajikistan. The Tajiks of thevalleys embroidered various handker-chiefs, towels, small bags for tea, mirrorsand combs. In the mountainous regions,embroidery of head and waist handker-chiefs was not used. But, they had theirown typical small articles such as bride'sveils, breast-pieces and head bands, theornamentation of which strikingly resem-bled that of Slavs.

Embroidered skull-caps (tiubeteikas)have always been popular among the

Issue 12 - Vol 4 89

Embroidery

Tajiks. Men and women wear them onweekdays and on holidays, with anational costume and a "European" suit.Tiubeteikas produced in different dis-tricts vary widely in form and ornament.Not long ago, one could tell a residentof a particular district by type of skull-cap he wore.

In the recent years, however, all kindsof tiubeteikas, especially those made inthe plain country, have spread all overTajikistan and have become a sort ofnational head-dress. The skull-caps forthe bride and bridegroom are particular-ly lovely. These skull-caps are stillfavored even by young people whohave gone over to very modern dress.

The most popular embroidered skull-cup among the other tiubeteikas ischusti (after the village of Chust in theFerghana Valley). These are black-and-white men's skullcaps embroidered withwhite silk against a black back-ground.They have a traditional pattern: bodom(almond) or kalamfur (pepper pod)placed in each of the four segments ofthe cap.

The skull-cap has a square form.Iroki, square, flat-topped tiubeteikasbeautifully adorned with a bright floralornament, are very popular amongwomen. The technique of embroideryresembles the Russian cross-stitch. In thePamirs many people wear round flat-topped tiubeteikas with a broad cap-band ornamented with one or two rowsof colorful braid, in the ornamentationof these skull- caps there are also many

90 ECO HERITAGEAbr-Fabric

ting and ornamental painting is in pri-vate homes in mahallas (districts),mosques and in teahouses. Centers ofwoodcraft are Istravshan and Isfarain inthe North. Almost all the houses intowns and villages had eyvans (verandas)with a figured column topped by acarved beam. The doors and woodenshutters, which originally substituted forwindows, were also carved.

JewelryVarious combinations of coral, moth-

er-of pearl, pearls (in the more expen-sive articles), and precious and gemstones (rubies, emeralds, sapphires, gar-nets, rock crystal) were widely used inthe making of jewelry. Highly prizedamong the stones was carnelian, towhich salubrious properties were attrib-uted and turquoise. The gem stoneswere usually polished and not faceted.

The technique of jewelry ornamenta-tion varied to include chasing, repose,filigree and pierced work. In Bukharaenamel work was also done. Belts withlarge ornamented buckles and sewn-onmedallions, finger rings, hilts and scab-bards and horse-harnesses were madefor the Emir and his officials.

A great many women's decorationswere manufactured, such as varioushead pieces, diadems, head bands, allkind of pendants suspending from thehead-dress, earrings of different shapes,throat bands, short and long necklacesof one or many strands, figured amuletcases, necklaces of coins, bracelets,

variants among which we may noticePamirs embroidery with geometricaldesign.

And finally, we must mention thefamous gold thread tiubeteikas. Theseskull-caps made by old mastersare round and flat-topped.They have no lining or braid,but embroidery covers thewhole crown leaving no openspace. Gold is often combinedwith silver forming a bright lus-trous surface, which is animated bycolored spots of pulakcha.

Abr- FabricEven before Central Asia was

conquered by the Muslims, theancestors of the Tajiks, and Sughdians,who lived in Zandona Village in the sub-

urbs of Bukhara, manufactured fabricsnoted for their high artistic quality.Besides cotton cloths, Tajik weaversmanufactured silk fabrics with fig-ured patterns made by a specialmethod. Such patterns are called"abr". Their characteristic featuresare blurred designs with theirpeculiar toning resulting fromthe diffusion of two colors.

The largest center of abr-fabric manufacturing is thenorthern region of present-

dayTajikistan namelyKhujand, while in the

south, abr-fabric,especially silkalocha, were

made in Karatag, which was also famousfor other articles.

In many mountainous regions -theWestern Pamirs, Darvaz, Karategin,

the northern regions of Kulyab andthe upper reaches ofZeravshan River - women

knit men's and women's hoseof colored wool with diversepatterns often representing styl-ized objects. Especially famous

are the beautiful stockings of thePamirs Tajiks, nowadays, alongsidewith traditional crafts, skilled crafts-men even more often use originalmixed techniques, and theirworks become intricate in form.

The artists fall outside the cus-tomary limits, enriching innercontents of their works. Everylarge Tajik bazaar has a smallhandicraft section, generally

offering elaborately decoratedcoffers or "sunduk", wooden cra-

dles, textiles and ceramics.

WoodworkWall painting, wood and plaster carv-

ing can be found in house decorations.In the northern towns of Khudjand (for-merly Leninabad), and Istravshan (for-merly Ura-Tyube), great attention waspaid to the painting of ceilings, and inthe western town of the Bukhara- wallpainting. Both forms of interior decora-tion are found in Samarkand.

The best way to see both ancient andmodern applications of fine wood cut-

Besides cotton cloths, Tajik weavers manufac-tured silk fabrics with figured patterns madeby a special method. Such patterns are called"abr": blurred designs with peculiar toningresulting from the diffusion of two colors

Issue 12 - Vol 4 91

Jewerly

rings, and plait adornments. Rich orien-tal robes, belts, women's dresses, headbands, double braid stitched onto thefront of the dress, sleeve edgings, tiu-beteikas (skull- caps), boots, slippers, aswell as horse-cloths were all embroi-dered in gold.

Pottery & Metal WorksOne of the oldest and most popular

handicrafts is pottery. The production ofown temperature- ware was a funda-mentally efficient process. Low firingtemperatures and short firing times limit-ed the amount of fuel required impor-tant in dry areas of Tajikistan where sur-plus of vegetation was not to be wastedand fuel often had to be painstakinglygathered and carted from a distance.

In the hot, dry summers of Tajikistan,porous earthenware kept water and liq-uid milk products cool through trans-portation and evaporation. The waterewers, jugs and drinking pitches pro-duced today are practically indistinguish-able in body and form from artifactsexcavated. Archaeological records bear

witness to the popularity of ceramicminiatures and toys in Tajikistan.

Excavated toy figurines and whistlesdating from hundreds or thousands ofyears ago differ little in form and inspira-tion from those still made today, particu-larly for the traditional spring solstice cel-ebration of Navruz celebrated on 21March. Favorite subjects include birds,sheep, dogs, horses, fish and mythologi-cal beings. There is a legend that potteris connected with fire, and it was alwaysconsidered that half the creation of a potis the craftsman's work and half isthrough the magic of the fire. In thetowns and large villages, pottery wasusually a man's occupation. In the south-eastern mountainous region potterieswere made by women. The potter'swheel was turned by foot. Most popular,was pottery made in Khudjand andIstravshan. Good pottery was also pro-duced in the Isfara Valley (Kanibadamand Chorku) and the Karatag settlementin the Hissar Valley. The range of objectsmade by the potters was very wide andincluded dishes of various sizes and

shapes, cups - large and small, with andwithout stems, curved and straight,diverse earthenware jars, bowls, wash-tubs, and jugs. The ornamentation andcolor schemes differed with each region.

Decoration, if applied, was incised,appliquéd, mounded, drawn or paintedusing solutions of suspensions of groundred and ochre-colored oxides and otherminerals. It was only in the ninth andtenth centuries that potters began to useglazed ceramic. Glazed ceramic tech-nologies were adopted in Central Asiawith the advent of Islamic culture fromthe southwest. Potters producing glazedwares decorated many of their dishes,bowls and other vessels with vibrant,bright flowers and vegetal motifs. Theseoften mirrored or complemented thedesigns and colors of the embroidered,woven and printed textiles, whichbrought warmth, brightness and traditionto festive occasions and the interiors ofhomes across the region.

The most common traditionalmethod of glaze decoration is single-fired under glaze painting. In the under-

The range of objects made by the potters wasvery wide and included dishes of various sizesand shapes, cups - large and small, with andwithout stems, curved and straight, diverseearthenware jars, bowls, washtubs, and jugs

92 ECO HERITAGE

Pottery

Metal work

glazed technique the decoration waspainted on the dry, unfired pot, which isthen covered with a transparent glazeand fired. A fundamental feature ofceramic glazing technology was the useof alkaline glazes made from a pure sili-ca sand or ground, fired quartz as theprimary raw materials with plant ash asthe flux. The plant ash, high in sodiumand potassium, enabled firing at relative-ly low temperatures (900-1,000C) andwas obtained from a range of arid-envi-ronment plant.

Today production of glazed earthen-ware has decreased considerably due tothe abundance of cheap factory madecrockery. Ceramics were important inmany celebrations that are characteristicof Tajik culture. When a girl was mar-ried, her relatives used to present herwith various items of pottery. Familiesalso used to purchase significant amountof new pottery for the wedding feasts,which occurred over a number of dayswith much food, music and manyguests. Besides, local neighborhood(mahalla) communities purchased pot-tery to be used by people living withinthe mahalla for wedding ceremoniesand other neighborhood national festivi-ties and receptions. Metalwork, toinclude copper and bronze chasing, andjewelry making were of high quality.Metal chasing was concentrated in thetowns, and used for the ornamentationof jugs for water and tea, hand- washbasins, trays, various bowls, plates andbig copper pails.

Issue 12 - Vol 4 93

Wood work

Printed ClothThe embroidered patterns differed

not only in each region and period, butalso in the diverse types of embroidery.Typically embroiderers use brightly col-ored silk threads to work their decora-tive magic on plain grounded cloths.Cotton is inexpensive and offers a sturdybase through which a needle can bepassed repeatedly without causing unac-ceptable damage. Silk on the other handis expensive with its production requir-ing considerable investment of time andeffort. Moreover, its smoothness, lusterand glorious color reflecting proper tiesare ideally suited to embroidery, whichadds strength as well as value tounadorned cloth. It is not uncommon tofind old stitching bright and intact on afragile, disintegrating ground cloth.Today, women dye their silks them-selves, producing soft shades of yellow(from onion skin), orange (from rayonroot), purple (from cherry), brown (fromwalnuts), grey-brown (from walnut flow-ers), and grey (from usma leaves).Printed cloths were wide-spread in theold days.

Cloth printers stamped their patternswith a carved wooden block on naturalhand woven cotton cloth called - karbos- and later on factory-made calico. Bycombining different elements, theymade innumerable ornamental compo-sitions in red and black (the main col-ors), sometimes adding green, blue andyellow. Cloth printing was developedmainly in the valley towns and villages.

94 ECO HERITAGE

Printed cloth

cultural and personal significance to theirmakers and users. Suzani is made onhand-woven karbos (cotton), satin orsilk, almost always is lined and is edgedwith a strip of black cloth or braid.Suzani has many local peculiarities ofpattern, technique and coloring in differ-ent parts of Tajikistan. Previously nolarge-sized embroidery was made nei-ther in the southern mountainousregions (Western Pamirs, Darvaz,Karategin) nor the upper reaches of theZeravshan River. At present, large-sizedembroidery is beginning to be made inKulyab, Darvaz, and Karategin and inthe Zeravshan Valley as well.

CostumesRichly embroidered in tinsel, silk or

wool both by hand and by special chainstitching machines, embroidered gar-ment continue to be cherished particu-larly in the south-eastern mountainranges of Tajikistan. Men's garments aresirnple in cut and less varied where theundergarments consist of a shalwar(trousers) drawn in at the waist and atunic-like shirt over which a robe isworn.Men's belts, whether made ofleather or fabric, are ornamented withmassive silver buckles. Tajik youth preferbrighter colors whereas older genera-tions prefer moderate tones, while theelderly dress in fabrics of a dark or purewhite shade. Although sharp contrast isessential, the gamut of favored colors isbroad, vivid and cheerful and never gar-ish.

Decorative cloth designing is one of theoldest kinds of handicraft.

CarpetsCarpets, runners, curtains and various

types of cushions essentially took theplace of furniture in Central Asia.Carpets were divided into three types onthe basis of the purpose to which theywere put; wall carpets; floor carpets andrunners; and, lastly, the felt rugs whichwere placed under the most richly deco-rated carpets.

Carpets and carpet goods particularlyfrorn Kayrakkum are sold throughout theworld. Widely using modern patternsand color combinations, Tajik' carpet-makers maintain a perfect harmony andbalance between the form and colorswhich makes Kayrakkurn carpets so orig-inal and elegant.

Needle WorkNeedlework is doubtlessly the most

popular form of Tajik applied art. Theembroidered articles were usually madefor weddings and were the most valu-able and essential part of the dowry.They included suzani -the world's finestand most beautiful textiles, a full orna-mented cloth of rectangular shape,which you'll find in almost every villageor mahalla home; ruidjo - a wedding-bed sheet with an ornamental frame ofU shape, creating an arched form similarto the mihrab with embroidery acrossthe top and both sides; joinamaz (prayermat with its mihrab-(arch) shaped center

is an important inclusion, much smallerin size than ruidjo; takyapush - pillowcover or the bride's bed. The embroi-dery motifs on ruidjo varied, but weretypically massed flowers includingrosettes, almonds, seven-colored blos-soms, ivy, leafy sprays and cherries.Generally the ornamented joinamaz ischaracterized by simplicity and intimacy.It is only used in the moments of prayerand meditation. Among the patternsforming the figure of a niche one canoften see such symbolic elements as ananor (pomegranate) the symbol of hap-piness and fertility; various kinds ofworms and centipedes, believed to behelpful in the fulfillment of one's wishes.The emblem of hospitality - a teapotand a samovar - had already originatedin the Soviet time. During the weddingcelebrations, the walls of the bride'sroom were covered with suzanis anddisplay of decorative embroidery wasalso important for holidays and festivals.

Suzanis may also have served ashejab for women not wishing to be seenby men other than their husbands andclose family. The term suzani derivesfrom suzan, the Farsi word for needle,and is used generally to describe a par-ticular family of embroideries as well asspecifically to describe some of thelargest of these, which are mainly usedas wall hangings. The suzanis are worksof art created out of the artist's heartfeltdevotion, this devotion is clearly appar-ent in their beauty, in the care lavishedon their execution, and in their enduring

Richly embroidered in tinsel, silk or woolboth by hand and by special chain stitchingmachines, embroidered garment continue tobe cherished particularly in the south-easternmountain ranges of Tajikistan

Issue 12 - Vol 4 95

Turkmen'sTamdyrlama

96 ECO HERITAGE

As soon as I hear only the sound of the orientalmagic name - Tamdyrlama, I immediately become awalking illustration of the doctrine by physiologistPavlov about two signaling systems of irritants: blissfulmemories cause momentary burst of appetite and allthe details of the first acquaintance with this dish rela-tively rare for the daily Turkmen cooking rise beforethe eyes.

A Delicacy for a Patient Gourmet

By: Alexander Tumanov*

Issue 12 - Vol 4 97

I remember a late evening nearthe crystal clear lake in the moun-tains, when a long trip along thedusty winding roads of the Kugitangmass has ended only by the thickentwilight. Fatigue after the endlessjourney under the scorching sunprevailed and no one wanted any-thing any longer - neither to eat norto drink - except only falling in thecool bed and forgetting about nag-ging muscles. But as you know, inTurkmenistan, no arrival of a guestdoes without treatment at the gen-erously laid dastarkhan.

Violation of this tradition isinconceivable to imagine, even ifthe guest is ready to collapse andfall asleep right next to the laidtable! However, a profound feelingof tiredness has evaporated in amoment as soon as the sense ofsmell differentiated a range ofunknown, tempting smells reachingfrom the kitchen.

Soon, the eyes added vivacity tothe consciousness on seeing a dishwith a heap of large chunks ofcooked lamb and a deep bowl of

broth playing by all shades of emer-ald color.

Here I have learned what"tamdyrlama" was almost impossibleto convey by the words. The specialflavor of meat literally melting inyour mouth, soaked with tart headyaromas of mountain juniper.Obviously, it was a special methodof cooking: lamb was clearly notfried, not boiled, not smoked andnot steamed.

And the rich creamy soup with astrange but surprisingly delicatetaste seemed to be able to satisfythe hunger after the first sip.

Fatigue and drowsiness vanishedas by magic and if my mouth wasnot busy with the extremely encour-aging process of perceiving the nov-elty of sensations, the stream ofquestions to the hosts about the ori-gin of this culinary masterpiecewould have been continuous. But tostop the sweet acquaintance withanother miracle of the Turkmen cui-

sine was simply beyond the averagehuman capacity.

Later I learned that I was lucky tobe at dastarkhan when the dish wascompletely ready for consumption.Otherwise it would have requiredenough patience because it takes avery long time to cook and preparetamdyrlama.

The mandatory condition and themain secret of the special way ofcooking is the presence of a tradi-tional Turkmen bread baking stove,tamdyr - a large inverted clay bowlwith a hole instead of the bottomand an ash pit at the base. Usuallysuch stoves are used to bake varioustypes of chorek (flat round bread).

However, in the mountainousparts of eastern Turkmenistan, thestoves are used for cooking deli-cious meat delicacies. Tamdyralamais a dish not for every day. It is pre-pared in special cases: for large cel-ebrations, for rare guests when thehosts want to earn a very specialfavor of the visitors.

A young, not too fat lamb weigh-ing about 20 kilograms is needed asan original ingredient. A couple of

kilograms of onions and a few headsof garlic will be enough as spices formarinade. No need to mention salt,pepper, bay leaf, dill, parsley. Butthe main feature is the presence ofabundant fresh greens of archa -mountainous juniper tree.

All finely chopped fresh greens,juniper needles and spices aremixed in a deep dish. Fresh lamb isdivided into large chunks (5-6pieces from the whole carcass).Shallow cuts are made in thechunks filled with a mixture of herbsand spices. Just before immersioninto the stove, the surface of thechunks is covered with wettedgreens of juniper. The stove is pre-pared in advance.

The hot fire is kindled in it; nowood is spared. Only solid wood isused as a fuel - saxaul, mulberry, orchocks of fruit trees.

The burnt firewood should leaveheavy charcoals keeping heat for along time that are raked in the cen-ter of the stove. A deep basin filledby two-thirds with water is put on

98 ECO HERITAGE

Issue 12 - Vol 4 99

additional thermal effect on thelamb. As a result, the meat iscooked, stewed and steamed at thesame time.

The process cannot be called

rapid. But the expectations are notin vain, when the appetizing piecesof lamb baked in their own juice onlow heat are on the table accompa-nied by bowls of broth with bright

the charcoal. The greens and spicesremained from the marinade aredropped into the basin.

The large chunks of lamb tied toa metal rod are suspended in themouth of the stove furnace over thebasin on the charcoal. The stove isdensely covered and all remaininggaps and holes, including the ash pitare plastered by wet clay to create acomplete air-tightness of the cook-ing process.

There remains the most difficultthing - it is to wait until it is finallypossible to fall into the sin of glut-tony and enjoy the mountain gastro-nomic masterpiece! Waiting cantake from two to four hoursdepending on the quantity andquality of meat, the strength ofaccumulated heat, the degree ofhermetic tightness of the stove.

Fat and juice of hanged pieces ofmeat over the charcoal slowly draininto the boiling water, saturating theliquid with a fragrance; the steam ofthe boiling water creates a kind of abath in the stove and provides an

green hues. It is worth making along trip to the mountains of easternTurkmenistan, a home to tamdyrla-ma, just to get to know the taste ofthis wonderful dish.

.................................................................*For Turkmenistan International MagazinePhotos by the author

It is worth mak-ing a long tripto the moun-

tains of easternTurkmenistan, a

home totamdyrlama,just to get to

know the tasteof this wonder-

ful dish

The Ottoman Empire orOttoman State was an

empire that lasted from 1299to July 24, 1923, succeeded

by the Republic of Turkey,which was officially pro-claimed on October 29,

1923.At the height of its power

(16th-17th century), itspanned three continents,

controlling much ofSoutheastern Europe,

Western Asia and NorthAfrica. The Ottoman Empirecontained 29 provinces and

numerous vassal states, someof which were later absorbedinto the empire, while others

gained various types ofautonomy during the course

of centuries. The empire was at thecentre of interactions

between the Eastern andWestern worlds for six cen-

turies. Ottoman history isexceptionally rich, especiallyfrom cultural point of view,and as far as ECO region is

concerned, this cultural lega-cy certainly constitutes an

exceptional treasure ofresources for our today'syouth to appreciate their

regional identity. Although "Ottoman archi-tecture" was greatly influ-

enced by Persian, ByzantineGreek and Islamic architec-

tures, nevertheless it createdits own unique way of

design, construction method,charm and style. The below

article is part of an extensiveresearch work done by

Turkish author, Reha Gunay,on the subject of "Traditional

Turkish House andSafraqnbolu Houses, pub-

lished by Turkish Ministry ofCulture.

The " TurkishHouse "

Of The Ottoman Period

100 ECO HERITAGE

By: Reha GunayAn Extract of the book "Traditional Turkish House and

Safraqnbolu Houses", published by Turkey Ministry of CulturePhotography: Ali Sabzalian

Issue 12 - Vol 4 101

IntroductionIn our definition of the "Turkish -

House", for the purpose of this study,we have only included those that wereinherited from the Ottoman Empire,remaining examples some of whichcan be traced back to the 17th centu-ry. A typical "Turkish - House" shouldhave the following characteristics:

Original room arrangement: Theroom is the main component of the"Turkish - House". Throughout thestudied period its characteristics havebarely changed.

Plan Layout: The most characteristicplan types are those with outer oropen sofas, utilizing projections and"eyvans". The authentic aspect of theseplan types is the independent nature ofthe room, which instead of being adja-cent is separated from the other withthe extensions of the sofa. Plan typeswith central sofas emerge in the laterperiods.

Multi-storey buildings: Most houseshave at least two storeys. The upperstorey is the living area and has the suitplan layout. The ground floor generallyhas a high, solid stone wall, almost likea fortification. The upper floor extendsover the street with projections.

Form of the roof: The roof slopeson all four sides and has a simple form,avoiding indents or extensions. Theeaves are wide and horizontal.

Construction: The basic system ofconstruction is the timber frame withinfilling material or the lathe and plas-ter.

All these characteristics are the samefor all houses, regardless of the societalclass of their owner. Wealth is onlyreflected in the number of rooms andthe decoration. This house type is likea seal the Turkish culture has stampedwherever it has set foot. It can immedi-ately be discriminated from the housesbelonging to other cultures and makesits presence felt.

Few people have made thorough

102 ECO HERITAGE

studies of the "Turkish-House". SedadHakki Eidem, who was quick to noticethe significance of the "Turkish-House"and began to put together all docu-mentation he could find as a youngprofessional, made the earliest, mostcomprehensive and competent studiesin this field. Some of these were pub-lished only a short time before hisdeath. Thus we can study the last sig-nificant examples of the "Turkish -House" from his books. ArcheologistMahmut Akok has also contributed tothe field with his measured drawingsand articles on houses from variousregions. In the 1950s, several thesiswere prepared in the Faculty ofArchitecture of the Technical Universityof Istanbul, on the domestic architec-ture of important towns. After a muteperiod of almost 20 years, recentlydoctoral thesis or student studies haveonce again taken up the subject, andusing more scientific methods they aremainly concentrating on studies of thesmaller towns.

The main reason for this recentinterest is the recognition of the factthat the traditional housing pattern israpidly disappearing and losing charac-ter as new buildings emerge.Nevertheless, the "Turkish - House" isstill an astonishing subject. Wanderingamong "Turkish - Houses" you maycome across some admirable ones notyet discovered. Most of these may nothave measured drawings; may noteven have been photographed proper-ly.

Geographic Distribution ofthe "Turkish-House"

There are several factors whichdetermine the design of houses withinthe expansive boundaries of theOttoman Empire. The local houseforms were determined first of all bydomestic traditions and way of life,also by such factors as the climate,materials, construction systems and

economy. South-Eastern Anatolia, Syria-Palestine, Egypt, Iraqand the Arab Peninsula managed to preserve their vernaculararchitecture during the Ottoman period. In Central Anatolia,where the main determinants are the climatic conditions andavailable building materials, two different trends evolved:The adobe (mud-brick) architecture dating back to antiquity,or stone buildings which developed under Syrian influence.The southwestern border of the Empire (Morel and theIslands) has kept the traditional Mediterranean culture. TheEastern Black Sea region has a highly developed wooden,architecture. Eastern Anatolia and the Iranian border areunder the influence of Iran and Central Asia.

In areas where the Ottoman culture was fully effective,houses adopted all the characteristics of the "Turkish -House", whereas in regions with a strong vernacular traditionor where it was difficult to supply wood, the Ottoman influ-ence began with decoration and building components. Fromthe 19th century onwards the influence of the "Turkish -House" became more apparent with the adoption of plantypes and building methods in North Africa (Egypt), Syria-Palestine, Eagean Islands, Middle and South Eastern Anatoliaand Eastern Black Sea regions.

Centering around Istanbul and Edirne, the Marmara andTrace regions and a wide coastal strip of Anatolia of presentclay Turkey are naturally within the boundaries of the"Turkish - House". There being no established tradition ofdomestic architecture, the "Turkish - House" found root andnourished easily in Bulgaria, in Dobrogea (Romania), Greekand Yugoslavian Macedonia, Theselia, Bosnia Herzegovinaand Albania, producing some of its most beautiful examples.

Several characteristics of the "Turkish - House" can also befound in Crimea. This can partly be explained by the keeninterest the Khan, a relative of the Ottoman dynasty, had forIstanbul. In countries beyond the boundaries of present dayTurkey, examples of the "Turkish - House" are either very fewor have become obsolete. Nevertheless, it is possible tocome across some fascinating houses in some regions ofMacedonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Theselia and Bulgaria;houses which today have no match in Anatolia. As a matterof fact, when the subject is studied taking into considerationthe entire boundary of the Ottoman Empire, it is apparentthat the argument that Anatolia had any priority over theother regions is definitely not valid. At the end of the 19thcentury, while the Ottomans were withdrawing from theselands, the Neo-classical trends which were gaining influencein Europe were primarily applied to traditional architectureand later to all new architecture.

Researchers have divided the houses within the bound-aries of present day Turkey into several groups. The groupingis always done according to building materials e.g. woodencarcass, adobe, stone, massive wood.

With reference to EIdem's classification, regions with dif-ferent types of houses can be listed as below:

Black Sea coast (Amasra-Trabzon):Wood building; supports of projections Horizontal; ini-

Issue 12 - Vol 4 103

tially with open sofas, from 19th century onwards withinner or central sofas.

Eastern Black Sea (Trabzon-Çoruh, Gümüshhane,Ardahan):

Divided into squares with frequent wooden bracing withsingle stone infill; wide eaves; enclosed sofa.

Northern Anatolia (Göynük, Mudurnu, Safranbolu,Kastamonu, Çankiri, Çorum, Yozgat, Merzifon, Amasya,Tokat):

Wooden binding and mud brick infill, Supports of pro-jections horizontal; enclosed sofa.

Ankara (Ayash, Beypazari):Wooden binding; brick or mud brick infill; stepped over-

lapping projections; inner sofas.

Marmara Region (Bursa, Edirne, Istanbul):The characteristics of the "Turkish - House" evolved in

this region have influenced all others.

Western Anatolia (areas borderedby Çanakkale, Balkesir, Ushak, Egridir,Antalya):

A stone ground floor and a timberframe upper floor with mud brick infill;supports of projections curved or "bag-dadi" (lathe and plaster); tiled roof; withouter sofa.

Eagean Coast and islands (Ayvalik,Izmir, Lesbos, Khios, Samos):

Stone build one or two story build-ings with wooden or "bagdadi" projec-

The localhouse formswere deter-mined first ofall by domestictraditions andway of life

104 ECO HERITAGE

tions on the upper floor; latter examplesunder neo-classical influence.

Bodrum (Marmaris, Datça): stone built one story; flat roof; cubic

form.

High plateaus of the TourusMountains (Akseki, Pozani):

Dry walls with frequent bracing(mixed use of wooden bracing andwood planking).

Mediterranean Coast (Antalya,Adana):

Wooden bracing; outer sofa.

Central Anatolia (Konya, Akshehir,Karaman, Eregli, Aksaray, Kirshehir):

Constructive mud brick; flat soilroof; with courtyard.

Kayseri (Nigde, Erzurum):Dressed cut stone with wooden

bracing, flat earthen roof; with "eyvans" and inner and outersofas.

East of Kayseri, Van:Constructive mud brick; flat earthen roof.

Southeastern Anatolia (Mardin, Diyarbakir, Urfa,Gaziantep, Antakya):

Cut stone; with courtyard and eyvans.

Eastern Anatolia (Erzurum-Van):Constructive stone with wood binding; flat roof; dosed sofa.

Among these several types of houses the majority is withinthe context of the traditional "Turkish - House". But those onthe Eagean coast and islands, at Bodrum or up on the Taurusplateaus, partly in Central Anatolia, Kayseri, Eastern Anatoliaand Southeastern Anatolia, usually have local characteristicsand are as much under local influence as they are underexternal influence, as far as construction techniques and plantypes are concerned except for administrative buildings andsome houses inspired by these, which reflect the characteris-tics of the "Turkish-House".

Nevertheless, in these regions, in spite of the differencesin detail of the timber frame construction techniques andthe stone work of the ground floor wall, the main materialsof infill and cladding, roof and eaves, projections and theirsupports, window shutters and balustrades, fireplaces and

Open-sofaplan type, one

of the mostimportant plan

types, can beseen bothalong the

Mediterraneancoast: in

Antalya, withmild winters

and in midAnatolia: in

Ankara, withvery harsh win-

ters

Issue 12 - Vol 4 105

chimneys, ceilings and other details, when conceived as awhole, the character of the "Turkish - House" immediatelypresents itself

InfluencesThe ClimateAlthough the regions where the "Turkish-House" has spread

are generally within the moderate climate zones, significantseasonal differences can be noted in the microclimate, tem-perature and precipitation rates, both between the north andthe south and between the coasts and inlands, due also to thevariation in local topographies. In spite of this fact, there is noa striking difference in domestic architecture.

The open-sofa plan type, which is one of the most impor-tant plan types of the "Turkish-House", can be seen both alongthe Mediterranean coast: in Antalya, which has mild wintersand in mid Anatolia: in Ankara, which in turn has very harshwinters. In some regions where the form and structure of thehouse appears to have ignored the seasonal differences in theclimate, people change their environment, especially in thesummer months, by moving to summer houses, built either ingreat orchards or on the highlands.

It can be argued that this is one reason for halving no pre-cautions against the impact of the climate in the houses.Nevertheless, each house has been designed so as to includesuitable space for summer and winter living. The middle orintermediary floors are usually more suitable for winter usewith their low ceilings and small windows. The tradition of the

"Turkish-House" is so strong that, its pre-dominant characteristics have been car-ried along with them, wherever theTurks have been, regardless of the cli-mate. The rulers took the lead in thispractice.

Earthquakes (SeismicZones)

All the geographic areas where the"Turkish-House" has spread are withinseismic zones. It may be due to this factthat the timber frame construction sys-tem was devised and widely used. Thismethod is resistant to horizontal forcesand is also safer due to its lightness. Itcan be seen that this method wasimproved within time.

Building MaterialsTimber which is the main load bear-

ing material of the "Turkish-House" alsodefines its geographic boundaries. As amatter of fact, this house type devel-

In these regions,in spite of thedifferences indetail of thetimber frameconstructiontechniques andthe stone workof the groundfloor wall, themain materials,the characterof the "Turkish- House"immediatelypresents itself

106 ECO HERITAGE

oped in areas where wood was abun-dant. In areas such as the Eagean Island,Central Anatolia, Southwestern Anatoliaand Egypt where the main material isstone and mud-brick, other house typeswere developed.

The timber building materials wereprepared from trees varying from oneregion to another, in different sizes andsections and using different techniques.The chestnut is the most dependabletree in timber construction along theBlack Sea coast. Oak and yellow fir arepreferred in Western and NorthernAnatolia, while in the Mediterraneanand up on the Tauros Mountains

cedars, cypresses and junipers are generally used. Differenttypes of pine were preferred in the interiors.

The stone used in the foundation and ground floor wallscan be found in every region. The infill material is of stone,adobe, brick or wood. Mud and lime mortar could be easilysupplied as traditional binding materials. Clay tiles were widelyused for roof cladding. Building materials vary from region toregion. Cut stone was used in some regions while in others;rubble stone with wooden lentils was more commonly used.Generally in humid and windy coasts the exterior was claddedwith wood while in others it is lime plastered.

In forested areas, the roof was cladded with wooden slates(shingles) while in most of the other regions cylindrical claytiles were widely used. In dry areas where wood is scarce, flatearth roofs were often preferred, while in areas where slatequarries exist, slate could be used as a roof cladding.

Historical InfluencesThere is insufficient research based on documentation

regarding the origins of the house type we are studying. The

Timber build-ing materials

were preparedfrom trees

varying fromone region to

another

Issue 12 - Vol 4 107

answers to some questions such as: "Is this a type of housewhich the Turks used to have in the regions from which theyoriginated, or is it something they have developed after havingseen similar examples in Anatolia and the Balkans?" are notvery clear. In studies carried out at Harzem, it has been point-ed out that the timber frame and mud-brick infill system ofconstruction has been in use since the 8th century.

Since we do not come across this house type in areaswhich have never come under Turkish rule, would it be rightto claim that it does not originate from a foreign source? Onthe contrary, wherever the Turks went, even in areas wherevery strong traditions of domestic architecture already existed,the "Turkish - House" emerges in all its authenticity, with acompletely different character from that of the local one, thishouse is different from the European one. A European houseis like a closed box, it is austere and schematic.

The "Turkish - House" is organic, it is in continuous interrela-tion with its environment and the landscape through its closed,semi-closed and open areas. These houses have no similaritieswith ancient Greek, Roman or Balkan houses.

In all current publications on vernacular architecture inYugoslavia as well as in Greece, it is clearly expressed thatthese houses have come into being with the Turks. Anotherevidence in this respect is the fact that, in most Balkan coun-tries building elements, architectural space and house furnitureare still mostly referred to with their Turkish names or withwords which have been derived from Turkish.

The political and cultural powers alongside other influenceswhich have prevailed throughout history within the geographi-cal boundaries where the "Turkish-House" existed have causedthe regional variations.

The largest political and cultural centre is Istanbul's. Thehousing type which developed in Istanbul influenced all theEmpire with its form, components and decoration. One othermajor city is Edirne, which became the second capital afterBursa but which had an ongoing influence even after the capi-tal moved to Istanbul.

These centers were imitated in all other cities, just likeadopting a certain fashion; Edirne has especially influencedthe European wing of the Empire. Areas which, due to theirlocation in Anatolia, have been subject to limited externalimpact, must have either developed their own architecturalstyle or continued to build under the cultural influence of thePre-Ottoman reign they were under.

A typical example to this is the influence of Konya upon thearchitectural features and details of its neighboring provincesand its seaport Alanya, Central Anatolia has kept to the tradi-tion of mud brick (adobe) construction of Prehistoric eras andof Central Asia.

The Kappadokian house is under the influence of Syria. TheEagean coast bears the traces of the Mediterranean housingarchitecture. The local stoves used in Edirne and the Balkanshave Slavonic influences.

Going hack in history, it is known that the Turks whichcame to Anatolia were partly sedentary and partly nomads. It

has been suggested that the acceptanceof the upper floor as the main floor ofthe "Turkish - House" may be a reflec-tion of the so called "tower house", akiosk type house built on high-waIls andopen to its surrounding with projec-tions, which can he traced right hack toCentral Asia. Thus, the "Turkish-House"became multi storied and the "kiosk"type was created. On the other hand,the tents or "yurts" of the nomad Turkshave been studied so as to find out towhat degree these have been reflectedin the "Turkish-House". The tent hascharacterized the rooms of the "Turkish-House", like a tent, each room has aninvariable inner organization as a livingunit.

Another argument is that the settle-ment pattern of the nomad tents, is oneother characteristic which has beenreflected in the "Turkish-House".According to this, the central space (thesofa) of tile "Turkish - House" corre-sponds to the space left among the tentsin a nomad settlement. The room,which is the living unit, is designed withan exterior space around it and jointlythey form the plan of the house. It isdoubtful that this exterior space is justservice area, as suggested by some.

The exterior space is more of anabstract nature, through which theroom, which has a definite identity as aliving unit with invariable characteristics,declares its independence. This spacewhich is open to the exterior in the"Turkish-House" consists of the area infront of the rooms which can take vari-ous names such as "hayat, sergah,hanay, divanhane" and the space inbetween the rooms: the eyvan. Oneother interpretation of the eyvan suggestthat this form first appeared in theIslamic Architecture and that it takes thename of "beyt" in Arabic and "talar" inIran.

The house types which the Turks firstencountered and took as an examplewhen they arrived in Anatolia may also

108 ECO HERITAGE

be regarded as the origin of theAnatolian-"Turkish - House". Whenthese influences are further studied, it ispossible to trace similarities between theentrance of the "hilani" or the colonnad-ed space with a roof but open on allthree sides, (which was common in theadobe architecture of Central Anatoliain the pre-historic era), and the eyvanon the open sofa.

The anteli and eaved space in frontof the megaron, the first examples ofwhich can be found in Troy,Beycesultan and Kültepe also resemblethe open outer sofa. In later periods thecolonnades of Greek and Roman tem-ples and buildings with courtyards mayalso have a similar bearing. We can seethat building components such as flatearthen roofs, stoves and furnaces stillsurvive in the same areas. However, thiscontinuity belongs to mud brick archi-tecture.

As the timber frame construction sys-tem of studs and beams had beenalready employed in Anatolia even inthe Prehistoric Era, this can be acceptedto be a local characteristic". It has notbeen possible to trace this step by stepright up to the Ottomans. We knowthat in Byzantine times the top floor wasthe main living area. Thus we can saythat the top floor was equally importantin Byzantine and Ottoman periods.There is no clear indication that timberframe construction tradition was com-mon in Anatolia during the ByzantinePeriod.

Social InfluencesSocial StructureIt has already been mentioned that

Turks coming to Anatolia originatedfrom both sedentary and nomadic cul-tures. This pattern continued also inAnatolia. In general the ruling classessettled down, while it took the nomadsa long time to agree to become seden-tary, which they finally accepted withmuch reluctance. Even today, you may

come across nomads in Anatolia. Thus it is possible to talkabout urban and rural cultures. The nomads which eventuallysettled in their winter shelters, abandoning their seasonalmigration habits, were entitled to cultivate the state-ownedland and in return they paid taxes and supplied the militaryforce. The cities no doubt had also Greek, Armenian, the for-mer inhabitants of Anatolia. These settled communities werefarmers, craftsmen or dealt with trade. The artisan organizationestablished in Byzantine times was preserved and evenencouraged by the Turks. Thus it was both possible to increaseand control the productive force.

When the ruling classes first arrived in Anatolia they wereunder Iranian influence; after the conquest of Byzantium theylearned the Eastern Christian culture and once they crossedover to the European side (Rumeli) they become acquaintedwith European culture.

The Way of Life (Life Style) Living close to nature has been the Turks' significant philoso-

phy of life. This is definitely a habit of the nomadic period.Even after coming to Anatolia the nomads were reluctant toaccept settling down. They first chose a settlement area forwinter but left for the highlands and virgin areas as soon assummer arrived. This habit still continues today. Even inIstanbul, up to the late 70s, when economic difficulties werefewer, it was common to move to summer resorts when sum-mer came. Several towns in Anatolia had separate houses inorchards or vineyards, set aside for summer use. This was atthe same time a deliberate way of production induced by thesubsistence economy.

The instinct of integration with nature is reflected in thedomestic architecture through the use of the open sofa. Beinga living unit, the room has to be an enclosed space whereasthe sofa, onto which the room opens, although covered andprotected against cold and wind and kept under full control, isin fact an exterior space.

Another product of the trend of living in open air reflectedto architecture is the garden pavilion.

According to Emel Esin the source of these pavilions whichcan be found in every home, from the palace to the mosthumble house, is the Uygur pavilions and the imperial tents(Otag). In miniatures from Iran, Moslem India and later theOttomans we can come across many pavilions depicted withina garden or amidst a building complex The Ottoman architec-ture produced several examples. of these, built either of woodor stone, some of which have survived to date.

It is probable that the bay windows projecting towards thegarden from the open sofa of the upper floor, which are theexpression of the will to open on to nature, may also havebeen inspired by the garden pavilions.

FormsSettlement Patterns of the Turkish TownWhen the Turks arrived in Anatolia the towns were within

fortifications. Most Byzantine cities had by then lost their rich-

Issue 12 - Vol 4 109

ness and power. With the arrival of the Turks, these townswere revitalized and started new development. The Turkswhich came and settled in groups led by religious leadersestablished various quarters. The other religious or ethnicgroups also had their own separate quarters in the towns. Thequarters were named either after their religious leader or afterthe town or nomadic tribe from which they originated. Thesettling down of the nomads was a much slower process. Theysettled outside the towns. In this way the towns began to growbeyond the walls in a short time.

This is not a planned growth. Nevertheless, the houseswhich are generally located in a valley, lean against the slopewithout blocking each other's view and do not present a disor-derly appearance from the other side of the valley. The gradingof the site has been well calculated. There is one main streetwhich is the spine of the whole settlement.

The irregular (curvilinear) streets and cul-de-sacs whichform the transportation network branch out in an organic pat-tern. The streets in town do not intersect at right angles. Steepstreets have been provided with steps. The street design pro-

vides the necessary width and slopeeither for pedestrians alone or (else) forloaded animals such as horses or don-keys. The walls at street corners arechamfered. Traditions require that thewalls of the ground floor as well asthose encircling the garden are builthigh so as to hide and protect the priva-cy of life within the house.Consequently, the street is almost like acorridor with occasional walls of eitherstone or adobe rising on either side.

The projecting bay windows andeaves of houses and the branches oftrees almost cover the street. Thus,these streets are not bare or consist of

Grading of thesite is well cal-culated. There isone main streetas the spine ofthe whole set-tlement

110 ECO HERITAGE

piles of stone like in some Europeantowns. The streets do not have a regularwidth all along. There are fountains inplaces where the street widens or atstreet corners. The stone-clad streets arepaved so as to have a slope towards themiddle from either side.

The middle axis has been empha-sized by two rows of large stones. Therain-water runs along this axis andthus the houses and gardens are pro-tected from flooding. There is noneed for pavements, so they havebeen omitted. The streets lead to thetown centre. Mosques, minarets, agraveyard with its own cypress grove,tombs, fountains, and big, domed,stone buildings such as caravanserais,hammams (bathrooms), madrasasand bedestans are located mostly onflat land in the center of the town.This area gives a completely different

picture from the quarters of habita-tion. There is a great difference of

form, color and texture between the domes cladded withlead and house roofs covered with tiles. The whole settle-ment can be viewed against the background of hills andmountains.

General Appearance of the "Turkish House"A ground floor closed to the street with a stone or adobe

wall and an upper floor which sits on either load bearing stonewalls or wooden studs characterizes the house type generallyseen within the geographical boundaries where the "Turkish -House" is to be found. The upper floors have a timber frameconstruction. The middle floor, if there is one, has a low ceilingand is either a mezzanine floor or a whole floor.

The top floor has, through time, become ever livelier withseveral projections and with a multitude of windows which areof a standard size. In the earlier houses the windows are notglazed, but eventually, as glass is subject to wide-spread use,windows have glazed panes opening on either side.

Vertical sliding windows (sash windows) emerge only afterWestern influence shows up. The standard size of the windowcreates a sense of unity with its recurrent rhythm, not only ineach house but throughout the town. The roof always slopeson all four sides. This is one of the main discriminating charac-teristics of the "Turkish - House".

.................................................................*All Photos Taken From Old Section, Antalya, Turkey

The whole set-tlement can

be viewedagainst the

background ofhills and

mountains