Learning Away from Home

Cases: “Basic Education for Afghan Refugees” - BEFAReand other refugee and returnee education activities in

Pakistan and Afghanistan1980 - 2005

Atle Hetland

Learning Away from HomeA Foundation Book in Refugee and Emergency Education

Expanded Volume

Learning Away from Home

A Foundation Book in Refugee and Emergency EducationCases: “Basic Education for Afghan Refugees” - BEFARe and other refugee and returnee education activities in


Expanded Volume

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Atle Hetland

Published in 2006 by Alhamra, Publishing, Islamabad, Pakistanwww.alhmara.comISBN 969-516-166-9

This book, or part thereof, may not be reproduced in print or electronic form without the permission from the author.Sections may, however, be reproduced for internal use by educational and research institutions and organizations, with ref-erence given to the book.

Copyright @ Atle Hetland 2006 All rights reserved

Author: Atle Hetland. E-mal: [email protected] Associate: Dr. S.B. EkanayakeEnglish Language and Editorial Consultant: Fiona Torrens-Spence Graphic Artist and Design: Salman BeenishPhotos: The photos are by the author unless otherwise indicated. The photo on the last cover page is of a painting byProfessor Gh. M. Shabnam Ghaznawi, a renowned Afghan painter living in Pakistan, and permission to reproduce it hasbeen given by the artist. Some of Ghanawi’s other paintings have also been used in the book. For a large selection ofrefugee paintings, see a book by Prof. Ghazanawi entitled Afghan Refugee Artists. UNESCO, Islamabad, 2002.

Professional assistance for manuscript development: Basic Education for Afghan Refugees (BEFARe), Peshawar, providedassistance, practical help and advice in connection with the work. However, the author had total independence fromBEFARe, and from its earlier implementing partner, the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ); for example,most interviews were conducted “on neutral ground” outside any of the BEFARe offices, or any other NGO or organiza-tion/institution involved in refugee affairs. The author was professionally affiliated to Hazara University, Mansehra,Pakistan, during the work, and did most of the writing at Chez Soi Guest House, Islamabad.

Support for manuscript development and printing: o The German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Islamabad,provided partial assistance for research, manuscript development, graphic artwork and initial printing costs of the“Summary Volume”. o The Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), provided partial assistance for some of the directexpenses and the initial printing costs of the “Expanded Volume” (first impression).

Other contributions: Land Peace & Vision Quest, Pakistan, provided advice connected to the “Summary Volume”. For the“Expanded Volume”, modest yet important contributions were received from several well-wishers, including, BEFARe,Peshawar; ICSI Clinic, Islamabad; Thomas R. Hutson, Nebraska; Jawed Popal, Kabul; Chez Soi Guest House, Islamabad.The bulk of the project costs was covered from the Author’s own resources; he is, however, entitled to royalty from thesubsidized sale of the book.

Distribution: Complementary copies of the book have been distributed to Pakistani libraries, educational and research insti-tutions and organizations, refugee organizations and institutions, embassies, United Nations organizations, the media andother organizations and institutions. (Organizations/institutions abroad may order review copies of the book directly fromthe publisher, which will charge for the direct expenses incurred, i.e. postage and handling.)

Wholesale orders: Bookshops, NGOs, embassies, donors and local and international institutions, organizations and individu-als, should forward their orders to: Alhamra Publishing, Al-Babar Centre #6-1st floor, F-8 Markaz, Islamabad.Tel: (051) 2818033 / 78. E-mail: [email protected]

Views expressed and analysis in this publication are those of the author and are not necessarily the opin-ions of the funding organizations, or the projects, organizations and institutions presented.

Recommended bookshop retail price: Pak. Rs. 870 (USD 15)

Printed in Pakistan

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Cases: “Basic Education for Afghan Refugees” - BEFARe and other refugee and returnee education activities in


Expanded Volume

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Note to the Reader

Facts and FiguresAt the opening of each chapter we have included a few Boxes, giving summary facts and figures as background to the reader.Some of the information is basic for the reader to benefit fully from the text that follows. However, some readers may alreadyhave good general knowledge of Afghanistan refugee issues, in general and in Pakistan, and refugee education in general andin Pakistan. To such readers, the Boxes are mere reminders and contain little new information.

Debate and OpinionsThe book comprises empirical data, descriptive facts and figures, and related information. It is mainly a documentation ofBEFARe’s work and some other refugee education activities in Pakistan. It contains some analysis. Social science studies andresearch are never neutral and this book includes opinions and interpretations. However, we have tried to give a balanced pic-ture of the BEFARe project and other refugee education activities. Yet, we also argue for increased funding and continued sup-port to refugee and returnee education and other sectors, thus bordering on action research and, clearly, advocacy on behalfof education for refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) anywhere; in particular Afghans in Pakistan.

SourcesThe book has been based on open written sources in GTZ and BEFARe’s files and archives in Pakistan; mainly annual reportsand other more formal reports and books, but also mimeographed and more informal reports etc., available in English.Furthermore, we have made use of literature in the libraries in the non-governmental, United Nations and other organizations,ACBAR’s Resource and Information Centre in Peshawar, now moved to Kabul, and public libraries and bookshops. Otherimportant sources are the electronic materials and comments provided by current and former staff members, pupils and oth-ers. Oral interviews with a vast number of individuals, representatives of organizations, institutions and others have been mostvaluable; other formal and informal information added insight. Discretion has been shown where data needed to be treatedconfidentially. Sound judgment has been exercised when the validity and reliability of data can be questioned. Although muchtime was spent on trying to collect statistical data, only limited statistical and other quantitative data have been presented inthe book since we are not certain if it is entirely correct. Further research is needed to ascertain this aspect as well as a num-ber of other aspects of the large German assistance programme to Afghan refugee education in Pakistan. Although data is avail-able, it is not always easily retrievable. We have not sought access to data from the Embassy of Germany in Pakistan (orAfghanistan) or GTZ Headquarters in Germany. The data available in GTZ’s country office in Islamabad was limited.

AbbreviationsWe have not included a List of Abbreviations in the book but instead given the name in full the first time an abbreviation oracronym appears. We have repeated the explanations/names when they appear in different chapters. Throughout the book we have used BEFARe as the name of all refugee education activities implemented by the German gov-ernment aid agency, GTZ, even if the exact project name may have differed. Especially in the initial years in the 1980s, theproject names used externally were many: Pak-German Bas-Ed, AG Bas-Ed, Pak-German Technical Training Programme(PGTTP), Community Based Primary Education (COPE) and, last but not least, Basic Education for Afghan Refugees(BEFARe). From the late 1980s/early 1990s, some projects ran parallel. After 1996, the project name is BEFARe, but even thatis not quite accurate since COPE and other sub-projects have been included under GTZ-BEFARe, but such names/acronymshave mainly been used internally in the organization. After 2003/2004, when BEFARe became a local Pakistani organization,a number of sub-projects have been implemented. For simplicity and clarity, we believe it serves the purpose to use the nameGTZ-BEFARe and, today, simply BEFARe.

Literature and ReferencesEndnotes have been included in each chapter. They include essential references and data. We have not prepared a completebibliography but only given some suggestions (at the end of the book) on further reading and sources of information. Today,websites of various organizations and networks are often more useful than bibliographies. In our context, the main networksare the Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) at UNESCO, Paris, now moved to UNICEF, New York,and the Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief (ACBAR), Peshawar and Kabul, including the Education Cell inPeshawar. ACBAR’s Afghan Resource and Information Centre (ARIC), is a unique collection for historians, planners andimplementers.

Summary VolumeThe author of the current book has prepared a “Summary and Advocacy Volume” of this book, also published by Alhamra.Several of the chapters in this “Expanded Volume” also appear in the summary volume with some abbreviations and minorchanges. The summary volume focuses more directly on BEFARe and pedagogical issues. The expanded volume in additionattempts at discussing broader historical and current issues. Some emphasis is placed on education before and after repatria-tion, and today’s education efforts in Afghanistan.1 USD=60 Rupees (Pak. Rs.) 2006.

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the funding organizations and all those who have contributed to realizing this project. Specialthanks go to the people with whom the author has worked particular closely, notably Dr. S.B. Ekanayake, Ms. Fiona Torrens-Spence and Mr. Salman Beenish. Special thanks also go to Mr. Shakir Ishaq, who has been consistently encouraging, to theother staff at BEFARe; including the Division and Department Managers and the Afghan and Pakistani teachers and pupils,who provided the required information, gave interviews and helped in various ways. I am deeply indebted to all and wish Ihad space to mention each by name. I am also indebted to officials who provided information and gave me access to databas-es in various local and international organizations and institutions. Of the international organizations, UNHCR and UNESCOshould be mentioned. During the project the author was professionally affiliated to Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan;sincere thanks should be extended to the then Vice-Chancellor Prof. Dr. Mohammad Daud Awan for his interest and advice.

I would like to use this opportunity to express sincere thanks to my family and friends in Norway and Kenya for patientlyenduring my many periods of absence since the project became much larger than anticipated and hence took much longer tocomplete than anybody could have foreseen. I hope it was worthwhile.

Last but not least, let me thank the young Afghan refugees who hold the future in their hands. I wish them prosperity. But letme also thank the old and tired refugees who, over decades, have managed to give their sons and daughters a home, a goodupbringing and education in exile in Pakistan, thanks to organizations like BEFARe, GTZ, the Pakistani authorities and kind-hearted Pakistani and Afghan individuals and organizations.

There are many unknown heroes among the old Afghan men and women whose sons and daughters, and grandsons and grand-daughters have been given hope in their hearts for a better future through education at home and in school. Hopefully, mostof the old people, and certainly the young ones, will be able to find permanent homes in the land of Afghanistan. May Godgive these people blessings, peace, progress and prosperity. Those of us who have been associated with Afghan refugees dur-ing the long, sad refugee era have become the richer for it, especially those of us who have dealt with education. We are grate-ful and we treasure the memories.

Atle Hetland

Dedication

This book is dedicated to all the world’s refugees other displaced people - and specifical-ly the current and former staff and pupils of BEFARe and other Afghan refugee educa-

tion organizations and schools in Pakistan, and to the parents and communities towhom they belong.

The book is also dedicated to the Pakistani refugee host communities, whose many kindpeople never distinguished between creed or cradle, nationality or tribe, but shared

what they had and lived their daily lives as true brothers and sisters in God.

Last but not least, the book is dedicated to the Government of Pakistan, UNHCR andother donors and implementing partners in Afghan refugee education in Pakistan.

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Acknowledgements by the GTZ Country Director

Among many success stories in technical cooperation, BEFARe deserves special mention. It is one of thelargest education projects for refugees worldwide, and it is the largest one in Pakistan. After its long-standing association of over two decades with the project, GTZ now appreciates seeing BEFARe beingable to face new and competitive challenges as an independent organization; a Pakistani trust. I am con-fident that with BEFARe’s expertise and know-how it will be able to establish itself well in the devel-opment field.

I wish the new BEFARe good luck in its continued efforts working for refugees, as long as it isneeded, and for poor and needy people in refugee-hosting areas. I hope that GTZ can and will still beof help in providing advice, encouragement and support.

Atle Hetland has been able to summarize major aspects of the 25-year history of BEFARe andother assistance in a readable form to reach teachers, current and former pupils, parents and other read-ers on both sides of the Pakistani-Afghan border and elsewhere.

On behalf of the German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ), I would like to thank allthose who have made their contributions to making BEFARe and affiliated GTZ projects in refugee edu-cation in Pakistan a success.

GTZ is proud and grateful for having had the opportunity to help the Afghan and Pakistanipeople in difficult circumstances over this long refugee era – both the refugees and membersof the hostcommunities in Pakistan.

Last but not least, I would like to thank the Pakistani government authorities at federal,provincial and district levels, and the international donors, especially the German Ministry forEconomic Co-operation and Development (BMZ), the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR), and other donors and partners for their continuous support.

Dr. Ingolf Vereno, Country DirectorGTZ Office, Pakistan

A Foundation Book in Refugee and Emergency EducationBEFARe and Other Organizations

Although this book is mainly about BEFARe (earlier GTZ-BEFARe) - Pakistan's and the world's largest refugeeeducation project - the book also includes presentation of broader issues and activities implemented by otherNGOs and the Government of Pakistan. Furthermore, the book includes material of interest to educationistsand social scientists anywhere, especially as related to Afghanistan and other conflict and post-conflict situa-tions. Hence the book can be seen as a foundation book in refugee and emergency education, with cases fromthe Afghan refugee history.

The "new BEFARe" was registered as an independent organization in 2003, with its main activities being a con-tinuation of GTZ-BEFARe's activities in Pakistan. However, as repatriation continues and the internationalfunding from the international community through the main donor UNHCR decreases, BEFARe has diversifiedand expanded its activities in new areas. Education in refugee host-communities, including Afghan andPakistani populations, is given attention. Non-education activities are also prioritized. From 2006, BEFARe hasbegun some activities in Afghanistan. Refugee educationists elswhere in the world can learn from BEFARe’s his-tory as a project and transition into an independent organization.

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Contents

Note to the ReaderAcknowledgementsDedication

Forward by Professor Mohammad Daud Awan 09Sad History – Good Neighbourliness

Preface by BEFARe’s Chief Executive 11Learning from the Past – Building the Future

Preface by the Author 15Refugee Education – Giving Hope in Despair

Part I1. Donors and Partners about BEFARe and Refugee Education in Pakistan 21

Part II2. Historical Background and Current Affairs 51Afghanistan and Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

Part III3. Refugee Issues and Refugee Education in Pakistan 77Past experiences, current situation and proposals for the future

Part IV4. Leaders, Managers and Advisers in BEFARe 1035. Formal Education in BEFARe 1196. Non-Formal Education in BEFARe 1477. Teachers, Teacher Training and Professional Development in BEFARe 1838. BEFARe - a “Flagship” in Refugee Education 221 Contributing to refugee and emergency education worldwide

Part V9. Going Home 231How well are the refugees prepared for returning home and what educational qualifications do they bring with them from Pakistan?10. Coming Home 251What livelihoods and education system meet the returnees in Afghanistan?

AnnexesAnnex 1: International Declarations on the Right to Education 272Annex 2: Literature and References 276Annex 3: Earthquake in Pakistan 278

© Atle Hetland 2006Publisher: Alhamra, Islamabad. ISBN 969-516-166-9

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In this book Atle Hetland describes andanalyses the history of the world’s largestrefugee education project, notably that ofBEFARe in Pakistan. Broader refugee issuesare also discussed, in particular related toeducation. I hope the book will be read inorganizations dealing with emergency educa-tion, including politicians, civil servants,donors and staff members in non-govern-mental organizations and the private sector.The book is invaluable for students andteachers at universities and colleges.

I am sure that the Afghan refugees willcherish this book, and that the authoritiesand NGOs in Pakistan and Afghanistan willbe pleased with the documentation andanalysis presented. Afghanistan has gonethrough a sad an turbulent era since the1970s, which includes a major refugee seg-ment. Yet, there are many aspects in the wayPakistan and Afghanistan handled the refugeecrisis, which we should be proud of as aneighbouring country and brothers and sis-ters. In education, particularly importantwork was done to benefit the future of theAfghans.

When reading the book, I was touched bythe human sides to many of the stories, thekindness of Pakistanis and Afghans, the waythe poorest of the poor helped each other andcreated some kind of happiness and normal-cy to uprooted community. Yet, most of the

time, it was hard work and “dreams of a bet-ter future”, for the children, parents, teachersand others in the camps/villages and urbansettlements.

The author emphasizes that education is aright for everyone, and that refugees andearthquake victims should not be neglected.All girls and boys, including handicapped,marginalized and vulnerable should be givenaccess to basic education and further educa-tion should be made available for a muchlarger portion of the refugees than in thepast, in line with the objectives of theEducation for All movement and theMillennium Development Goals to be real-ized by 2015. Literacy and skills trainingshould also be provided for adolescents andadults, in line with the objectives of theUnited Nations Literacy Decade (2003-2012).

The author shows that Pakistan has been agood host for millions of Afghan refugees forthe last quarter century, and that the interna-tional community has done a fair job, butmore could have been done so that bettereducated and skilled Afghans could havereturned to rebuild their home country atthis time when repatriation is taking place.

In the coming years, we should give greaterattention to assisting the refugee hostingareas and communities where a large numberof the poor Afghans have lived side by side

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Foreword by Professor Dr. Mohammad Daud AwanSad History – Good Neighbourliness

with poor Pakistanis.I share the author’s hope that in the future

we can see establishment of long-term, normal cooperation and educational linkagesbetween Pakistan and Afghanistan, benefitingboth countries. In particular, I find it impor-tant that higher education institutions estab-lish linkages and professional cooperationacross the borders, in fields like teacher train-ing, vocational and technical training, nurs-ing and other health sciences including thevarious university disciplines. We should alsoinvolve other countries of the region andoverseas in such cooperation.

Girls and women must get a fair share of

education at all levels from pre-school, through primary, secondary and university.It is important to get more women intoteacher training, professional jobs and poli-tics in order to get more women to becomerole models for young girls. Yet, we must alsonot forget the young boys and their difficulttime in finding solid footing in a new andpeaceful Afghanistan, which also needs gen-der equality, democracy and a number ofother new things.

Islamabad, May 2006Professor Dr. Mohammad Daud Awan

Former Vice-Chancellor, Hazara University, MansehraNorth-West Frontier Province, Pakistan

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It is with great satisfaction that I contributeto this unique and important initiative ofdocumenting some of the major achieve-ments of Basic Education for AfghanRefugees (BEFARe) over the last decades,especially the last decade, but also duringBEFARe’s preceding projects from the early1980s. I am also glad that BEFARe’s activi-ties, as implemented by the German Agencyfor Technical Cooperation (GTZ), are seen inrelation to general education issues andrefugee education activities in Pakistan dur-ing the whole period of the Afghan refugeeera of close to a quarter century.

BEFARe has now become an independentPakistani organization. The new and inde-pendent organization is a direct continuationof what began as bilateral development aidprojects between the Islamic Republic ofPakistan and the Federal Republic ofGermany in the early 1980s.

Following a decade of initial projectactivities, GTZ-BEFARe sprung directly outof two bilateral projects in the early/mid1990s; one in vocational training and theother in basic education, supported by theGerman Federal Ministry of EconomicCooperation and Development (BMZ).Those projects were highly reputable andGTZ-BEFARe soon established its positivereputation as it expanded and provided qual-ity education to large numbers of Afghan

refugees in Pakistan’s North-West FrontierProvince (NWFP).

The United Nations High Commissionerfor Refugees (UNHCR) has been the mostcentral partner outside BMZ and GTZ, espe-cially after 1996, when UNHCR’s alloca-tions became much larger than the bilateralones. However, the German bilateral aidorganization maintained the technical lead-ership and oversaw project implementation.

Over the last five years, several otherdonors have chosen BEFARe to implementeducational projects for Afghan refugees ontheir behalf, making GTZ-BEFARe the largestrefugee education project in the world. Suchorganizations have included the British aidagency DFID, the Canadian aid agencyCIDA, The World Bank, the United NationsChildren’s Fund (UNICEF), USAID, and oth-ers.

Upon its transformation into an inde-pendent organization, the legacy of imple-menting the largest and longest lasting sus-tainable refugee education project in theworld forms part and parcel of the newBEFARe. This heritage makes BEFARe aunique project. BEFARe has become inde-pendent from GTZ, but maintains supportfrom most of the old donors, with UNHCRstill being the largest by far.

In the nascent days of BEFARe as anindependent organization, we were faced

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Preface by BEFARe’s Chief ExecutiveLearning from the Past –

Building the Future

with two main challenges. Firstly, it wasessential that the new organization main-tained the high quality standards developedduring the GTZ years, and it was importantthat this was seen to be the case by donors,staff, beneficiaries, and sister organizations.Secondly, it was important for BEFARe towork towards long-term sustainability of theorganization. Now, a few years down theroad, the organization is still searching forstrategies and methods to maintain anddevelop its services and standards further,including in new fields.

With highly trained and committed pro-fessional staff, with a sense of ownership ofthe organization, BEFARe’s quality of servicedelivery has continued to improve and wehave installed a new Quality ManagementSystem (QMS). A testimony of BEFARe’ssuccess is that Moody’s International in2005 awarded its “ISO 9001:2000Certification” to BEFARe.

Moving towards the long-term sustain-ability of the organization, BEFARe contin-ues widening its operations thematically aswell as geographically. In the thematic areasit has been able to cover other realms in addi-tion to refugee education, and has plannedand implemented projects for Afghanrefugees as well as Pakistanis in ordinarylocal communities, or refugee hosting com-munities. The new areas encompass develop-ment and implementation of integrated adultliteracy and vocational skills training coursesfor the local communities; development ofaccelerated teacher training courses, includ-ing production of a new manual; develop-ment of condensed curricula, based onPakistani text books and approved curriculafor out-of-school and street children; training

in democratization fields, poverty allevia-tion, devolution support, and health aware-ness. BEFARe is expanding further in otherareas, such as micro finance, environment,energy conservation and capacity building ofother NGOs. Geographically it has been ableto expand its operations into the Punjabprovince of Pakistan and is planning toexpand further, nationally as well as region-ally. BEFARe is providing advice and otherassistance to the disaster areas affected by the8 October 2005 earthquake in NorthernPakistan. I am pleased to announce that from2006 BEFARe also has activities inAfghanistan.

Monitoring and evaluation have becomekeywords in BEFARe's operations and greatemphasis is placed on these fields to keeplearning from experience and to be able toreport as well as possible to the donors.

When the organization was transformedin 2003, I strongly felt that the unmatchedexperiences and achievements of BEFARe asa project and organization needed to be doc-umented. This initiative of documentingBEFARe’s achievements has a distinct role inthe context of its transformation. The docu-mented achievements, best practices andscrutiny of its work in general will helpBEFARe to learn from the past, share itsexperiences with partners, donors, develop-ment aid professionals and others, and buildon these gains and replicate where applica-ble. Naturally, there are also shortcomings inour work, but we believe they are relativelyfew. However, I am glad that this book doesnot shy away from asking questions andpointing out fields were we could have donebetter, be it BEFARe, other implementingpartners, the donors or other partners. The

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author has had a free hand to use his profes-sional judgment and he is responsible for allinterpretations and analysis. Especially thisExpanded Volume contains details and dis-cussions, which the author seems to havehandled carefully and with the required"Fingerspitzgefuhl".

I appreciate the support from GTZ-Pakistan, whose Country Director, Dr. Ingolf Vereno, kindly agreed to provide partialsponsorship to this initiative, which was orig-inally taken by Atle Hetland, an internation-al consultant and researcher in developmentand refugee education. We jointly agreed tosupport the book project, including printingcosts of the Summary and Advocacy Volume.However, the project became more compre-hensive than expected as the author begandigging into it, and it resulted in two vol-umes. The Expanded Volume has been devel-oped and printed with sponsorship fromother sources outside GTZ.

Atle Hetland has worked tirelessly tobuild up a comprehensive summary of thehistory and current status of the organiza-tion, attempting to give a true and fair pic-ture of the work, and present it in a readableand pleasant form, with a number of inter-views, stories and photos. History is factsand figures, but it is also personalities, peo-ple, organizations, and presentation of the

time and atmosphere under which the worktook place. I believe that this book can helpcreate interest for further research and stud-ies into BEFARe’s work and other refugeeeducation activities in Pakistan and othercountries. The book has become a generalfoundation book in refugee and emergencyeducation, which I hope will benefit manyindividuals and organizations dealing withthe world’s refugees.

Last but not least, BEFARe’s teamdeserves thanks for their help to the author ofthe book. More so, they deserve my sincereappreciation for the meticulous work theyhave been carrying out year-in and year-out.Without the commitment, tireless work andperseverance, BEFARe could not have suc-ceeded.

I hope this Expanded Volume of the bookwill provide interesting reading to all, includ-ing government officials, professionals fromdevelopment aid and humanitarian assis-tance organizations, and indeed the Afghanand Pakistani refugee teachers and managers,former refugee pupils and staff, some ofwhom shoulder top posts in various fields ofAfghanistan’s reconstruction work. I expectthat the book will also have internationalinterest.

Peshawar, March 2006Shakir Ishaq

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This book is mainly about one refugee educa-tion project, Basic Education for AfghanRefugees (BEFARe), and its predecessors,funded mainly by the German governmentand the United Nations High Commissionerfor Refugees (UNHCR). It is also about othereducation activities for Afghan refugees inPakistan, and some aspects of refugee educa-tion in general. It includes issues related tothe refugees’ return home and aspects of thenew life in Afghanistan. Using all this infor-mation more as “case studies” the book canbe seen as a foundation book in refugee andemergency education.

Since BEFARe is by far the largest refugeeeducation project in Pakistan, and also in theworld, the task of summarizing its quartercentury history became larger than foreseenwhen we started the work just over a yearago. We soon discovered that to documentand analyze such large and varied activitiesover a quarter century was comprehensiveand not quite the part-time job we had fore-seen.

Furthermore, refugee education, andother education in and after emergency andcrisis, notably education related to wars,earthquakes, tsunamis, and other man-madeor natural disasters is a step-child in the edu-cation sector and in development and emer-gency/humanitarian aid.

These facts added to the seriousness with

which we approached the task. Besides docu-menting BEFARe’s excellent work, we alsowanted the book to play an advocacy role inelevating the place refugee and emergencyeducation has on the development aid agen-da as well as in professional and academicinstitutions, inter alia, in educational cours-es in teacher training colleges.

The fact that the Afghan refugee situationis one of the world’s largest and longest last-ing, having the dubious honour of markingits quarter century, made the task almostoverwhelming. In addition the main donorwas in a great hurry to get the SummaryVolume of the book released, making us ques-tion what we understood about German‘Grundlichkeit’ (thoroughness). Naturally,we are appreciative of the assistance receivedfrom German and other sources.

This book is the Expanded Volume,which is almost twice as long as theSummary and Advocacy Volume, publishedearlier in 2006. Still, we only consider thisbook an 'introduction' to the field, whichdeserves more focused and specializedresearch-oriented studies. Other organiza-tions (implementing partners) should also beincluded in new works. BEFARe and otherorganizations in Pakistan, including theACBAR/ARIC Documentation Centre inPeshawar/Kabul, are treasure chests for edu-cationalists interested in refugee education,

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Preface by the AuthorRefugee Education

Giving Hope in Despair

and for students and researchers interested inother refugee fields.

It is also our hope that other sectors ofthe Afghan refugee history in Pakistanbetween 1979/80 – 2005 and beyond will bedocumented, in scientific and popular forms,and possibly even fiction. Nowadays, weshould also make use of other media andBEFARe has already made some DVDs.

We have tried to give due weight to pre-senting BEFARe’s unique refugee educationactivities in a form which makes the history,with the various topics, stories, persons, andso on, interesting to the reader. This was akey point emphasized by the main donor andwe endorse it wholeheartedly. If we have suc-ceeded only the reader can judge; the materi-al is certainly fascinating, although it is alsosad.

The long duration of the refugee crisis isone aspect that makes the history sad.Trauma, loss, suffering and often hopeless-ness are characteristics of the lives of refugeesand something that they will have to carrywith them for the rest of their lives. Manyhave physical and psychological illnesses andscars. In refuge, irrespective of how wellrefugees are hosted, they have a difficult life.“The refugees are disinherited; they arefrozen in time. “We have no importance”,one says.

Until just a few years ago, nobody knewwhen the Afghan refugees could begin think-ing of returning home. Now, many havereturned home, others are going, and manyothers are contemplating and planning whento go.

Education is a key factor throughout the‘refugee cycle’, from exodus, refugee life,

repatriation, rehabilitation and reintegrationat home, or sometimes resettlement in anoth-er country or integration in the host country.

Education gives hope in misery, as wehave said in the heading to this Preface. Thisis true for the many children who have hadthe opportunity to attend BEFARe’s goodprimary schools, and some adolescents andadults who have attended vocational andskills training courses, literacy training andother adult education programmes, such as‘mother and child healthcare’.

However, even in its own target areasBEFARe could not provide education for allchildren in the communities, notably therefugee camps/villages in Peshawar and else-where in the North-West Frontier Province(NWFP) bordering Afghanistan, whereBEFARe operated. The percentage of enrolledgirls kept going up, but there were never morethan about thirty-five percent of girls amongthe more than one hundred thousand pupils,and a similar percentage of female teachersand a lower percentage of female managers.In adult education and in the home schools(for girls and boys), there was a majority ofwomen and girls in most of the courses.

These are important model examples,‘good practices’, from BEFARe’s work fromwhich Afghanistan’s education authoritiesand NGOs can draw lessons when continu-ing to rebuild its education system. Anotherimportant field is BEFARe’s improvement ofcurricula and production of supplementaryteaching materials for pupils and teachers.The training courses for teachers are essen-tial, and of more recent data, BEFARe’s inv-olement in development activities outside theeducation sector.

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The author would like to express sincerethanks for having had the opportunity towork with Afghan refugee education inPakistan for the last five years, mainly inUnited Nations organizations, and for havinghad this special opportunity to studyBEFARe in some detail during part of lastyear and this year.

It has been a privilege to learn to know somany unique Afghans, Pakistanis and foreigners.

I pray that there will be no more despairbut only happiness and joy in the Afghanhomes and classrooms in the future, for therefugees who are still here in Pakistan and forthe returnees and the Afghans who have livedat home over the war decades.

May BEFARe and other organizations inPakistan, perhaps with sister organizations inAfghanistan and in Pakistan, continue to pro-vide assistance to refugees/returnees andPakistanis in the refugee hosting communitiesand areas in Pakistan. May we express thewish that by 2015, when the world is expect-ed to have reached Education for All (EFA),that all refugees/returnees are included, andall other children in Pakistan andAfghanistan. Recent monitoring reports,however, indicate that both countries are lag-ging behind in planned targets. Naturally,Afghanistan faces tremendous challangesahead - and without education for allAfghans the country is doomed to remain

among the world’s very least developedcountries and may be termed a ‘failed state’.

Finally, may BEFARe’s widened activitiesbenefit Afghans and Pakistanis in the future,so that more needy people can gain liveli-hoods and be able to look after themselvesand their families. Basic education and skillstraining are important aspects, but also otherincentives are needed in addition to ordinaryeducation. Over the recent years, BEFARehas ventured into additional, non-education-al projects, including assisting in preparingfor refugees to vote in the AfghanistanPresidential election in 2004, and trainingrelated to the local governments in Pakistan.After the devastating earthquake which hitnorthern Pakistan on 8 October 2005,BEFARe quickly began education assistanceto victims in selected areas in NWFP.

In all its activities BEFARe maintains itsfocus on the underprivileged and needy peo-ple. Let me add that when doing such workwe need practical and professional people in-charge, we need administrative procedures inplace, and, last but not least, we need peoplewho have commitment and their heart andsoul in what they are doing. BEFARe has allthis - and we should learn from their effortsand use their ‘good practies’ worldwide.

Peshawar/Islamabad, March 2006Atle Hetland

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Painting by Professor Ch. M. Shabnam Ghaznawi“War Results” (oil colour)

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Part I

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21


Donors and PartnersAbout BEFARe and RefugeeEducation in Pakistan

1Chapter

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Donors and PartnersAbout BEFARe and Refugee Education in Pakistan

This chapter presents an overview of the roles and tasks of the main donors and partners in refugeesituations, with emphasis on the education sector, in Pakistan and BEFARe. The most importantpartners are the host-country Government, UNHCR and its implementing partners. A number ofother partners are also included; multi- and bilateral donors, international and local non-govern-mental organizations (NGOs), and various self-help groups and organizations, sometimes termed

community based organizations (CBOs). In this chapter we are only able to draw brief attention tothis vast network of partners and donors providing assistance to refugees. We should always bear in

mind that assistance and service provision can only be ‘topping-up’ of what the refugees and thepeople in the refugee-hosting areas do themselves. Their struggle for survival and progress can only

be alleviated, never taken over by any partners or donors.

In this chapter we are proud to present a number of statements by some of the senior national andinternational civil servants who have dealt with Afghan refugees in Pakistan, and in education inparticular, over the quarter century of the Afghan refugee era. We are presenting a statement byHasim Utkan, a UNHCR expert on Afghan refugee issues in Pakistan. He served three terms in

Pakistan, starting with an assessment mission before the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and finallyserving as Representative in 1999-2003.

Each statement includes important information about the work of the various donors and partnersand sheds light on the organization’s work, with comments about cooperation with GTZ-BEFAReand its work. We hope that the reader will find it interesting to read the statements and our related

comments and questions.

This chapter shows that a fair amount of good work has been done by many donors and competentpartners. A chapter like this cannot provide quantitative and qualitative details. Yet, we know

enough to be reminded that we do not live in a perfect world, and that much more should havebeen done for the Afghan refugees in Pakistan, not least in education. It is our hope and belief that

education for all (EFA) will also include all refugees in the course of the next decade and that it willbecome a ‘humanitarian demand’ and simply be considered unacceptable and unethical not to pro-vide every boy and girl with basic education, and every adult with opportunity to be given literacyand skills training. All of us who have worked in refugee education must collectively take responsi-

bility for the present situation - donors, partners, experts and the refugees themselves. We have beenable to get away with giving less than half of the Afghan refugee children the opportunity to get

basic primary education, and less than a third of the pupils have been girls.1

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This collage includes samples of logos of major partner organizations which BEFARe has cooperated with,selected by the author; additional partners could have been included if space had been available.

The Government of Pakistan (SAFRON/CCAR), with UNHCR, UNDP and other UN organizations and major NGOs, hasrecently initiated the Refugee Affected and Hosting Areas (RAHA) initiative. The international community should soonestprovide funding so that actual projects and programmes can be prepared and implemented to assist Pakistanis and Afghanrefugees.

By early 2007, over 2 million Afghans in Pakistan, most of them refugees, had registered with the Government ofPakistan, receiving the Proof of Registration card (PoR Card), allowing them to reside in Pakistan for three years. Thishighly successful exercise included the majority of the Afghans who were included in the Census carried out a year earli-er. The exercise was an important step towards regularizing normalising migration between the two countries, and end-ing the long Afghan refugee era in Pakistan. However, there are still at least 0.5 million Afghans living in Pakistan whohave not registered, and the figure may be higher. There are also many who travel back and forth between the two coun-tries.

Repatriation of Afghans continues, but some groups are either unwilling or unable to return soon. The registrationexercise, and the PoR Card with 3-year residence validity in Pakistan, takes into account the need for many Afghans need-ing some time to sort out their future lives. Such individuals and groups may include elderly and sick refugees and otherparticularly vulnerable persons, and they may include young Afghans who are born and bread in Pakistan and would findit difficult to ”return”. Without special programmes for such groups, including incentives and funding of long-tern human-itarian and training programmes, sustainable durable can hardly be foreseen.

As we mentioned above for Pakistanis in refugee hosting areas, we consider that the internationalcommunity still hasa responsibility to fund activities for refugees/returnees. It is not reasonable that the Pakistan and Afghanistan govern-ments and people carry the burdens without international support. It is also essential that the long refugee era is broughtto a successful and dignified end, which may also include integration of some Afghans in Pakistan, or in some cases, inthird country. Programmes enabling refugees to return to Afghanistan and have realistic possibilities to make it there needto be implemented as soon as possible.

It is important, too, that the relations between the two countries remain good. In 2006 and at the beginning of 2007,some strains on the relations have come out into the open. For example, the Government of Pakistan has expressedconcerns over the current relatively slow speed of repatriation and closure of camps. The reasons given have been theneed for greater security in Pakistan as well as Afghanistan, in particular in the border areas. Pakistani authorities haveexpressed worries about refugee camps in the country sometimes becoming ”hiding places” for extremists or even terror-ists.

There are needs for greater control of travels between the two countries, including refugees and ordinary migrationand travels, which go both ways. Pakistani businessmen travel to Afghanistan, supplying goods and services in connec-tion with recosntruction of the country. Tens of thosuands of Pakistani skilled workers and professionals have found tem-porary work in Afghanistan. Naturally, the travel, residence and work of Afghans in Pakistan is much larger than that ofPakistanis in Afghanistan, the first is in thousands, maybe in the range of one hundred thousand, while the latter is in mil-lions.

In any event, it is in both countries interest that the cooperation and contacts are many, multifaced and good, andin accordance with regularized practicises and proceedures to be expected between good neigbours. The internationalcommunity, too, should play their role in order to reach a successful and dignified conclusion of the Afghan refugee era.

As introduction to this chapter on donorsand partners we shall discuss some aspects of therole of UNHCR,* because it is the main donorand partner in refugee situations anywhere in theworld, next to the Government of the host coun-try, which has sovereignty over its territory anddecisions. In the case of GTZ-BEFARe we willalso review aspects of German bilateral aid andassistance from other donors.

UNHCR has a unique role as the coordina-tor of international donor assistance. It adviseson policy issues; it appeals for funds; it adviseson use of funds, and often takes part in decision-making concerning implementation and otherissues.

UNHCR is different from most other UnitedNations organizations as it often plays a directrole in implementation. However, some otherUN organizations dealing with emergencies alsotake direct part in implementation, such as theWorld Food Programme (WFP). It falls under themandate of the United Nations Children’sEmergency Fund (UNICEF) to play a proactiverole at an early stage of refugee crises. Other UNorganizations also participate, with intergovern-mental organizations, such as the Red Cross/RedCrescent, and bilateral donor agencies, but theyare usually less involved in implementation,which is handled by NGOs, with the host-gov-ernment.

Like other implementing partners, in educa-tion and other fields, supporting refugees,BEFARe has received most of its funding for itsprimary education activities from UNHCR; usu-ally about eighty percent of the budget, whichpeaked at over three million Dollars annually in

2004 but has since decreased considerably in2005 as repatriation continues.2

About twenty percent of GTZ-BEFARe’sbudget has come from the German Government,through the Federal Ministry of EconomicCooperation and Development (BMZ).However, BMZ has now terminated its ordinarycontributions.3

BEFARe has managed to attract additionaldonors for specific projects implemented overone or a few years. Such donors are The WorldBank, the British Government Department forInternational Development, DFID, the CanadianInternational Development Agency, CIDA, andsome others, such as the InternationalOrganization for Migration (IOM), World VisionPakistan and the European Union. BEFARe hasalso cooperated with UNICEF, UNESCO, andothers but funding has been limited. Finally,BEFARe has enjoyed professional cooperation,with limited or no funding involved, with a num-ber of partners, such as the Norwegian RefugeeCouncil (NRC) for peace education in 2004.4

In Pakistan, formal and informal Afghandonor coordination groups played active roles asadvisers and in decision-making on funding andother issues during the peak periods of the largeand long-lasting Afghan refugee crisis. Now, suchcoordination has been transferred to theGovernment of Afghanistan and donors andpartners in Kabul.5

International non-ggovernmental organiza-tions play key roles, sometimes at similar level asthe multi- and bilateral donors, but more often asimplementing partners for the funding organiza-tions, of which UNHCR is always the largest

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INTRODUCTION

*For some futher details about UNHCR, the host Government and NGOs, see the Boxes at the introduction of Chapter 3.

donor in all refugee situations.As mentioned above, UNHCR plays an

active role in mobilization of funds, which arechanneled through its regular budgets and theymay be earmarked for specific crisis and refugeesituations, decided by the donor countries. Inaddition, some donors will add funds at locallevel to what they channel through UNHCR’sand other agencies’ headquarters. In Pakistan,U.S.A. has been a major contributor of directlocal funding to UNHCR’s country (branch)office and to a limited number of internationalNGOs.

Local NGOs also play important roles inadvocacy and in implementation, but their fundsare much more limited than those of internation-al NGOs. However, their running costs are alsomuch lower. In Pakistan, numerous Afghan andPakistani groups have sprung up providing sup-port to needy refugees, especially urban refugees.Urban refugees receive minimal internationaland other donor assistance. Such groups may beinformal or they may be registered as NGOs orCBOs. Some catalogues list a few hundred in allfields. 6

International NGOs, and many local NGOsand some CBOs are highly professional and spe-cialized organizations, without which theGovernment, UNHCR and other donors couldnot have implemented their work.

In the education sector the main implement-ing partners are the following: GTZ-BEFARe,Save the Children (US), International RescueCommittee (IRC), Ockenden International (UK),Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), BasicEducation and Employable Skills Training (BEST)and Society for Community Support for PrimaryEducation.

The main coordinating organization in edu-cation is the Education Sub-Committee of theAfghan Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief(ACBAR), Peshawar.

Although we are concerned about educa-tion, it should be appreciated that education isonly one of several important sectors providingassistance to refugees, and education is often

referred to as the fourth pillar, after the basic sec-tors of protection, shelter, food and health. Inrecent years, education is increasingly being seenas a fundamental tool cutting across other areas,including protection; UNHCR’s most fundamen-tal concern.

Since UNHCR’s mandate is broad, withunclear beginnings and ends to its responsibili-ties, debate is going on concerning how to limitthe agency’s tasks. Many want the agency tofocus mainly on its ‘core mandate’ while othertasks could be out-sourced or taken over byother partners, UN organizations or NGOs.

Many will see education as a sector, whichcan relatively easily be handled by other UNagencies, such as UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO andothers, together with international and localNGOs.

It can be argued that provision of educationfor refugees, especially in refugee camps, is notvery complicated, as seen from an organizationaland implementation point if view. Refugee edu-cation should, after the first initial months, grad-ually be regarded as ordinary education and sec-ond class education should be unacceptable. Itseems that UNHCR is not giving the educationsector high enough priority and it can be arguedthat other UN organizations, which have educa-tion as part of, or their sole mandate, could dobetter than UNHCR.

The current record should be recalled; indeveloping countries on average, includingPakistan, less than fifty percent of school-goingage refugee children are given primary educationand a considerably lower percentage of girls.Only five to seven percent continue to secondarylevel and very few reach college and universitylevel.

At a time when Education for All (EFA) isthe professional slogan, forming part of theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) to bereached by 2015, we need to find strategies to dobetter than the mentioned figures indicate.Furthermore, refugees and other children livingin crises and emergencies, often caused by warsand other conflicts, constitute a large proportion

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of the out-of-school children in developing coun-tries. Recently it has been estimated that the pro-portion may have grown to be as high as seventypercent of the group while it was earlier common-ly thought to be about fifty percent. 7

Whereas UNHCR may be able to reduce itsdirect involvement in certain fields, it is likelythat it in other fields will have to add tasks.UNHCR uses the term ‘other persons of concern’for the gray zones, i.e., persons who have tradi-tionally not been defined as being under its man-date. However, UNHCR’s mandate has keptbeing widened.

Forced migration and movement of peoplewithin a country’s borders, due to natural orman-made disasters or conflicts, is likely tobecome a major field of UNHCR’s work in thefuture, and the agency is already working inthese fields. In Afghanistan hundreds of thou-sands have been forced to move within the coun-try to seek security, protection and livelihood.They have not crossed any national border buttheir situation is quite similar to that of refugeeswho have entered neighbouring countries. The sit-uation of IDPs can be worse than that of refugees

because of lack of recognition and assistance.8

The devastating earthquake that hit Pakistanon 8 October 2005 is a case in point; UNHCR isone of many specialized donors with practicalexpertise, especially on protection and campmanagement. With access to funds, UNHCR,with the host Government can play a unique andimpressive role in emergency work, including ineducation. Few UN agencies can matchUNHCR’s understanding of the totality of emer-gency situations.

Let us add that whether it is UNHCR orother UN organizations that will coordinaterefugee education in future, there will be contin-ued dependence on support from donor coun-tries to the UN organizations and directly to therefugee-hosting countries. Some support willcome from other inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations and the private sec-tor, but as a proportion of the total aid it is like-ly to continue to be relatively modest.

As we will discuss below, the role of thehost-countries in crises is always essential, and sois the role of the refugee producing countries; inour case, Pakistan and Afghanistan, respectively.

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Dr. Imran Zeb Khan Dr. Nanguyalai Tarzi

Hasim Utkan Ingeborg Breines

The photos include two senior Pakistani and Afghan officials and three United Nations representatives in charge ofrefugee and returnee issues in Pakistan: Dr. Imran Zeb Khan, Commissioner, CCAR, Government of Pakistan; H.E. Dr.Nanguyalai Tarzi, Ambassador of Afghanistan to Pakistan; Mr. Hasim Utkan, Regional UNHCR Representative, Bangkok,and former Representative of UNHCR in Pakistan; Ms. Ingeborg Breines, Director of UNESCO’ Liaison Office in Geneva,and former Representative of UNESCO in Pakistan.

At the time of printing of this book Dr. Khan is still holding his key post, while H.E. Dr. Tarzi, Breines and Utkan havebeen transferred to other duty stations. Breines was in Pakistan for less than three years, but she managed to get a num-ber of new activities in refugee education up and running, such as peace education, art and culture, and assistance topoor urban refugees in Islamabad, which had been ‘swept under the carpet’ earlier. But nobody can beat Utkan’s distin-guished and long international service in the refugee field in Pakistan. He served three terms in the country, including asUNHCR’s Deputy Representative and finally as Representative. He had interest in, and deep knowledge of, all fields per-taining to Afghan refugee issues, including some which are once again becoming topical, notably assistance to refugee-hosting areas in Pakistan and skills and vocational training for Afghan refugees before they return home.

Guenet Guebre-Christos took over as UNHCR Representative in Pakistan in 2003 when Utkan’s term was over. Incooperation with the Government of Pakistan, she is handling particularly difficult tasks notably the large programme ofassisted voluntary repatriation of refugees home to Afghanistan, in addition to continued, and often reduced assistance tothe refugee sector in Pakistan since the number of refugees is decreasing.

Note: The selection of the sample of representatives included in the photos, and the issues highlighted, were madeby the author of this book to the best of his judgment. Additional Government and UN organizations could have beenadded if space had been available.

Guenet Guebre-Christos

Over the quarter century of the tragicAfghan refugee era, UNHCR, other UnitedNations organizations and partners have assistedPakistan and Afghanistan with funding, adviceand service provision to millions of refugees.After “9/11” there were about 5.5 millionAfghans in Pakistan and most of them wererefugees. 9

Currently, UNHCR’s offices in Islamabadand Kabul are advising Pakistan and Afghanistanon difficult issues related to repatriation and howto regularize the status of Afghans who wish tostay on in Pakistan after their refugee status hasterminated. Some may never have been refugeesbut economic or other categories of migrants.The on-going repatriation is the largest inUNHCR’s history. 10

However, not all refugees can, or want to,return home or they may not find that it is pos-sible to do so immediately, due to reasonsbeyond their control, such as security, housingand livelihood at home. They may not have landto cultivate or the land needs to be de-minedbefore it can be used for agriculture or horticul-ture. Reasons for prolonging their stay inPakistan can also be educational. Some parentsmay want their children to complete their educa-tion in Pakistan before returning; especially atpost-primary level. In Afghanistan availabilityand quality of education is in general much lowerthan in Pakistan. Vocational, skills and profes-sional training is particularly important forreturnees because they need qualifications foremployment upon return home.

It should also be borne in mind that a largeproportion of the young refugees were born in

Pakistan and many only know Afghanistan fromwhat they have been told, or from short visits‘home’. Many refugees may consider themselvesas much Pakistani as Afghan.

These are examples of some of the impor-tant and difficult humanitarian and legal issues,which the two neighbouring countries must findsolutions to, with the assistance of UNHCR andthe rest of the international community.

The NGOs are partners of special impor-tance in this connection because they have first-hand knowledge from working closely with therefugees in camps/villages or in mixed refugee-hosting areas or communities in cities, towns andrural areas. The issues have clear educationalaspects.

BEFARe is one of the large partners whichcontinues to play a key role in education andrelated fields; notably basic education at primarylevel and various fields of non-formal educationfor older children, adolescents and adults,including skills training, literacy, mother andchild health-care, and peace and civics education.

On the following pages, we present fourstatements by Pakistani and Afghan Governmentrepresentatives, and UNHCR and UNESCO rep-resentatives. The statements show the impor-tance the senior officials attribute to educationand the work of GTZ-BEFARe.

The Pakistani and Afghan Government rep-resentatives, Dr. Imran Zeb Khan, Commissionerat CCAR, and H.E. Dr. Nanguyalai Tarzi,Afghanistan’s Ambassador to Pakistan, underlinethe importance of education for refugees duringexile and in rebuilding Afghanistan upon returnhome. The importance of education in refugee-

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Section IGOVERNMENT AND UNITED NATIONS PARTNERS

hosting areas in Pakistan is also mentioned. 11

Both representatives express thanks onbehalf of their Governments to the UnitedNations, bilateral donors and NGOs for thework they are doing.

The United Nations representatives, HasimUtkan, UNHCR, and Ingeborg Breines,UNESCO, express their admiration for the workcarried out by GTZ-BEFARe. Yet, both alsoexpress regrets about fields where more and bet-ter work could have been done if funds had beenavailable. Utkan regrets that more wasn’t done inthe fields of vocational and skills training.Breines notes that we are not providing educa-tion for all refugees. “Obviously, EFA includesrefugees, too”, she says, and she stresses theimportance of education for refugee girls at alllevels, and women in leadership posts. 12

We believe that the statements by these foursenior officials are quite representative ofGovernment and UN opinions although scientif-ically we cannot generalize on the basis of rela-tively few statements/comments. If we had morespace in this book, we could have asked otherdonors for their comments, such as the WorldFood Programme (WFP), the United NationsChildren’s Fund (UNICEF), the InternationalLabour Organization (ILO), and others. Thereare many important UN and other organizationsthat could and should have been mentioned

because they have carried out essential assistanceto Afghan refugees in education and relatedfields.

In this book it is also our task to ask ques-tions that are not often asked, especially not inwriting, notably: Did the international communi-ty do its utmost to secure funds for Afghanrefugees in general and for education? Did theGovernments of Pakistan and Afghanistan doenough on their side in mobilizing funds? Couldimplementation of refugee education in Pakistanhave been better, quality-wise and as regardsenrollment, or should we be satisfied with whatwas achieved, bearing in mind that many poorPakistanis lived under similar circumstances tothe refugees?

We shall not try to answer these questions,but we would like the reader to consider whethera good enough job was done in Afghan refugeeeducation in Pakistan. We must also be carefulnot to set standards too high since nothing is per-fect, especially not in difficult emergency crisisand refugee situations. However, we havealready in the introductory section identifiedfields where we ideally should have done betterand in this section Utkan and Breines are alsoself-critical. Perhaps the standards should behigher when refugee situations last for manyyears and become protracted and chronic crises,such as in the case of the Afghan refugee crisis.

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“I believe that provision of basic, secondary,technical and vocational education is the mostimportant help we as a host country can give torefugee children and adolescents. Education isalso an essential tool in preparing refugees forreturning home because education will give thema better chance of finding employment inAfghanistan.”

“Pakistan is glad to have had organizationslike BEFARe implementing major educationactivities for Afghan refugees in Pakistan. We arealso grateful to the Germans, notably theGerman Agency for Technical Cooperation(GTZ), which was the implementing partner untilBEFARe became a local organization a few yearsago, and the Government of Germany, for havingprovided a portion of the funding through itsMinistry of Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (BMZ). The majority of the fundingalways came from UNHCR, as is common for allour implementing partners in refugee education.”

“I would also like to express gratitude for theGerman higher education scholarship programmefor refugees, known as DAFI, and administered byUNHCR.”

“I come from NWFP myself, the largestrefugee-hosting province in Pakistan, and I haveworked on refugee issues for many years. Iremember BEFARe’s work from the time theystarted and I have followed it over the years. Ihope that they will continue working in theprovince. Although we seem to be at the end ofthe Afghan refugee era, there is still a lot of workto do. In the future, I hope that the refugee-host-ing areas will be given more focus to includePakistanis and Afghans alike. Organizations likeBEFARe, with its proven track record, can be akey implementing partner in education and relat-ed fields.”

Dr. Imran Zeb KhanCommissioner, CCAR, Government of Pakistan

“I find education an essential element inrebuilding Afghanistan and it is important for therefugees to become active members in society. Iwould like to express gratitude to host countriesand donor countries, bilateral organizations,United Nations and other multilateral organiza-tions, and a large number of non-governmentalorganizations for the education they have provid-ed to refugees over many years.”

Dr. Nanguyalai TarziAmbassador of Afghanistan, Islamabad

“Throughout my long career in UNHCR, Ihave often had the pleasure of dealing with theGerman Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ)and the German Federal Ministry for EconomicCooperation and Development (BMZ). InPakistan GTZ was one of our major implement-ing partners in education for the Afghan refugees.I always found GTZ and the main project it setup in 1996, BEFARe, which followed other small-er projects, a particularly competent partner inproject implementation. At its peak, BEFARe hadover one hundred thousand pupils in its primaryschools and adult education courses, and close tothree thousand teachers and managers. I believe itwas the world’s largest refugee education project.Most of the funding came from UNHCR, whichfor some time also assisted vocational and techni-cal training (VET). Unfortunately, we could notkeep up funding in those fields, albeit important,but had to focus on primary education in the

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Dr. Imran Zeb Khan Commissioner, ChiefCommissionerate for Afghan Refugees(CCAR), Government of Pakistan

H.E. Dr. Nanguyalai Tarzi Ambassador ofAfghanistan to Pakistan (until the end of2006)

Hasim Utkan UNHCR Representative inPakistan (1999-2003). Utkan also served inother posts in the same office twice before:when building up the office at the beginningof the Afghan refugee crisis in 1979 and themid-1990s.

camps, which is UNHCR’s main field of responsi-bility in refugee education anywhere in theworld.”

“I am glad that BEFARe has been registeredas a local organization so that its experience canbe drawn upon in the future. I understand thatBEFARe wants to focus on education and othersocial services in refugee-hosting areas inPakistan. Thus, BEFARe will not only benefitAfghan refugees, as long as that is needed, butalso Pakistanis.”

“I would like to use this opportunity tothank GTZ-BEFARe for its service to UNHCRand the Afghan refugees in Pakistan.”

Hasim UtkanRegional Representative UNHCR, Bangkok

“When I came to Pakistan in September 2001as UNESCO Representative to Pakistan andDirector of the office, I realized the great impor-tance of doing more and better work in educationand for the Afghan refugees and a Letter of under-standing (LoU) with UNHCR was established. Atthe beginning of my three-year term in Pakistan,UNESCO’s Islamabad office also coveredAfghanistan, but soon UNESCO established itsseparate and important office in the country.”

“With assistance from Japan, we quicklyopened some school classes in the urban areas onthe outskirts of Islamabad, near Rawalpindi, atthe end of 2001. Until then urban refugees hadreceived very little assistance from the interna-tional community.”

“Teacher training and textbook issues arealways important to UNESCO since we are con-cerned with quality aspects of education - as wellas enrolment. Furthermore, girls’ education andliteracy issues are part of our work in the memberstates’ struggle for relevant quality Education forAll (EFA). Obviously, EFA includes refugees, too,

and we have, therefore, termed “Education inemergency and crisis” an EFA Flagship.Unfortunately, though, UNESCO’s funding hasbeen limited for those activities.”

“In Pakistan, we worked closely with majorNGOs and other partners in refugee education.BEFARe was a particularly close and professionalpartner. I don’t think UNESCO could haveachieved as much as it did in refugee educationwithout such a large organization. We, at theUNESCO office in Islamabad, did our best tryingto provide encouragement and support and guid-ance and international expertise, but it was usu-ally partners like BEFARe that implemented theactivities that made a change for refugee girls andboys, women and men.”

“I would like to mention the work UNESCOdid together with BEFARe to develop a databaseof Afghan refugee teachers in Pakistan, and alsoour liaison with education authorities in Pakistanand Afghanistan. BEFARe was a key member inthat important work to facilitate the return ofexperienced teachers to Afghanistan. I recall withpleasure UNESCO’s cooperation with BEFARe,Ockenden International and the InternationalRescue Committee, in an important professionaldevelopment project in teacher training, fundedby Canada’s aid agency CIDA. Textbook develop-ment and improvement of curricula were otherfields of mutual interest by UNESCO andBEFARe.”

“I hope that BEFARe can continue its goodwork for refugees and other particularly vulnera-ble groups, and that girls and women are giveneven greater focus than in the past - in primaryand secondary education, in vocational training,in special education, in literacy and other adulteducation, and even in higher education, and thatthere will be more women in leadership posts ashead teachers and managers in the future, inBEFARe and eventually in Afghanistan.”

Ingeborg BreinesDirector, UNESCO Liaison Office, Geneva

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Ingeborg Breines UNESCO Representativeand Director in Pakistan (2001-2004)

UNHCR’s sub-office in Peshawar plays aspecial role vis-à-vis BEFARe and it is thatUNHCR office BEFARe relates to most frequent-ly for all practical implementation purposes andfield issues. UNHCR’s sub-office in Peshawar hasa much larger number of staff than the mainoffice in Islamabad. However, there is also fre-quent contact between BEFARe and the UNHCRmain office (called branch office) in Islamabad,especially as regards policy issues, planning ofannual sub-agreements, reporting and overallmonitoring of implementation.

BEFARe keeps in contact with the ChiefCommissionerate for Afghan Refugees (CCAR)in Islamabad, and again more frequently with thePeshawar-based Commissionerate for AfghanRefugees (CAR) and its Education Cell (EC).BEFARe also cooperates with the provincial gov-ernment authorities in Peshawar, notably theGovernor and the Minister of Education.

BEFARe has frequent contact with theAfghan Consulate-General in Peshawar and inparticular its Education Department. Due to thenature of BEFARe’s work there is less frequentcontact with the Afghan Embassy in Islamabad.

Pupils who have attended BEFAReschools receive certificates, endorsed by theAfghan and Pakistani authorities in Peshawar, sothat they can be recognized and admitted intothe right class and continue their education, ortake up work, upon return to Afghanistan, orelsewhere in Pakistan.

BEFARe teachers are also given letters,endorsed by the authorities, showing their edu-cation, BEFARe training and years of service.This is important for their further employment

in Afghanistan, or in Pakistan, if they do notreturn home immediately after they have leftemployment with BEFARe, either voluntarily, orbecause they have been laid off as part of thereduced funding of refugee activities in Pakistan. 13

In this section we are only presenting onepartner’s statement, notably that of the Head ofUNHCR’s sub-office in Peshawar during 2000-2002, Roy Herrmann. In his thoughtful state-ment, he touches upon several important histor-ical aspects of the Afghan refugee decades,including achievements and shortcomings inrefugee education and several questions thatwere left unanswered, or issues that could havebeen handled differently.

Balancing of secular and religious socializa-tion and education is mentioned. In hindsight,we can see that GTZ-BEFARe and other organi-zations providing education for refugees shouldhave given these fields more focused attention.However, sources also indicate that there wasquite close cooperation between religious andother community leaders and BEFARe.

The fields need further scientific studies andpublic debate so that the relative importance ofreligion in schooling can be agreed upon. Thereshould be agreement on what teaching methodsshould be used for subject issues and how to cre-ate openness and tolerance towards other reli-gions and customs. And that also includes for-eigners’ knowledge of and respect for Islam.

When reading Herrmann’s statement we arereminded that it should be accepted that religious andmoral issues are central in any society and culture and,hence, form fundamental parts of any country’ssocialization and education systems, whether spelt out

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Section IITHE UNHCR SUB-OFFICE IN PESHAWAR AND

GOVERNMENT PARTNERS

or being part of a ‘hidden curriculum’. 14

Herrmann takes up the field of secondaryeducation and expresses concern about the factthat secondary and higher education has onlybeen available for a tiny proportion of theAfghan refugees in Pakistan, as is also the caseelsewhere in refugee situations in developingcountries.

These issues must be understood in a histor-ical and geographical context, as must girls’ edu-cation. In a not too distant future, it is our hopeand belief that we will be able the provideEducation for All at primary level, and furthereducation in theoretical and practical subjects fora much larger proportion than today. Educationfor refugees in developing countries, including incultures where formal secular education has had

limited space, is likely to see dramatic changesand improvements in the coming decade.

The current backwardness, with very fewrefugees continuing beyond primary school, whichHerrmann draws attention to, is economically andsocially negative. Educationalists and aid workerseverywhere realize this, and in refugee situations itbecomes clearest at the time of repatriation whenlack of educated human resources for reconstruc-tion is critical. For the individual refugees, men andwomen, further education and skills are required tomake a living, rebuild their home country and rec-oncile and live in peace.

In his statement, Herrmann complimentsGTZ-BEFARe for its consistency in providing “adecent quality of education, delivered professional-ly in difficult circumstances”.

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These photos include senior representatives of the UNHCR Sub-office in Peshawar, the Government of Pakistan andthe Afghan Consul-General in Peshawar, Mr. Roy Herrmann, Head of UNHCR’s Sub-Office in Peshawar, and earlier DeputyHead of the office in Quetta; Mr. Ahmed Warsame, Senior Programme Officer; Mr. Niaz Ahmad, Associate ProgrammeOfficer. All of these officers have since moved to other duty stations; Herrmann to UNHCR Headquarters; Warsame toSouth Sudan, where large numbers of long-term refugees from neighbouring countries have begun coming home; Mr.Ahmad has been promoted from national to international officer and serves in UNHCR’s sub-office in Dadaab, Kenya, whichmainly caters for Somali refugees.

Mr. Ifthikar ul Mulk Khan and Ms. Zeb Jan worked for many years in the Education Cell, Commissionerate for AfghanRefugees (EC/CAR) in Peshawar, handling secondary education for Afghan refugees, funded by the Government of Pakistanand UNHCR under a sub-agreement. EC/CAR’s secondary schools gave secondary school opportunities for many BEFAReprimary school leavers, and had more than ten thousand pupils when the schools were closed at the end of the schoolyear in 2005, due to unavailability of funds and as a measure to encourage repatriation.

Mr. Haji Abdul Khaliq Farahi, Afghanistan’s Consul-General in Peshawar, is seen in the bottom right photo. Note: The selection of the sample of representatives included in the photos, and the issues highlighted, were made

by the author of this book to the best of his judgment. Many others could have been added, for example from other years,if space had been available.

Haji A. Khaliq FarahiZeb JanIfthikar ul Mulk Khan

Niaz AhmadAhmed WarsameRoy Herman

“I was the head of the UNHCR sub-office inPeshawar, Pakistan from August 2000 to March2002. Earlier, 1989-1991 I had been the deputyof the Quetta sub-office. Peshawar sits at the endof the Khyber Pass and is a large centre forAfghans. Informal estimates claim well over onemillion refugees in the North West FrontierProvince, and that number does not do justice tothe many thousands of Afghans who live outsidethe camps and survive in small towns and citiesacross Pakistan.”

“Over the years the Afghan refugee pro-gramme has been a major challenge for UNHCR,given the numbers involved and the fluidity of thesituation. For a long time the Peshawar office wasthe organization’s largest operational office.When I was in Quetta, Balochistan, it was thesecond or third largest refugee concentration inthe World.”

“During the jihad years, while there was aSoviet Union presence in Afghanistan, the refugeeassistance programme was fairly well funded andservices to refugees were extensive. However,when international attention shifted fromAfghanistan support for the refugees still inPakistan waned. Often the UNHCR offices hadto make hard decisions about which sectorsshould be funded, at the cost of other activities.”

“By the mid-1990s food assistance wasended for most of the refugee populations. Thishad significant impact on the refugees. Somerefugees who felt insecure about returning toAfghanistan, were too poor to live in the campswithout some food assistance. They left thecamps and relocated all over Pakistan, whereverthey could find work to sustain themselves. Thiswas just one indication of the erosion of assis-tance to the camps from what they had beenreceiving during the 1980s. While conditions inthe refugee camps inevitably declined, conditionsfor refugees who did not or could not live in thecamps was considerably worsened.”

“The tenacity of GTZ BEFARe throughoutthe years of its involvement was impressive. Theyconsistently provided a decent quality of educa-tion, delivered professionally, in difficult circum-stances. Classrooms in refugee camps were chron-ically crowded, with little support for mainte-nance. When a decision has to be made to prior-itize essential services in refugee camps, water andhealth take precedence. Education, while veryimportant, is not considered life sustaining, so itis often compromised.”

“I can recall a couple of times when the safe-ty of the programme managers was placed at riskwhen funds for teachers’ salaries did not arrive ontime because of budget problems or delayedagreements. Keeping teachers motivated despitethe difficulties of working in remote villages, withminimal materials and support was another prob-lem that had to be overcome.”

“There were other problems that wereencountered on a regular basis. Interesting par-ents in the value of a secular education was notalways straightforward. For poorer families chil-dren are a source of income and sacrificing thatfor the long-term benefits of the classroom wasnot always popular. Girls’ education was evenmore of a challenge for GTZ and the internation-al community. In some communities apathy wasovershadowed by resistance and, again, therewere issues of safety and security involved.”

“Secondary education, or the lack of it, is yetanother frustration linked to promoting and sup-porting education among the refugees. For rea-sons of expediency UNHCR does not fund sec-ondary education. Limited openings for refugeeswere secured for refugee students who qualified,but it does not begin to meet the demand.Undoubtedly it is difficult to promote continuededucation when the opportunities for advancingare so limited.”

“In retrospect, one can ask oneself if seculareducation in the Afghan refugee camps had beenbetter sustained, and supported at the secondarylevel, whether the GTZ BEFARe facilities mighthave counterbalanced the madrassas which haveattracted so many earnest young men in search oflearning.”

Roy HerrmannEvaluation and Policy Analysis UnitUNHCR Headquarters, Geneva

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Roy Herrmann Head of UNHCR’s Sub-office, Peshawar (2000-2002). Earlier(1989-1991) he was Deputy Head ofUNHCR’s Sub-office, Quetta

In connection with our data collection forthis chapter we interviewed several staff mem-bers dealing with education and other communi-ty services in UNHCR’s sub-office in Peshawar.We present excerpts of interviews with a few ofthe senior and long-term staff members.

Niaz Ahmad began his work as educationand public information officer in UNHCR’s sub-office in Peshawar in 1988. When we spoke tohim in November 2004, he was preparing tomove to an international post in UNHCR inKenya.15

Niaz gave BEFARe high marks for its workin general and, in particular, its leading role inteacher training.

“In some areas quality got better when theinternational organizations came in as imple-menting partners in 1996, taking over from theGovernment of Pakistan”, Niaz recalls. “I was amember of the task force planning the newimplementation system some ten years ago, andwe had expected faster changes and improve-ments in many fields”, he says. “For example, wehad hoped that additional funding would havebeen secured from donors outside UNHCR, butthat was not the case. This year, I am disappoint-ed that Germany’s bilateral assistance to theproject has seized and that GTZ has almost com-pletely pulled out of the project. UNHCR isagain left with the responsibility for all fundingto BEFARe.”

Niaz adds that he would have liked to seeeven faster and better results in the field of com-munity participation in the camps/villages, butadmits that it has improved during recent years.Furthermore, he says that enrollment hasimproved but that it is still not good enough ashe estimates that less than three quarters of thechildren of school-going age attend school in thecamps/villages covered by BEFARe. (See otherchapters in this book for further details concern-ing community participation and enrollment.) 16

In his comments, the Senior ProgrammeOfficer at UNHCR sub-office in Peshawar,Ahmed Warsame, says that he finds BEFARe’swork of high quality, both as regards manage-

ment and provision of education and other sup-port to refugees in the camps/villages in NWFP.“BEFARe gives major qualitative inputs torefugee education in Pakistan, not only to theirown project but to the whole refugee educationsector”, Warsame says. “However, BEFARe hasrecently become a local organization and itshould be supported by donors and other part-ners, not only UNHCR. Having become a newentity BEFARe’s performance needs to be moni-tored more closely than before, and extra supportgiven in areas where it may have weaknesses. It isessential that BEFARe remains a credible organi-zation since it will have a major role in fieldsrelated to refugees and refugee-hosting areas inyears to come”, Warsame says as he is himselfpacking his luggage as his three-year posting inPakistan is over. He will move to UNHCR’simportant office in Southern Sudan, where repa-triation, reconstruction and peace building arekey fields after more than two decades of civilwar in that country – not unlike the situation inAfghanistan. Warsame is from Somalia and hisnew and challenging post is near his home coun-try. 17

We held several meetings and informal inter-views with staff members of the Education Cellof the Commissionerate for Afghan Refugees(CAR/EC), including with Ifthikar-uul-MMulk Khanand Zeb Jan. As Government representatives,Ifthikar’s and Zeb Jan’s contact with BEFARe hasbeen close, and to some extent CAR/EC hasmonitored BEFARe’s work. However, CAR/EChas itself been an implementing partner, havinghad a sub-agreement with UNHCR for second-ary education. Thus, it has also been a parallelorganization to BEFARe. Many of BEFARe’s pri-mary school leavers have continued in CAR’s sec-ondary schools. Khan praises BEFARe’s work butsays that the implementing partner could alsohave done better in some fields, however withoutspecifying in what fields.

CAR/EC’s secondary school programme,which reached more than 10,000 pupils withover one hundred teachers, was closed at the endof the spring term in 2005 due to lack of funds.

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UNHCR’s Field Guidelines for Education givespriority to primary schools. The Guidelinesdefine primary schooling as 8 years, not only 6years as in Pakistan. Refugee pupils and parents,NGO staff and probably every teacher and edu-cationalist will regret that the middle and sec-ondary schools were closed before the refugeeshad returned home.18

In a meeting with the Afghan Consul-General in Peshawar, Hon. Haji Abdul KhaliqFarahi, we had the opportunity to listen to hisopinions about overall refugee issues and in par-ticular education issues. Hon. Farahi is theAfghan Government’s highest-ranking represen-tative in Pakistan’s largest refugee-hosting area,NWFP. Entering the compound, which wascrowded by Afghans seeking audience with theConsul-General and his staff in the variousdepartments, including a separate educationdepartment, we realized that the office was busyand much larger than we had expected. At thetime of our visit, many Afghans were applyingfor travel documents to go to Saudi Arabia forthe holy Islamic pilgrimage known as haj.

Our audience with Hon. Farahi focused onhis concern for the content of the refugee educa-tion provided in Pakistan, in BEFARe and otherorganizations. He was concerned about theimportance of the Afghan curriculum being fol-lowed in refugee schools. He drew attention tothe importance of teaching Dari, not onlyPashtu, although most refugees in NWFP arePashtuns. Afghanistan has two official languagesand, therefore, both languages must be taught.Hon. Farahi said that he had been informed thatBEFARe sometimes did not follow the Afghancurriculum to the letter.

He also emphasized that he would like to seeas many Afghan teachers as possible employed inrefugee schools, including in BEFARe’s schools. Heconsidered this important at a time when teachers

are being laid off as services are being reduced.The Consulate-General endorses BEFARe

certificates awarded to pupils and teachers,which is essential when they return home toAfghanistan, or if they stay on for some time inPakistan, before returning, and need to attendurban schools as pupils or teachers.19

We would like to mention that the agree-ment between the Governments of Afghanistanand Pakistan indicates that up to forty percent ofteachers in refugee schools can be Pakistaniteachers and the rest Afghans. The percentage ofPakistanis is lower than the maximum allowedpercentage. It should be noted that the reason forallowing a relatively high percentage of Pakistaniteachers was originally that there were fewAfghans who could teach certain subjects, such asEnglish language, in earlier years.

As for languages, BEFARe is currently plac-ing greater emphasis on Dari, in addition toPashtu. It should be remembered, though, thatthe children have to cope with learning severallanguages, as English is also thought, and Urdu istaught, or at least spoken, by most pupils outsideschool. Thus, there is a limit to how many lan-guages a child can learn as school subjects.

In long-term refugee situations it is seen asimportant that the refugees learn about the host-country, including its language and culture.Compared with refugee situations in Europe,East Africa and elsewhere, BEFARe and otherimplementing partners in Pakistan have beencareful not to deviate very much from theAfghan curriculum. It is possible that it wouldhave been advantageous to have gone further inmodernizing the often outdated Afghan curricu-lum. However, a large number of supplementaryteaching materials have been developed, espe-cially by BEFARe and more recently also by Savethe Children (US), Quetta, and other NGOs.20

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These photos show the heads and other senior staff of some of BEFARe’s sister implementing partner NGOs in refugeeeducation. Ms. Nancy Hatch Dupree is the legendary ‘grand old lady’ and respected spokeswoman on behalf of all of them,in particular the Afghan refugees. She has for many years been the leader of ACBAR, the Agency Coordinating Body forAfghan Relief, with the Education Sub-Committee, and the unique ARIC Library. ACBAR has offices in Peshawar and Kabul.Dupree is a member of BEFARe’s Board of Trustees.

In the photos are also seen: Ms. Shahnaz Akhtar, Ockenden International (UK); Nayyar Iqbal, Save the Children(US); Mr. Sigurd Hanson, World Vision Pakistan, until 2006; Mr. Hamish Khan, Basic Education and Employable SkillsTraining (BEST); Professor Sakena Yacoobi, Afghan Institute of Learning (AIL); Pilar Robledo, International RescueCommittee (IRC), until February 2006;

Note: The selection of the sample of representatives and organizations included in the photos, and the issues high-lighted, were made by the author of this book to the best of his judgment. Many other NGOs could have been added iftime and space had been available.

Nancy Hatch Dupree Shahnaz Akhtar Nayyar Iqbal

Pilar RobledoSakena YacoobiHamish KhanSigurd Hanson

In this section we present comments by sixof BEFARe’s sister implementing partners andthe main coordinating body in education andother refugee fields, ACBAR. 21 Unlike what wehave done in the previous sections, we shall notattempt to summarize the comments and seek forcommonalities and differences save for one,notably the comment by Nancy Hatch Dupree,ACBAR, about the importance of BEFARe’swork in developing teaching materials for pupilsand teachers and for carrying out some research-oriented tasks. She emphasizes the great impor-tance of BEFARe’s work in these fields. 22

Before we leave the reader to study the com-ments by the various refugee education organiza-tions we would, however, like to reflect on theroles of such organizations, i.e., implementingpartners, NGOs, CBOs and other groups andeven private companies and wealthy individuals,who can assist in refugee education and relatedfields.

Above, we asked if the UN organizationsand the Government authorities did their utmostin securing funds and providing education forthe refugees. We also questioned if UNHCRshould continue being the main coordinator ofrefugee education. Here, we shall ask similarquestions of the non-governmental organizationsand the private sector: Did they do what theycould to give education to refugee children, ado-lescents and untrained and illiterate adults?Could they have done more in advocacy aware-ness creation, for example to get more girls edu-cated? Could they have done more vis-à-vis thevarious groups of donors? Could they have donebetter in implementation of projects and could

they have been more professional in theirapproaches and work in general? Finally, couldthey have cooperated more closely, possibly in aconsortium, rather than competing for funds andsometimes keeping information from each other?Why were so few Pakistani (and Afghan) collegesand universities involved in refugee education –in the future, under normal and long-term cir-cumstances, they will play key roles, not interna-tional NGOs? 23

We shall not try to answer any of these ques-tions but let them linger in the heads of the read-ers. In some other chapters of the book we comeback to some of the questions, especially thoserelated to cooperation and leadership, which wediscuss in connection with teacher training andprofessional development.

In this section, besides asking critical ques-tions and sounding like ‘Besserwissers’; we wouldlike to celebrate the many good cooperationexperiences that can be found. Every sisterorganization pays tribute to BEFARe’s profes-sionalism and its role as a leading organization inrefugee education in Pakistan, especially inNWFP and Peshawar, the hub of the NGOs dur-ing the Afghan refugee era.

We would like to express thanks to the sisterorganizations, not merely for writing their state-ments in this section, but for the important workthey are doing in refugee education and relatedfields, in Pakistan and in Afghanistan. GTZ hasre-opened its education work in Afghanistan in2005, and the coordinator is one of the pioneersfrom the agency’s work in Pakistan, MichaelHirth. In the early years, when he was GTZ proj-ect head in Pakistan, one part of the project

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Section IIISISTER IMPLEMENTING PARTNERS

moved to Afghanistan, where it is still known asAG BAS-Ed. The Pakistani AG BAS-Ed, withCOPE as a key section and another vocationaltraining section, became GTZ-BEFARe in 1996,gradually growing from 1990, and in 2003 itbecame BEFARe as it was registered as a localtrust.24

The following list of sister NGOs could havebeen longer and included additional organiza-tions. It is essential to underline that we have

included key implementing partners, which havesub-agreements with UNHCR. We have addedone organization, notably World Vision, whichhas worked with BEFARe in 2005. It has beenincluded because it points to one of BEFARe’smajor concerns for its future operations, notablyto work in mixed Pakistani and Afghan commu-nities in refugee-hosting areas, and also toexpand its work beyond education and closelyrelated fields, to other fields.25

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“BEFARe, and its predecessors, have alwaysbeen essential in provision of education for theAfghan refugees in the camps in the NWFPprovince. Being such a large project organization,and having had some funds from other donors inaddition to UNHCR, BEFARe developed a specialstatus among the implementing partners in thehost-country. BEFARe was a lead agency inrefugee education, especially among the partnersbased in Peshawar. Sometimes, though, BEFAReoperated independently and I tried to get all part-ners to work more closely together through theACBAR Education Sub-committee.”

“Having spent much of my time on historicalstudies and documentation work related toAfghanistan and refugees, I would especially com-mend BEFARe for its work in developing addi-tional teaching materials for pupils and teachers,and even carrying out some research-orientedtasks, publishing some books, a large number ofreports and some video programmes.”

“The ACBAR Resource and InformationCentre (ARIC) has built up a large collection ofdocuments about Afghanistan and its history,which includes the refugee history in Pakistan.Save for the International Rescue Committee(IRC), no other refugee organization has as manybooks and reports as BEFARe in our library, andI think BEFARe has more than any other in thefield of education. Their works on non-formaleducation issues are highly regarded by users.”

“I would like to mention that I felt quitehonoured when I was asked to serve as one of thetrustees on BEFARe’s new Board when it becamea local organization a few years ago, and GTZwas dropped from its name. I hope that we willbe able to make BEFARe a sustainable organiza-tion, which can serve needy Afghans andPakistanis in education and other fields. A prede-

cessor of BEFARe, AG Bas-Ed, which moved toAfghanistan many years ago, is still working wellfrom its Kabul office.”

Nancy Hatch DupreeSenior Consultant, ACBAR/ARIC, Peshawar and Kabul

“In BEST we are particularly concernedabout Basic Education, Vocational Training andJob Placement of our target group. The Pak-German Technical Training Programme and Pa-German Basic Education Project, which precededBEFARe, paid special attention to the practicalfields, and so did the short-lived VET project,under BEFARe, some five or six years back.”

“I feel a special relationship with BEFARe,since I worked in the organization earlier. I alsodid my engineering studies in Germany. ThroughGTZ, there is important German influence inmany fields in BEFARe’s work. I would, in partic-ular, mention such typical German ‘trademarks’as thoroughness and attention to detail, not leastin organizational matters.”

“However, now that BEFARe has become alocal organization, like the one I am heading, Iexpect that we will both work more in fields relat-ed to mixed Afghan and Pakistani communities,mainly in the NWFP province. I hope that in thefuture we can develop common projects, or atleast share experience and plans. BEFARe willremain our older brother!”

Hamish KhanManaging Director, BEST, Peshawar

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Nancy Hatch Dupree Senior Consultant,Agency Coordination Body for Afghan Relief(ACBAR/ARIC), Peshawar and Kabul.

Hamish Khan Managing Director, BasicEducation and Employable Skills Training(BEST), Peshawar

“I have only been working for IRC inPakistan for a few years, but shortly after arrivingI understood that BEFARe was a very importantimplementing partner. Many of the pupils whoenroll in the Female Education Programme (FEP)schools have gone to BEFARe primary school. Theshortage of secondary opportunities for Afghanrefugees/returnees is alarming. Since IRC schoolsare registered with the Ministry of Education inAfghanistan, IRC schools are magnet schools thatattract the top pupils applying from other organ-izations, in addition to those who have attendedIRC primary schools.”

“BEFARe and IRC are both based inPeshawar and we meet frequently at coordinationmeetings and in other settings. We have alsoworked together on special projects. Naturally,we exchange information. At IRC we are oftenimpressed by BEFARe’s multiple publications andchild-centred materials and reports.”

“The IRC has relied on BEFARe’s literacycurriculum. This curriculum was developed tomeet the specific needs of the Afghan refugees inPakistan. BEFARe has also provided materials toIRC’s education projects in Afghanistan. BEFAReis the world’s largest refugee education pro-gramme, and their contribution has been enor-mous.”

“Gender equality issues, psychosocial well-being, child protection and peace education arekey to IRC, and over recent years, BEFARe hasgiven more attention to these issues, too. We haveexchanged information and reports, and heldmeetings with BEFARe on these topics. Theseconcerns will give repatriating teachers and stu-dents a chance to reconstruct a tolerant, demo-cratic and peaceful Afghanistan.”

Pilar RobledoEducation CoordinatorInternational Rescue Committee, Peshawar

“Save the Children is the largest implement-ing partner for refugee education in Balochistanprovince and has always worked in close cooper-ation with BEFARe. The two organizations haveexchanged information and learned from eachother’s expertise and experience. This was thecase when developing home-based schools. Wehave also used each other’s materials. For exam-ple, Save the Children uses some of the BEFARedeveloped textbooks in schools it supports inBalochistan refugee villages.”

“Until 2002, when the new provisionalGovernment in Afghanistan re-formed theMinistry of Education, both organizations wereactive in assisting in developing a strategy foreducation in Afghanistan, especially as related toreturnees. This work took place under the AgencyCoordinating Body for Afghan Relief (ACBAR),with offices in Peshawar and Kabul.”

“With the changed political situation inAfghanistan, BEFARe and Save the Children nowwork together as advocates for Afghan refugeechildren in Pakistan, and in ensuring that theirrefugee education programmes are as good as theycan be, for as long as they are required, in meet-ing children’s learning needs.”

Nayyar IqbalDeputy Director for Refugee ProgrammesSave the Children - USA, Islamabad

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Pilar Robledo Education Coordinator(untill Februry 2006), International RescueCommittee (IRC), Peshawar

Nayyar Iqbal Deputy Director for RefugeeProgrammes, Islamabad (from 2002), andformer Programme Manager for Balochistan,Quetta (1996-2001), Save the Children,USAIslamabad

“Before joining Ockenden International, Iworked for GTZ for nine years in the provinces ofBalochistan (BRSP) and NWFP (IRDP). GTZ hasmade major contributions to help Pakistan mobi-lize communities to help themselves. Theseachievements have been made through variousprojects in all four provinces in the country.”

“I have always been impressed with the pro-fessionalism of staff sent out by GTZ as advisors,consultants and administrators. The organizationhere in Pakistan is a highly professional organiza-tion. My years with GTZ became the peak learn-ing years in my career. Thanks to that experience,I have been able to head the Pakistan office ofanother international organization, notablyOckenden International.”

“Over the years, GTZ started a number ofactivities. Yet, it has also created structures andprepared for the continuation of its developmentactivities after it pulls out. BEFARe is the mainexample of a local organization having comedirectly out of GTZ’s work. It is the world’slargest NGO in the field of basic education forrefugees with over one hundred thousand pupilsin schools in the NWFP province. In addition,BEFARe also helps refugees prepare for sustain-able repatriation and gives assistance for furthereducation in Pakistan for those who are not readyfor repatriation. Through numerous trainingcourses, the teachers are also prepared for furtherwork in refugee schools, and for work in ordinaryschools at home in Afghanistan.”

“Ockenden and BEFARe have been workingtogether in refugee education in the north ofNWFP, in Hangu, Thall and Kohat. Together, wesucceeded in getting about fifty percent of theschool-age refugee children enrolled in schools.The percentage may seem low, but it is not lowfor these communities, who, at home inAfghanistan, would rarely send their children toschool at all. It was especially difficult to con-

vince them to send their daughters to school, andnow about thirty percent of the pupils are girls. Ithas been very encouraging and rewarding to takepart in this work.”

“I believe that if the international communi-ty assists Afghanistan in the right way, in assistingin developing a strategy for education inAfghanistan, especially as related to returnees, thecountry can succeed in building peace. I don’tbelieve that peace can be built through militaryand defense systems. I believe it can only be builtthrough effective education. I also don’t believethat the stick has any role in the school.Henceforth, we must develop content and teach-ing methods in our schools that contribute to cre-ating peace loving young people.”

“Some people argue that education takes along time, and that we don’t see the fruits of theinvestment for a long time. My answer is thateducation may take time, but that its results arelong lasting. In education for Afghan refugees, Iregret that we couldn’t do more in the past. I feelpassionate about continuing to expand our effortsin the future in the field of education for Afghanchildren and youth. I hope that Ockenden,BEFARe and other organizations can work moreclosely together in order to get more children intoschool. Human security, human rights and peaceissues must be given a central place in our futureeducation activities.”

“Since international donors have startedreducing their budgets to education already in2005, we may have to seek new means and meth-ods of provision of education. In order to do that,NGOs must work more closely together. I wouldalso hope that BEFARe keeps receiving GTZ andother German assistance because in our type ofwork we rely on donor funding. In the years tocome, I hope that all organizations dealing withAfghan refugees and poor Pakistanis in therefugee-hosting rural and urban areas can workmore closely together. The cumulative compe-tence acquired over many years in the NGOs andself-help schools and community services, is quiteformidable.”

“On behalf of the Pakistani community, Iwould like to thank GTZ for its contribution tothe uplift of Afghan and Pakistani rural commu-nities. I hope that the agency will continue itsgood work in Pakistan and in other countries.GTZ, as well as other organizations, can improve

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Shahnaz Akhtar Director for Pakistan,Ockenden International (United Kingdom),Islamabad (until the end of 2006)

work performance, based on experience and newknowledge. For example, I would suggest thatcomponents like the following ones are taken intoconsideration from the stage of project planning:(1) coordination and cooperation with sisterorganizations; (2) special attention should begiven to gender issues; (3) phasing-out strategiesshould be developed; and (4) maintaining proj-ects at a manageable size.”

Shahnaz AkhtarDirector for Pakistan, Ockenden International (UK),Islamabad

“We, at the Afghan Institute of Learning(AIL), have worked with BEFARe and otherorganizations, such as IRC, UNICEF andUNESCO, in connection with development ofcurriculum and materials for teacher training. Wehave used BEFARe’s excellent literacy materialsin our literacy programme.”

“It was wonderful to work in professionalteams of trainers and scholars when we developedbooks and other materials for refugees. The mate-rials that were developed have now become use-ful resources for Afghan teachers and students athome in Afghanistan. They have become a greathelp as we struggle to give today’s children highquality, world-class education so that they will beable to continue rebuilding Afghanistan. The chil-dren are the future of our country and tomor-row’s leaders. The books are part of what we needin order to provide them with quality education.”

“In Peshawar, I would like to say we were allimpressed by BEFARe’s work. It is such a largeorganization and it has provided primary educa-tion to hundreds of thousands of Afghan children.It has also provided teacher training to severalthousand teachers. The organization’s work hashad a positive impact on the education of Afghanchildren and when more teachers and pupilsreturn home to Afghanistan, we will reap even

more of the fruits of their work.”“I would like to mention that AIL is an

Afghan women’s NGO, established, led and runby women. Directly and indirectly, we serve350,000 women and children annually in variouslocations in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Our pro-grammes include teacher-training and other edu-cation activities from pre-school until universitylevel. AIL has Women’s Learning Centers andprovides health care education and a number ofother courses. We also publish a magazine.”

Professor Sakena YacoobiChief Executive DirectorAfghan Institute of Learning, Peshawar and Kabul

“During my time as the Director of IRC inPakistan, based in Peshawar, I enjoyed close coop-eration with the larger education organizationGTZ-BEFARe. IRC complemented BEFARe’sactivities because IRC focused, not only on basiceducation but also on secondary education andespecially girls’ education and training of femaleteachers.”

“We worked with BEFARe putting together alarge database of refugee teachers - about 5,000,I believe, and probably the largest such databasethat has ever been made. It was a great help forthe Afghan educational authorities, NGOs andother organizations in Afghanistan when recruit-ing staff. It was also an important incentive torefugee teachers to help them to return home toAfghanistan and hopefully get employment asteachers or administrators with NGOs and otherorganizations there.”

“In World Vision I have also had the oppor-tunity to work with BEFARe in a non-educationfield, notably an income-generating agriculturalproject, which was implemented in 2005. Ibelieve that organizations such as BEFARe withlong and broad experience, and with flexibleapproaches, can take on many types of projects.

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Professor Sakena Yacoobi Chief ExecutiveDirector, Afghan Institute of Learning (AIL),Peshawar and Kabul

Sigurd Hanson Country Director,International Rescue Committee (IRC),Peshawar (1999-2002) and from 2004,Country Director of World Vision,Islamabad (until 2006)

Naturally, BEFARe has special competence ineducation for children, adolescents and adults,and community development, but it also has gen-eral development management competence. Thisexperience is such that they can manage mosttypes of emergency and development projects.

I am sure that education will remain theircornerstone in the future, but that they will alsoadd other activities. I believe that BEFARe, andother organizations which have served Afghanrefugees for decades, will develop their activitiesin order to include mixed Pakistani and Afghantarget groups in future. There is great need forproviding education, social services, vocationaland skills training to the urban poor, whether

they are former refugees or poor Pakistanis.”“I look forward to drawing upon BEFARe’s

experience in possible future collaboration, andin some fields they may gain from working with alarge international organization like WorldVision, which focuses on children and marginal-ized people in more than 100 countries world-wide, irrespective of creed, religion or any othercharacteristic, as we believe we are all God’s cre-ation. Whenever we can, we are glad to workwith local organizations and authorities in allevi-ating poverty”, Sigurd Hanson says.

Sigurd Hanson Country Director, World Vision - Pakistan

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1 (a) We have taken up the general enrollment issuesin various chapters in this book, and we have touched uponit even in this chapter. It is a sad fact that the majority ofthe refugee children could not even get primary schoolwhile in exile. All of us who have worked in the field ofAfghan refugee education in Pakistan share responsibility,i.e., donors and partners, experts, researchers, etc. Still, alot of good work was also done.

(b) We would like to thank sincerely all those whohave contributed to this chapter, by writing statements andby giving comments and ideas that helped us to write ourintroductions to the chapter and the sections. All statementshave been circulated to all those who have written state-ments. The statements were written in spring/summer 2005.The author’s text has not been circulated to those whowrote statements.

2 See, various GTZ-BEFARe Annual Reports. See also,other internal documents, UNHCR, Islamabad andPeshawar, and internal BEFARe documents.

3 As above. See also internal documents in GTZ,Islamabad, and Economic Cooperation Unit, Embassy ofGermany, Islamabad and Kabul. It should be added thatthere are persons and groups on the Pakistani, Afghan andGerman sides who would like to see assistance torefugees/returnees increased considerably, even at this time.Afghanistan receives considerable assistance from Germanyand the two countries enjoy close cooperation.

4 See, internal documents in BEFARe and NRC(Norwegian Refugee Council), Peshawar, 2005. See alsoNRC: Pakistan Education Project. (Final Report from proj-ect in Kurram Agency, NWFP, prepared by Fisher, Tove andFran Qureishi.) Peshawar, 2005.

5 There are major coordinating bodies for develop-ment aid to Afghanistan, which include the Government,multi- and bilateral organizations. In addition, there are sec-tor groups, which also include international and localNGOs, experts, etc. During the years prior to the establish-ment of the Interim Government in Afghanistan, following“9/11” and the invasion at the end of October 2001, inter-national organizations and diplomats were evacuated andoperated mostly from Islamabad, Pakistan, where therewere also top-level and sector coordination bodies for assis-tance to Afghanistan, planning of assistance and monitoringof developments.

6 A number of catalogues listing organizations (NGOs)

and lists of projects were developed by ACBAR, Peshawar,about five-six years ago. They were of great help to donorsand various NGOs. Also other coordinating bodies, such asANCB, had networks of contact or member organizations.Some coordination took place on regional basis, i.e.,Peshawar-NGOs, Quetta-NGOs, and so on. Documents areavailable at the ARIC Library at ACBAR.

7 See recent statistics from UNESCO Institute forStatistics (UIS), Montreal, Canada. www.uis.unesco.org

8 See various United Nations documents related tohumanitarian aid, refugee issues, migration, etc. There areold and new groups in the national and international migra-tion pattern. IDPs belong to one, or rather several ‘oldgroups’, but more focused humanitarian, legal and otherstudies and response programmes are needed. Labourmigration can be voluntary, semi-voluntary or forced. Childtrafficking for labour, sex and other reasons is an increasingproblem. So is other human trafficking for a number of rea-sons. Some of these issues fall outside UNHCR’s mandate,others are inside, or on borderlines of what the organizationcould competently handle. Closer cooperation among anumber of organizations will in future be needed in thesegrowing fields.

9 See Government of Pakistan and UNHCR: Censusof Afghans in Pakistan. 23rd February – 11th March 2005.Islamabad, 2005. See also UNHCR’s three reports:Voluntary Repatriation to Afghanistan, 2003/ 2004 and2005. UNHCR, Islamabad.

10 (a) Ibid. (b) UNHCR: Searching for Solutions. 25Years of UNHCR – Pakistan cooperation on Afghan Refugees.UNHCR, Islamabad, 2005.

11 Our main interview with Dr. Imran Zeb Khan washeld on 30.12.04. Several other meetings and discussionstook place.

12 There is a vast amount of literature on girls’ educa-tion. There is also a good amount of literature on skills andvocational training, ‘second chance education’, etc. See theWebsites of various UN organizations, such as, UNESCO,UNICEF, ILO, and others. Plans and projects are also underway in Afghanistan and in relation to refugees in Pakistan.Reference is made to the NGOs and to the ARIC Library,ACBAR, Peshawar and Kabul. The GTZ-BEFARe Evaluationin 2002 reviewed all these issues. See, Johannessen, EvaMarion et al: Evaluation of GTZ/Basic Education for AfghanRefugees (BEFARe) in Pakistan. Final report. UNHCR,Geneva, June 2002.

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Notes

13 In 2005 many refugee teachers have been laid off.BEFARe has had various planning figures in its contingencyand specific (areas-based) plans. Some forecasts have esti-mated that up to 1,000 Afghan and Pakistani refugeeteacher had to be laid off from BEFARe alone in 2005,which prove to be true When the secondary schools forrefugees under CAR/EC were closed, hundreds of teacherslost their jobs, or were transferred to other schools run bythe Government of Pakistan. In the years to come, therewill continue to be reduction in employment of teachers.Mechanisms for further training and employment of teach-ers who are being laid off should be developed urgently atsuch times of repatriation, or planning of repatriation. Forthe teachers who are Afghans repatriation, resettlement andemployment assistance should be sought. Pakistani teachers,and Afghan teachers who do not return home immediately,should be given additional training to work among urbanrefugees and in refugee-hosting areas in cities and towns inPakistani-Afghan communities, many of which are very poorsettlements in great need of assistance. After the huge earth-quake in Northern Pakistan on 8 October 2005 we assumemany refugee teachers found temporary employment infields they have special competencies.

14 (a) Roy Herrmann’s statement was written in thelate summer 2005. He reflects on a number of challengingissues. Some of them have been dealt with in a book pub-lished by UNHCR in 2001. Crisp, Jeff et al: Learning for aFuture: Refugee Education in Developing Countries.UNHCR, Geneva, 2001. See also the Bibliography forbooks by Margaret Sinclair and others.

(b) Various types of Muslim education are being stud-ied more in recent years. Donors have also shown interestin studying and assisting pilot and other projects. TheAmerican Government aid agency, USAID, is giving the fieldattention in Pakistan. The Norwegian Government aidagency, Norad, took up these issues several years ago.Donors are usually interested in finding ways of includingsecular subjects in the religious schools, modernizing teach-ing methods, and up-grading teachers’ qualifications. It isgenerally appreciated that many poor children have noalternative but attending religious schools. Fewer girls thanboys have opportunities to attend these schools (and socialsupport institutions).

15 Interview with Niaz Ahmad, UNHCR, Peshawar,on 24.11.04.

16 BEFARe, with the assistance of UNHCR, Save theChildren (Sweden) and others have given community devel-opment particular attention during recent years, and theorganization has had major success in its efforts.Documentation can be found in BEFARe’s internal docu-ments.

17 Interview with Muhammad Warsame Ahmed,UNHCR, Peshawar, on 23.11.04.

18 Interview with CAR/EC staff, Peshawar, 23.11.04.(a) See UNHCR’s Field Guidelines, 2003. (b) In “The

News on Sunday”, Islamabad/Lahore, Pakistan, 14.08.05,Dr. Dana Burde, Colombia University Teachers College,

New York, says in an interview entitled “Women in Crisis “that “Reducing funding for education activities in Afghanrefugee villages in the absence of complementary plans tocreate viable education options elsewhere is a mistake.History shows that cutting basic services to refugees whensecurity is still problematic in the country of their origindoes not encourage repatriation. On the other hand, it mayencourage more Afghan refugees to migrate to urban cen-ters of Pakistan — this happened after aid was reduced inthe mid-1990s and seems to be happening again now.” (c)In the author’s experience from Turkana, Kenya, which hasfor two decades hosted large numbers of mainly Sudaneserefugees, the importance of primary and secondary educa-tion was emphasized in the “Turkana Development Forum”,ICED, Nairobi, in the 1990s. However, the general under-standing among donors for the key role of education waslimited, especially for secondary and technical education,and its role at the time of repatriation and reconstruction.One reason for lack of understanding can be that manydonor representatives only spend three-four years in a coun-try and these issues need longer attention than that. InKenya, the refugee camps are in remote areas where diplo-mats would fly up on brief day-trips, hardly letting therefugees problems get under their skin.

19 Meeting with Consul-General Hon. Haji AbdulKhaliq Farahi, Peshawar, on 22.12.04.

20 (a) Curriculum issues are complicated and therewill always be various opinions among teachers, parents,and others. Major policy work has to precede the concretecurriculum and textbook development and production.Afghanistan is in the middle of its renewal and revision ofthe school content, including discussions about teachingmethods and attitudinal orientation. UNESCO InternationalBureau of Education (UIB), Geneva, is one internationalcenter in this field. UIB is working with education authori-ties and international organizations in Pakistan. (b) Literacyand adult education issues are other complicated fields.UNESCO’s Regional Office in Bangkok has specialized onliteracy issues, mainly related to South-East Asia. (c) As anapropos to the language controversy in Pakistan, we wouldlike to add that this is a relatively small problem comparedto what other countries face. In East Africa, refugees fromthe Francophone Rwanda and Burundi would usually learnin schools using English as a medium of instruction. Yet,one plans that these refugees are also to return home butEnglish is so strong in the country of asylum (and Frenchonly a school subject for a few middle-class secondaryschool pupils) that is is considered acceptable, or even anadvantage to use English.

21 Some coordination issues in refugee education hasbeen discussed in articles by Atle Hetland in ForcedMigration Review (FMR), Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford,Nos. 22 and 23, 2005. www.fmreview.org

22 Interview with Dr. Nancy Hatch Dupree,ACBAR/ARIC, Peshawar, 02.12.04. Teaching materials andresearch have been discussed mainly in other chapters is thisbook, since those fields, especially teaching materials, have

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been given special focus throughout BEFARe’s history. 23 (a) See reference under Note 21. (b) See also inter-

nal documents in ACBAR and in most NGOs and UNorganizations dealing with refugee issues. Improvement incoordination at local levels is a field where few achieve-ments have been made in recent years. Initiatives have beentaken at international level. The Inter-Agency Network forEducation in Emergencies (INEE) was established in 2000,and other networks have also been established for examplefor livlihoods training. (c) The importance of including uni-versity institutions have been taken up by Hetland andBurde in articles in FMR, Nos. 22 and 23, 2005. Pakistani’sHigher Education Commission (HEC), Islamabad, hasexpertise in how to establish and run inter-university links.Most/all Pakistani and Afghan teacher training colleges anduniversities have competence, or can build up competence,

in fields relevant to refugee education and other refugeeissues. In the long run it is always the country’s indigenousinstitutions that must run the country’s own institutions,with some benefits from linkages within the country, withneighbouring countries and overseas. (c) For a more com-prehensive discussion of coordination issues, see, Sommers,Marc: Co-ordinating education during emergencies andreconstruction: challenges and responsibilities.IIEP/UNESCO. Paris, 2004.

24 See various GTZ-BEFARe Annual Reports.25 BEFARe’s future innovation and R&D ability will

be tested in the coming years. Many changes have to bemade, such as, to move from being an organization mainlyfor refugees to include mixed populations of poor Afghansand Pakistanis in refugee-hosting areas. Secondly, BEFARewished to add other sectors to its main focus on education.

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From a banner used at a photo exhibitionin in 2005, marking the 25 years ofUNHCR - Pakistan Cooperation.

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Part II

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Historical Background andCurrent AffairsAfghanistan and Afghan Refugees inPakistan

2Chapter

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Historical Background andCurrent Affairs

Afghanistan and Afghan Refugees in Pakistan

The history of refugee education in Pakistan runs parallel with Afghan refugee history inPakistan. Especially after 1996, the United Nations Refugee Agency UNHCR began usinginternational organizations more directly as implementing partners for education projects,

which UNHCR was the major funding agency for. The project we are studying in somedetail in this book, “Basic Education for Afghan Refugees” (BEFARe) and its predecessors,has a twenty-year history in implementing education activities for refugees in Pakistan. As

a background to learning more about that project and other educational activities forAfghan refugees in Pakistan, we shall in this chapter present a general overview of

Afghanistan’s history, including the refugee era following the invasion of Afghanistan by theSoviet Union in December 1979. Some refugees had come even earlier due to internal con-

flicts and uncertainty about Afghanistan’s future.

Although we attempt to give the reader an overview that can form a useful backgroundwhen reading the other chapters directly related to education, we do not in any way

attempt to give an exhaustive historical overview. We also assume that many readers willalready have a good knowledge of Afghanistan’s past and contemporary history, includingpersonal experience from the wars and conflicts over the last quarter century. Some of thereaders will be refugees, who will know many aspects of the history better than the author

of this book.

The chapter is descriptive and analytical. At the same time, we try to give some more per-sonal glimpses of the land and people. We also hope that this short chapter will encourage

further reading and debate.

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Afghan Kings from the signboard in a school in JalozaiRefugee Camp/Village. NWFP. 2005.

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1. Afghanistan has been ruled as apolitical entity since 1747although an ordinary central gov-ernment has hardly existed. Thecapital Kabul and major cities andtowns along trade routes havedeveloped with modern enclaveswhile the hinterland, the moun-tains and valleys, where most peo-ple live lag behind in most fields,such as water supply, health, nutri-tion, hygiene, education and eco-nomic livelihoods. Although mostof the land is dry agriculture, hor-ticulture and pastoralism are themajor productive sectors in addi-tion to trade, carpet weaving andhandicrafts. Illigal opium poppycultivation and smugglingaccounts for at least 50-60% ofthe country's foreign exchangeearnings. That income is obviouslykept away from official taxation.It is a major factor in keeping cor-ruption alive and it gives the war-lords a possibility to maintain con-trol over people in the vastremote rural areas and also intowns and cities outside Kabul.Afghanistan is listed as one of theworld's five poorest countries inUNDP's Human DevelopmentReport 2004. The indicators forchildren especially girls and adultwomen remain particularly poor.

2. The monarchy was toppled in1972 and turbulent years fol-lowed, including the take-over bya Communist friendly regime in1978 allowing the invation by theSoviet Union in the last days ofDecember 1979. The USSR had towithdraw in 1989, towards theend of the Cold War and the col-lapse of the superpower a fewyears later. Again turbulent yearsfollowed, with half-heartedAmerican and Western support.The ultra-conservative secterianIslamic regime known as Talibanruled from 1996 until the

American led and NATO/Westernsupported invation in October2001, following the tragic worldevents in New York andWashington D.C. on 11September 2001, for whichOsama bin Laden was maderesponsible. It was assumed helived in Afghanistan, although hehas not yet been found. In anycase, the Taliban regime andOsama bin Laden's terrorist incite-ment through the Al Qaeda net-work were closely related.

3. The last 25 years ofAfghanistan's history has seen oneof the world's worst refugee crisisever. One-third of the country'spopulation became refugees orinternally displaced persons(IDPs), and every household waseither directly or indirectly affect-ed. The majority of the refugeeswere forced to migrate to neigh-boring countries: Pakistan hashosted 5 - 7 million refugees andIran has hosted 3½ - 4 millionrefugees. Some sought asylum orresettlement in other countries,including in Europe, North-America, and Oceania.

4. The successful voluntary rep-tariation from the neighbouringcountries has been assisted byUNHCR since March 2002. Over2.5 million people have returnedhome from Pakistan and 1.2 mil-lion from Iran. Relatively fewhave returned from countries fur-ther away. There are still close to3 million Afghans living inPakistan and more than 0.5 mil-lion in Iran, as repatriation contin-ues. Several hundred thousand livein other countries. Returninghome is the preferred durablesolution, although it is not easy toreturn home either consideringthe general poverty level and thedestruction of the country from a

quarter century of wars, and thefact that the majority of therefugees have lived in exile for 10-15 years, sometimes longer, andthe young generation has neverlived at home.

5. Life in Afghanistan is difficultfor returnees as well as for themajority of the country's 25 mil-lion people who have lived athome throughout the war years.There is unemployment and short-ge of housing; there are greatproblems in fields like security,health, education (especially post-primary education), electricity,transport, etc. However, inOctober 2004 the Afghans for thefirst time held a democratic presi-dential election, followed by par-liamentary and local governmentelections in September 2005. H.E.Mr. Hamid Karzai is Afghanistan'spresident. The former, elderlyKing Shah has been invited homefrom exile in Italy and has an hon-orary role only in the emerging"modern Afghanistan".

6. Cautious optimism exists as forfuture peace and development.Afghanistan has joined in on thewar against terrorism. Aside frombeing important to its immediateneighbours, the country's strategicgeopolitical position makes itimportant to the world's super,great and regional powers. Themajority (80-90%) of theGovernment's budget for develop-ment and recurrent costs origi-nates from development aid. Themilitary and security assistancefrom the coalition forces is stillrequired to avoid relapse intogreat unscertainty and chaos. TheUnited Nations, bilateral donorsand NGOs play key roles along-side the coalition forces to facili-tate and support Afghanistan'sown development efforts.

Note: See also the Table and Map at the introduction of Chapter 3 about the Refugee History.

Box 2.1 Some Historical Data

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Pakistan and Afghanistan share major elementsof a common history, geography, culture andIslamic religion. Pakistan has a population ofmore than 160 million and Afghanistan's popula-tion is estimated at 25-30 million. An estimatedone and half million Afghans have died as aresult of the conflict in Afghanistan. It has beenestimated that as many as a third of the country'speople have been uprooted from their homes tolive in exile or as internally displaced persons(IDPs) due to wars, insecurity, environmental,economic and social factors. Pakistan's territoryis as large as the United Kingdom and Francecombined; Afghanistan is smaller, but still largerthan France. The heterogeneous peoples ofAfghanistan have been ruled as a political entitysince 1747, when Ahmad Shah Durrani foundedthe monarchy that lasted until 1973.

Afghanistan has suffered from the expandinginterests of its immediate neighbours for over acentury, notably the Russian and British empires(including British India). During the Cold Warera, United States of America, partly with its mil-itary and economic allies, including the militaryalliance of NATO (the European-AmericanNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization), were com-peting for control. The Soviet Union occupiedthe country from the end of 1979 to 1989. Thisperiod was followed by internal conflicts andunstable regimes. The Mujahideens, a regimemade up of several fractions of more moderateIslamic groups, ruled until 1994, when theTaliban captured Kandahar and gradually tookover other cities and rural areas in the followingyears, and controlled most of the country from1996. The Taliban was an ultraconservative

Islamic regime, but at the same time without aclearly defined basis or ideology. The West, ormore specifically USA, did not play a proactiverole in support of the Mujahideen, and theTaliban were supported secretly. Differentalliances after the Soviet era could have changedthe history of Afghanistan. Pakistan assisted andsympathized with the Taliban, especially at theinitial stages.

Only three countries had diplomatic tieswith the Afghanistan during the Taliban rule,notably Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the UnitedArab Emirates. The West soon became scared of'the monster that came out of the bottle', and wasparticularly concerned that under the Talibanwomen were hardly allowed to work outside thehome, and girls were banned from attendingschool in many areas. Criminals, minorities,opponents of all kinds and those not toeing theextreme and sometimes peculiar interpretationof Islamic laws and rules, were treated brutally.

After the tragic world events in New Yorkand Washington on 11 September 2001 ("9/11"),the United States with its allies moved swiftly tooccupy Afghanistan as its Taliban rulers werebelieved to have harboured the leader of theattack, Osama bin Laden and his Al Qaeda ter-rorist network. It was also assumed that AlQaeda and Bin Laden had been behind the late1990s bombing of American embassies inNairobi, Kenya, and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.Whether these were the real reasons for the USAand its allies to occupy Afghanistan will not beclear until relevant documents are declassified,or other proof becomes available, but it gave anopportunity for the West to gain control of the

INTRODUCTION

country, with its strategic geographical positionof regional and international importance. Oneeconomic reason for the West's intervention is itsinterest in building and controlling an oil and gaspipeline from Central Asia to the ports furthersouth; "the warm waters", as Russia has calledthem. Russia has had, and may still have interestin expansion and control southwards. Thisgeopolitical conflict, which has also been termedthe "Great Game", may not yet be over.

The reasons for the occupation ofAfghanistan and whether it can be justified goesbeyond the purpose of this chapter. "Great pow-ers have long-term strategic objectives that aredifficult to understand for ordinary people.Their perspectives are not in a few decades but incenturies", says Dr. Babar Shah, AssociateProfessor at the Area Studies Centre for Russia,China and Central Asia at the University ofPeshawar.

Afghanistan now has an opportunity todevelop into a stable and modern state, for thefirst time in its history, although it would benaïve to expect developments to be smooth andswift, considering two factors. Firstly, that theoccupying force, with its allies, is likely to stay to'oversee developments' for a long time to come,and that some groups, with or without externalsupport, may sooner or later object to this.Secondly, it is a country with many internal con-flicts, extreme poverty and low social and eco-nomic indicators. Afghanistan is today listedamong the world's five poorest countries as perUNDP's Human Development Report. It is pos-itive, that for the first time in its history,Afghanistan held democratic presidential elec-tions in October 2004, and the InterimPresident, Hamid Karzai, became the country'sPresident for a five-year period, with parliamen-tary elections in mid-September 2005.

Afghanistan receives support from its neigh-bours. Pakistan works closely with the West inthe war on terror, which includes assisting thenew rulers in Afghanistan. Elsewhere in thischapter, we have underlined the importance ofclose cooperation between neighbouring coun-

tries in general and Afghanistan and Pakistan inparticular.

PEOPLE, GEOGRAPHY AND ECON-OMY

Pashtuns, who constitute about three quarters ofthe refugees in Pakistan, are about 50-60 percentof Afghanistan's population, mainly inhabitingthe southeastern part of the country. There arealso a large number of Pashtuns in northwesternPakistan. Thus, the total number of Pashtuns inthe two countries, including its various sub-groups, are about twenty million people.

The international border between the twocountries, the Indo-Afghan border known as the'Durand Line' is over 2,400 kilometers anddemarcates Afghanistan's eastern and southernfrontiers. The border was drawn quite arbitrarilyin 1893 to separate the Afghan and Britishresponsibilities in the Pashtun area. This was atthe high tide of British colonial rule and BritishIndia included what is today Pakistan. The bor-der, named after the British Indian ForeignSecretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, who chaired theBritish Commission, which determined the bor-der, led to thorny border disputes betweenAfghanistan and British India, and, after 1947,between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

During the British colonial rule, Punjabprovince included large territories with populousrural and urban settlements, including suchmajor cities as Lahore, Rawalpindi and Peshawarin today's Pakistan, and at some stage, Jalalabadand Kabul in Afghanistan. The British foughtthree wars in Afghanistan, in 1838-42, 1878-80and 1919, all of which led to massive casualtiesand retreat. Afghanistan has historically been tar-geted by several larger neighbouring countriesand empires, and it has suffered from internalrivalry among central and regional royal and mil-itary leaders. In one sense it is surprising thatsuch a large, diverse, and divided country actual-ly remains one country. Whether Afghanistan isyet a nation is another issue but we believe it ison its way to further integration and nation

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building, with more clearly defined roles of thecentral government and the regional leaders,who are often warlords.

Peshawar has been a commercial and tradingcentre for Afghanistan and Pakistan for manycenturies. Further south in Pakistan's Balochistanprovince, Quetta plays a similar but lesser role toPeshawar, as a major border city, with Kandaharon the other side of the border in Afghanistan.Pakistan's former capital, the large port city ofKarachi, with a population of at least 12 millionpeople, has always been a melting pot of peoplefrom all over Pakistan, neighbouring countries,and further away in the region. Afghan refugeeshave settled in urban areas in Karachi and somein other coastal towns in Sindh province.Refugees have also settled in the city of Lahoreand elsewhere, including in a refugee camp inMinanwali in Punjab province. Afghan business-men have also settled in Pakistan, or they travelback and forth between Pakistan andAfghanistan, and also to other countries. Thetransport sector in Karachi, for example, isknown for major Afghan operators.

In 1960, Pakistan's capital was moved fromKarachi to Islamabad, on the planes below theMargalla Hills, on the outskirt of Rawalpindi inPunjab province, and the federal capital territory,which is growing rapidly, has developed into asubstantial city of close to one million inhabi-tants. The twin-cities of Islamabad andRawalpindi have more than four million inhabi-tants.

Such a major and growing metropolitan areahosts all kinds of people in search of livelihoods,education, and so on, including a large numberof urban Afghan refugees. At its peak in 2001,the number of refugees in this area was estimat-ed to be two to three hundred thousand poorurban refugees. Some were involved in illegalactivities. There are also refugees from othercountries, including from as far away as Somaliaand other African countries.

When discussing Afghan history as related toPakistan, which has a major migration andrefugee problem, the Pashtuns should always be

given special mention. However, other ethnicgroups also live in the major "Pashtun cities",especially in Kabul, being Afghanistan's capitaland Peshawar. Quetta is also ethnically quitemixed. Karachi is said to house more Pashtunsthan any other city. In our refugee context itshould be mentioned that Quetta city has acolony of Hazara people, who migrated fromAfghanistan in the 1950s. The refugees inPakistan constitute other ethnic groups too. Thetribal aspect has not been such a major issue andreason for conflicts in Afghanistan's history as weseem to think today. Geographic, resource andeconomic reasons are more important reasonsfor conflicts. However, in Afghanistan there willusually be one larger ethnic group in each area.In public debate today, the tribal or ethnic issueare probably given more attention than is justi-fied.

There are two major official languages inAfghanistan, Pashtun and Dari; the latter closerto Persian and widely spoken in the north, incities like Herat and Mazar-e-Sharif, and in thewest and southwest. There are other languagesand ethnic groups, related to the Central Asianneighbours, and in the west, the spoken lan-guages or dialects have similarities with Turkish.All these aspects contribute to Afghanistan'smulti-ethnicity and multiculturalism.

Interestingly, you can find indigenousAfghans with blue eyes and blonde hair, othershave Chinese or Mongolian features, and yetothers have features belonging to the Indian sub-continent, and Pashtun are more fair skinnedthan other people further south and east on thesub-continent and take pride in that. The varia-tion and beauty of the Afghan people is admired- and envied - in neighbouring countries andbeyond. Sometimes authors describe the men ascut out of Rudyard Kipling's novels and thewomen as beautiful and gracious as Hollywoodmovie stars. No wonder perhaps that the womenhave to cover themselves with a large headscarf,dupatta, or wear a complete burkha?

Afghanistan and its people, livelihoods,nature, geography, and so on, are a mixture, and

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the country has all shades and facets of beauty,ugliness, kindness and ruthlessness, hardship andidleness, religious serenity and misunderstoodextremism. Geo-politically Afghanistan is at thecrossroads between east and west, north andsouth. The mountainous country, with rangesover 3000 meters, has limited natural resources.Only about one tenth of the land is arable,although irrigation is often required since wateris a particularly scarce resource in most parts ofthe country. The environment and climate isharsh, especially in wintertime. The Afghanshave traditionally been nomads, or semi-nomadic pastoralists and agriculturalists, whomigrate seasonally with their animals to grass-land on higher elevations over some summerweeks, and then back to the lower and mildervalleys during the winter season. Some wealthierpeople from Kabul, Jalalabad, and other cities,along with tradesmen, have traditionally traveledto Peshawar and elsewhere in Pakistan, for a stintduring the coldest winter months at home.Agriculture and horticulture, with forestry, formthe backbone of the country's natural economy.Management and development of these sectors ishighly required.

Afghans have traditionally been traders, car-pet weavers and artisans, tinsmiths and gold-smiths and smugglers. They have lived undermore or less despotic Kabul monarchs, whocould not control the whole land behind themountains and valleys. Other smaller kings andwarlords ruled and dictated their territories fromregional centres. Some succumbed and others didnot; conflict and strife were rampant. Tiny elitegroups or families developed in Kabul and othercities.

History has shaped the Afghans to becomeindependent and unique people, for good andfor bad. Afghanistan has never been and willprobably never be a land of 'milk and honey'.Well, honey is actually one of the commoditiesAfghans do sell, along with dried apricots, wildberries, almonds and other products that requirelittle water to grow.

GENDER ISSUES

We have already mentioned that the Taliban dis-criminated against women and girls, makingthem second-class citizens, confined to the home.But how were women treated traditionally inAfghanistan and how do they fare today? Thepicture is mixed, as real life always is. Womenwere sometimes seen as the man's property, tobear his children and look after his homestead,cultivate the land, weave the carpets, bring upthe children, and handle most of the daily

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Many traditions affecting Afghan women need to change in thefuture. Education is a key ‘change agent”.Photo: UNHCR Magazine “Refugees”, Vol 1, No. 134, 2004.

chores, including keeping order in the home.Women and children would take part in incomegenerating activities, including carpet weaving,tilling the land, and do other things. There wasnot, and there is not, much of Western type gen-der equality, but we should also bear in mind thatan Afghan woman's duties if she is in charge ofmajor aspects of a large rural household went farbeyond a housewife's duties in the Westernworld, although most women in Afghanistanlived a life under the men's control. Times arechanging in Afghanistan albeit more slowly inremote and conservative villages, which havefound and also got stuck in certain ways of liv-ing. Yet, the division of labour and the fact thatoften the women run the homestead giveswomen some responsibility.

Perhaps we should add, a bit poetically, thatthe women would have major duties because themen would have ridden on their horses beyondmany hills and mountains - to return to get whatwould be their right - in happiness or otherwise,with nothing, or with gold and glitter! Well, thismay have been the past. True, but to manyAfghans in the rural and remote areas in this vastland, life is probably much the same today as ithas been for generations. Time has not stoodstill, and there has been a lot of outside influ-ence, not least through occupations and wars,and through refugees returning home. Yet, dailylife and comfort has not changed much. Socialand economic indicators show that Afghanistanis among the five poorest countries in the world,even when we take into consideration theincome from the illegal opium poppy cultivationand sale.

Poverty affects women and children particu-larly severely, but also affects the men, directlyand indirectly, psychologically and socially, as themen are usually the breadwinners in the families.Wars and conflicts have affected both men andwomen. Widowed women live in particularly dif-ficult circumstances, even now after the Talibanregime's overthrow. Although the Taliban wereextreme, many old fashioned and religiouslyconservative people in Afghanistan and else-

where may have a streak of their attitudes with-out being 'bad people'. The Taliban would arguethat they did what they did to protect thewomen, not to keep them down. But can we besure? Furthermore, the Taliban policies were atleast a hundred or two hundred years behind therest of the world, which has become a ‘global vil-lage’.

Change will take time, but there is a wind ofchange and modernization blowing overAfghanistan, not least in the fields of genderequality and education. Afghanistan should alsobuild on positive aspects of its own gender histo-ry, not just ape Western ideas of the day. It shouldbe careful with the latter if and when they con-tradict deep cultural traditions and religiousbeliefs, which in Afghanistan almost alwaysmeans Islamic religious beliefs. We shouldremember that the country is an Islamic state,and that includes certain gender rules and regu-lations that are different from Western ones.

Early in 2005, we had an interview with agroup of young Afghan refugees, who wereabout to complete primary school in a refugeecamp outside Peshawar. A twelve-year old girl,whose mother is a doctor and the father a police-man, said she would like to become a doctor. InAfghanistan, female doctors are normally onlyallowed to attend to female patients, and maledoctors attend to male patients. More doctors,nurses and midwives are urgently needed in

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Sad past - happy future?

Afghanistan. The young girl told us that the fam-ily had fled the Jalalabad area in Afghanistan toPakistan at the end of 2001 when there was ter-rible bombing of the Tora Bora mountains andother areas of Afghanistan, especially near theborder with Pakistan, to oust the Taliban regimeand capture leaders, including Osama bin Laden.

We asked the young girl if it was her motheror her father who decided that they should seekexile in Pakistan. "It was my mother who madethe decision", she said. "When we came toPakistan my mother found work quickly as adoctor in the refugee camp. My father could notfind work, so he moved back to Jalalabad after ayear. Now, I live with my mother and five broth-ers and sisters in a refugee camp outsidePeshawar."

HUMAN RIGHTS AND LIVINGCONDITIONS

Since we are focusing on the recent history, inparticular the recent wars and refugee issues, itshould be emphasized that literally every house-hold has been directly affected by the wars, con-flicts and foreign powers' interference in theAfghan people's lives during the last quarter cen-tury. This period has certainly not led to anydevelopment and improvement of people's dailylives. It has indeed caused stagnation and regres-

sion. Millions of people have become refugees orinternally displaced persons (IDPs), sometimesbecause of draught and nature's unpredictability,but mainly because of war and conflict. Over theprevious quarter century, Pakistan has hostedabout five to seven million Afghan refugees, andIran three to four million.

The 'luckier ones', hundreds of thousands, ormore, may have obtained refugee or resettlementstatus in richer countries in Europe, America orOceania, where they have enjoyed better oppor-tunities for education and work.

The drain and dislocation of Afghanistan'sdevelopment at large and complete destructionof institutions, from the individual and familyunit upwards to the provincial and national lev-els, are beyond quantification and comprehen-sion. However, we get some idea of what hashappened if we consider that in the range of onethird of the population has been refugees or oth-erwise displaced persons - and as many as fivemillion Afghans are still refugees or forcedmigrants in foreign countries. Every householdhas been affected by the horrible events of thecountry's last quarter century. We can only feelsorry for the Afghan people. Outside powers,which did not have any right to interfere in thecountry's internal affairs, should also feel guiltyand play an active role in rebuilding the country.Internal groups, too, should take their responsi-bility for wrong policies based on misunderstoodideas or self-serving interests.

According to the Human Rights Watch(HRW), "Throughout the civil war inAfghanistan, all of the major factions haverepeatedly committed serious violations of inter-national human rights and humanitarian law,including killings, indiscriminate aerial bombard-ment and shelling, direct attacks on civilians,summary executions, rape, persecution on thebasis of religion, and the use of anti-personnelmines." About the Taliban regime, HRW addedthat it operated, in the areas it controlled, as a'repressive police state'.

We should bear in mind that Afghanistan,even without the sad history since the late 1970s,

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Traditional Afghan town.Photo: Fiona Torrens-Spence

would have had a difficult time as a poor andunderdeveloped country, with inequalities andlack of human, social and economic rights for thevast majority of the people. However, we cannotchange history. We can only hope and pray thatthe future will allow the Afghan people a morenormal development path. We have already men-tioned that we believe there are clear indicationsthat this will happen for women and children,especially girls. The participatory democracy,which is, however, in its infancy, will also giveroom for change in the interest of ordinary peo-ple, not only the elite and the military leaders.

We hope that the refugees will continuereturning home and that they are welcomed andfind security, livelihoods, social and economicdevelopment, so that they can begin rebuildingtheir lives and country in dignity and with pride- though, no doubt, in sweat and hardship, too.More than three and half million refugees havereturned so far, about two and a half millionfrom Pakistan. Many bring with them importantnew knowledge, ideas and attitudes from educa-tion exposure and experience abroad.

We hope that the international communitycontinues supporting the country, and is not dis-tracted by other tasks in Iraq and elsewhere, notleast through education and training at all levelsand in all forms, and in development of liveli-hoods and economic activities based onAfghanistan's natural and human resources.

THE BORDER AREAS AND FUTURE COOPERATION BETWEENAFGHANISTAN AND PAKISTAN

The so called tribal areas in Pakistan, along theWestern border with Afghanistan, have enjoyedmajor self-rule until recently, but are now beingpulled more and more into the mainstream ofPakistan's development and rule. They areremote, backward areas, and sometimes quitelawless, where modern amenities and serviceslike electricity, health and education lag farbehind the rest of the country. Literacy, particu-

larly among women, is the lowest in the countrysometimes as low as five percent. On the Afghanside of the border similar underdevelopmentexists, often combined with extreme cultural andreligious traditionalism.

In trade and commerce, on the other hand,extreme liberalism exists, giving room for smug-gling and trade in illegal commodities.Cultivation and trade in opium constitute themost serious development problems inAfghanistan, and hamper enforcement of lawand order, and regularized development in otherareas of society. The income generated fromopium poppy is much higher than from alterna-tive crops, such as wheat, and it is estimated thatmore than half of the foreign exchange earningsoriginate from this illegal trade, which is obvi-ously outside the central Government's control.

Much of the opium poppy cultivation andtrade, and sometimes laboratories for refine-ment, are under the control of Afghan warlordsand regional military and political leaders, whothen operate independently and also in opposi-tion to, the central Government's regulationssince they have their own source of revenue. Thecentral Government in Kabul has taken initia-tives to curtail the independent regional leadersthrough inclusion in the official government.

It should be added that the smuggling routesare not only through Pakistan, but also throughother neighboring countries, not least north andwestwards through parts of the old 'silk route' toTurkey, Russia and Europe, and across to NorthAmerica. Drug abuse (more than alcohol abuse)is a problem among Afghans, including Afghanrefugees and returnees. With all its faults in otherfields, it should be mentioned that cultivationand trade in opium poppy went down during theTaliban regime (1996 - 2001) although it stillconstituted the major foreign exchange earningand contributed significantly to keeping theregime afloat. The current Karzai government,assisted by international organizations, hasdeclared that in 2005 and 2006 it intends reduc-ing opium production by twenty to thirty per-cent. But it realizes that it will take time to

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reduce the cultivation of this 'evil crop' signifi-cantly. Opium usually ends up as heroin amongdrug addicts, mainly in the industrialized world'smetropolises. Recent newspaper reports haveestimated that up to eighty percent of the world'sheroin may well originate from Afghanistan.

In order to improve security significantly inAfghanistan, it is necessary to dramaticallyreduce, or eradicate opium production and trade- as well as the 'Kalashnikov culture', which refersto the widespread availability and willingness touse weapons. There is need for active publicdebate and educational courses for school chil-dren, adolescents and adults in order to create a'culture of peace', to paraphrase a term and pro-gramme of the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO).

It is our hope that institutions, organizationsand private companies in Pakistan andAfghanistan harness their cooperation in theyears to come. Already, cooperation exists, espe-cially more informal cooperation between indi-viduals and groups of people, who may often berelatives or have had long lasting business ties. Inthe future, we hope that many linkages can beestablished and existing ones deepened. Forexample, colleges and universities in Afghanistanand sister institutions in Pakistan would gainfrom cooperation. In the near future, the Afghaninstitutions have more to gain than Pakistaniinstitutions, but over time, the cooperation willbecome more equally beneficial to both coun-tries, and the people who have the opportunityto take part in cooperation arrangements. Wehope that there is an open eye for these cooper-ation aspects in Afghanistan and Pakistan, andthat Afghanistan does not only look for coopera-tion with advanced Western countries, whowould often be donor countries, but that it estab-lishes close cooperation with its immediateneighbours. As we mentioned in the introductionto this chapter, the two countries share majoraspects of their past, as they will of their future.

SOME FURTHER HISTORICAL ANDCULTURA DATA

The conflicts in Afghanistan, leading to the sadquarter century history until the present time,originate from internal instability and conflicts inthe 1970s. Or, if we want to go further back inhistory, polygamy and rivalries within the succes-sive royal families from the end of the eighteenthcentury, the abolishing of the King in 1973, untilthe pro-Soviet communist coup in April 1978,played a major part.

Instead of pursuing a policy of peacefulcompetition for influence in Afghanistan, whichfactions within the Kremlin preferred, the SovietUnion opted for military intervention inDecember 1979. However, it ended disastrouslyfor the Kremlin, which contemplated withdraw-al from 1976 until 1979.

Although the great powers have competedfor influence and control over Afghanistan, andthe Russians had, prior to the invasion, exerciseddirect influence, experts claim that the Kremlin'sknowledge of the country was limited. It has alsobeen argued that other superpowers, includingthe only one left in our time, notably the USA,and its allies, also have limited understanding ofthe country and have short-sighted strategies formaking friends in the region as a whole,Afghanistan included. However, others willargue that the great powers have their long-termstrategies in place, but that details along the wayare unpredictable and would demand deeperknowledge. In the past, this has led to costlyinvolvement in Afghanistan, costly for everyone,but to the Afghans in particular. We may not yetknow clearly the reasons for the geo-politicalinvolvement in Afghanistan and the region,which includes control of oil and gas reserves,building of pipelines from central Asia to theports, the Indo-Pakistani rivalry, the Indo-Sinorivalry, and Russian, Arab, American andEuropean rivalry and interests in the region.

We do not believe that religion is a majorfactor, but to some extent, cultural factors in theArab and Islamic world may possibly play a role.

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For example, the oil-rich Arab peninsula's rapideconomic development in less than a century,with overspill on neighbours, was bound to leadto enormous social and cultural difficulties; thelatter, also including religious aspects. Economicand infrastructure development is relatively easy,even institutional development if we 'transplant'foreign institutions like universities or hospitalsinto other countries, and run them by local stafftrained abroad, or by a mixture by local and for-eign staff, as for example Saudi-Arabia has beenable to do.

To change people takes longer not just a fewdecades, especially if we want the people to par-ticipate in the changes and choices to be made,and which concern them and their children. TheArab world, with its neighbours, is in the midstof this situation in our time - with positive andnegative external influences and direct interfer-ence, as we witness in Iraq today - and indeed inAfghanistan, although the latter is neither an

Arab nor an oil-rich state, but belongs to the geo-political sphere in question.

REFUGEESPush and pull factors leading to exodus,return and prolonged exile

The end of 1978 and 1979 was the opening of achapter of human miseries for a country of about15 million people at that time. The invasion ofthe Soviet Union took place on 27 December1979, or in the propagandistic language used,the Afghan communists invited the Soviet Unionfor assistance. Some refugees had begun fleeingbefore the invasion. Pakistan, being the next-door neighbour of Afghanistan was first to feelthe brunt of the rapid and drastic changes takingplace in its backyard. Let us mention that, con-trary to general belief, the Afghan migration toPakistan did not start off in 1980 and the subse-quent period. Pakistan had in fact provided shel-ter to Afghan refugees earlier, too, albeit insmaller numbers, including, for example, whenabout 1500 Afghan refugees in 1973, fled theircountry due to atrocities committed by theSardar Mohammad Daoud Khan regime.

However, Pakistan and Iran, and the widerworld, had hardly seen such enormous refugeeexodus as those of Afghans, and in particularPashtuns, fleeing their country from 1980onwards. The world was in shock. Peace move-ments sprang up in many countries. But this didnot lead to the withdrawal of the occupier, theSoviet Union, or saving the Afghans from suffer-ing, although it may have contributed to the finalwithdrawal in 1989 and the fall of the Sovietempire in 1991.

The 'reforms through repression' policies ofthe leaders of the Saur Revolution, NoorMohammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin, during1978-79 that was followed by the Soviet militaryintervention in Afghanistan in December 1979,accelerated the process of population displace-ment inside Afghanistan. The Soviet 'scorchedearth policy', aimed at depopulating

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An Afghan refugee and his child arriving in North WestFrontier Province in Pakistan in the early 1980s. Photo: M. Kobayashi/UNHCR/1983.

Afghanistan's Pashtun areas, mainly inhabitingsoutheastern and southern areas near the borderwith the Pakistani border, by massive, brutal andwanton use of airpower, was the first major rea-son for mass exodus of Afghans to Pakistan. Asthe war escalated, the proportion of war-relatedmiseries of Afghans escalated, too. In the northof Afghanistan, full-scale war went on between arebellious population and the Afghan-Sovietforces. Horrendous use of land forces and airpower also compelled northerly non-Pashtunsmostly people of Tajik, Uzbek and Turkmen eth-nicity, to move towards Pakistan and Iran insearch of shelter.

Afghanistan's countryside came under full-fledged war by the end of 1980. Big cities thatremained under the Kabul-regime's control hadto withstand unprecedented pressure for shelterof the war-stricken rural population, since itwould squeeze already minimal economic oppor-tunities for the urbanites. Price-hikes, shortagesof foodstuff and fuel, and non-availability ofessential medicines, deteriorated the law andorder situation in the urban centers, and it led toattacks of insurgents on civic infrastructure. Allthis further promoted the forced migration trendamong Afghans, who became IDPs and more fre-quently refugees.

In 1973 a group of Afghans having anti-Daoud and pro-Islam leanings migrated toPakistan for political reasons, yet, this was notthe case in the post 1979 period. Only political-ly strong personalities like tribal chieftains, lead-ers of some of the political parties, interest andpressure groups who feared political victimiza-tion, migrated for political reasons.

Commoners moved to Pakistan because ofthe devastation of war and unforeseen threats totheir honour and lives. Very few Afghans felt anykind of threat to their religion or customary wayof life. Lack of livelihood was a strong factor formigration but at the same time the Afghans knewvery little about the changes in the Afghan econ-omy that were envisaged under the PeoplesDemocratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) reformpackage.

The cumulative figures of Afghan refugeeswho came to Pakistan in search of shelter duringthe 1979 - 1999 period is listed below. The fig-ures are from the end of each year and are basedon official sources, i.e. the Government ofPakistan and UNHCR. It should be noted thatfigures of this kind are never accurate.

The table and map in Chapter 3 give a pic-ture of the situation of refugees in the refugeecamps/villages. Data from Iran, and some com-parisions between Iran and Pakistan, have beenadded in the text under the map.

Over the years a number of Afghan refugeesand other categories of Afghans lived temporari-ly or permanently in Pakistan. After 9/11 theGovernment of Pakistan released estimates indi-cating that it housed about 3.3 million Afghansliving in Pakistan. The Census of Afghans inPakistan (see below), which was undertaken bythe Government of Pakistan, assisted byUNHCR, in February-March 2005, registeredwell over 3 million Afghans in spite of the factthat about 2.5 million refugees had returnedafter 9/11. This calculation indicates that therewere at least 5.5 million Afghans in Pakistan inearly 2002 when the UNHCR assisted voluntaryrepatriation started. It also shows that the realnumbers of refugees have been very inaccurateand, as we mentioned above, how difficult it is toestimate the numbers of refugees in long-termrefugee situations unless actual registrations andcensuses are undertaken.

Arrival and return of Afghan refugeesremained heavily dependent upon the internalpolitical situation and to some extent the climat-ic and weather conditions of Afghanistan. Veryfew Afghan refugees returned to their homes vol-untarily from 1979 to 1990, with one majorexception, notably in the early 1990s, or morespecifically in 1992. Unfortunately for many itproved another false dawn as the situation wasnot yet stable in Afghanistan.

The reason for staying on in Pakistan afterthe withdrawal of the Soviet Union, and the fallof that Soviet empire in 1991, was the dreadfulwar continuing between the Soviet-Afghan

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forces, notably the Marxist-Leninist regime,which held out until 1992 (from 1978) and theMujahideen Islamic resistance groups, receivingsome support from the USA. After the defeat andwithdrawal of the Soviet Union, there were peri-ods of civil war in some areas, and at other times,there were periods of hope. The refugee num-bers peaked in Pakistan and Iran in the late1980s and early 1990s when each country host-ed up to and over 3 million Afghan refugees

Whenever there was a pause in war, therefugees' repatriation showed an upward trend.For example, the Mujahideen victory over Dr.Najeebullah in April 1992, triggered off animmediate and massive repatriation, and itprompted more than 1.3 million refugees toreturn home between April 1992 and Decemberthat year. According to UNHCR data, during aone-week period in July 1992, more than onehundred thousand refugees repatriated fromPakistan. Until then, this was the largest andfastest repatriation programme ever assisted byUNHCR. That UNHCR assisted repatriationwas overshadowed in 2002-2003, following theAmerican led invasion in October 2001 and theestablishment of Mohammad Hamid Karzai'sinterim government in Afghanistan, when morethan 1.5 million refugees returned to their home-land from Pakistan, mainly Pashtuns from theNorth-West Frontier Province (NWFP).

The tragic history of the Taliban regime inAfghanistan, which defeated the Mujahideen in1996 (with the quiet understanding of the USAand Pakistan) and lasted until the invasion led bythe USA in 2001, is a particularly sad chapter inAfghanistan's recent history. Bloody battlesbetween Taliban and their archrivals, theNorthern Alliance forces, badly affected theUNHCR assisted repatriation programme in themid-1990s. The fighting and Taliban takeoverspurred new flows of refugees to Pakistan andIran. The year 1996 saw the arrival of 40,000new refugees to Pakistan. Though UNHCR andthe World Food Programme (WFP) had endedtheir food support programmes for the refugeeswith the consent of the Government of Pakistan

in 1995-96, and UNHCR stopped registeringrefugees in the camps/villages, the influx ofrefugees to Pakistan continued unabated. Manyrefugees settled with relatives in the camps, orthey became urban refugees in Pakistan's majorcities. Urban refugees were never registered byUNHCR and they did not receive any assistance.

It should be noted that from the Soviet with-drawal from Afghanistan in 1989 until the fall ofthe Soviet empire in 1991, the internationalcommunity's interest for Afghanistan diminishedsharply. It became more difficult to receive aidfor Afghan refugees in neighbouring countriesand for rebuilding the war-torn country. Thiswas a major oversight on the part of the interna-tional community with serious historical conse-quences, including the build-up of the Taliban.Throughout the Afghan refugee crisis Pakistanreceived more support from the internationalcommunity than Iran did. (See Note 15, whichgives reference to UNHCR's 50 years anniversarybook.)

Taliban advances in the north of Afghanistanfrom 1996 to 1999 drove a large number ofAfghans of Tajik and Hazara ethnic backgroundsto seek shelter in Pakistan. Until the end of 1999,an estimated 100,000 refugees had taken refugein Pakistan and Iran. Pakistan received yetanother wave of refugees in the 2000 due to thefierce battles between the Taliban and theNorthern Alliance in the north of Afghanistan.This time, about 170,000 refugees arrived inPakistan.

Following the 11 September 2001 tragedy inthe USA, and the invasion of Afghanistan inOctober the same year, led by the USA, with itsallied forces, there was yet another wave of some300,000 Afghan refugees coming to Pakistanacross the border from southern Afghanistan tocamps in Chaman, near Quetta city inBalochistan, and to tribal areas in Balochistanand NWFP, some four to five hours' drive fromPeshawar city. Some of the refugees in this exo-dus were so simple that they thought theAmerican attack on Afghanistan was yet anotherattack by the Russian forces on their country.

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The severe bombardment, and prolonged 'spotbombings' that followed, of the border areas nearPakistan was carried out in order to eradicate theTaliban regime, its leaders and the Al Qaeda net-work, with its Afghan cleric leader MullaMuhammad Omar and the 'brain behind it all',Osama bin Laden, who were accused of beingbehind the "9/11" attack on New York andWashington. Although it has not been provenbeyond doubt that this was actually the case, theinvasion that followed rid the Afghans of theultraconservative Taliban regime. It has givenroom for the first ever democratically electedPresident, with massive reconstruction works ofinfrastructure and institutions. It has led to greatoptimism among the majority of the Afghans,who lived at home throughout the sad events ofthe recent quarter century, and also among manyof the refugees, who have returned home in largenumbers. A large number of the latter group stillremains in exile, perhaps more than fifty percent,including a large number of the most highly edu-cated refugees.

By mid-2005, some 2.5 million Afghanrefugees had returned to their homeland under ajoint voluntary repatriation programme betweenthe Governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan,assisted by UNHCR. Some of those whoreturned home found it impossible to settle inAfghanistan and have been forced to return toPakistan. In February-March 2005, theGovernment of Pakistan carried out a Census ofAfghans living in the country. The Censusshowed that a total of close to 3.1 millionAfghans lived in Pakistan. It is assumed that themajority of these are refugees. The Censusshowed that the majority has lived in Pakistan for10-15 years, and some even longer. The figurefor refugees in the camps was 1.1 million at thetime. It could be added, based on anecdotalinformation and our general knowledge of thesituation, that a certain number of Afghans maynot have been included in the Census. Some maynot have been visited by the persons carrying outthe Census, while others may have avoided beingavailable out of fear of pressure being put on

them to return to Afghanistan. Some Afghans,who have lived in Pakistan for a long time, maylegally or illegally have obtained PakistaniIdentification Cards.

UNHCR's planning figure for assisted, vol-untary repatriation in 2005 was 400,000, whichwas surpassed. Continued repatriation, whichhas slowed down in 2006, depends on a numberof factors, some of which we have mentionedabove. The Census reports lack of shelter as themain factor given by refugees for not returning,followed by lack of livelihood and security. To arural refugee peasant the term 'lack of shelter'most likely also means lack of access to landwhich can give livelihood.

It is a general wish that the Afghans living inPakistan do return home, but also that some,who may have deep roots in Pakistan, can beallowed to settle in the country. This is not yet amajor issue, since the conditions in Afghanistanare such that the repatriation can go on,although it must take a slow pace in order not todestabilize the country, especially the cities, sincemany of those who return home find it impossi-ble to settle in the villages and towns where theycome from but gravitate to the major urbanareas. Lack of shelter, land, livelihoods, security,social services, including health and education,make repatriation difficult. It is essential thatrepatriation takes place in a planned and realisticway - where authorities, international organiza-tions and NGOs in both countries work closelytogether.

We are of the opinion that there has beensome neglect on the part of the internationalcommunity in offering too little education toAfghan refugees in Pakistan. Primary educationhas been given to less than half of the school-going age refugee children in Pakistan, and fur-ther education to some five percent. Today, thereis great need for human resources inAfghanistan: people with skills, vocational andtechnical training, and specialists with highereducation. In all these fields, more could andshould have been done in Pakistan - and in Iran.This is one of the lessons that can be drawn from

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this refugee education crisis which is one of theworld's largest and longest. It is the purpose ofthis book to look into refugee education activi-ties and projects in Pakistan, including the workof GTZ mainly through the BEFARe project.

We would like to add, in this chapter, thatexcellent work has been done by a number oforganizations, including the Government ofPakistan, the NGOs and the international com-munity, with UNHCR as the major fundingagency. BEFARe is an example of one such proj-ect, with several sub-projects and activities. Butalso other organizations, including the Afghanrefugees running self-help schools, and otherorganizations, have done unique work. There isneed for further documentation of all these expe-riences and to draw lessons for the future inorder to benefit other refugee situations that arebound to happen in the world we live in, andalso for the remainder of the Afghan refugee erain Pakistan.

Some further questions concerning the vol-untary repatriation of the 3 million Afghans inPakistan and their return and settling-in at home,have been discussed in the two last chapters ofthe book. We also take up issues related to thereturn of refugees from Iran and overseas. It isimportant to note that some refugees and otherAfghans living in Pakistan may wish to stay on inPakistan for some years or for good. We hopethat Pakistan, Afghanistan and the internationalcommunity will be able to find solutions that areacceptable to all parties - and solutions that canbecome models for ending other large and long-lasting refugee crises elsewhere in the world. TheUnited Nations Refugee Agency, UNHCR, willplay a key role in this work, but the agency mustpay particular attention to advising a process thatis democratic, inclusive and future looking. Thegovernments of Afghanistan and Pakistan shouldlead the process, assisted by UNHCR and theinternational community. The most importantpeople in the process are the refugees, the peoplein the refugee-hosting areas, and the people inthe villages and towns to which the refugeesreturn. It is important to bear in mind that 1/3 of

Afghanistan's population were uprooted andforced to migrate within their home country andacross the borders. Every household and familyhas been touched by the scourge of war and con-flict in Afghanistan, and many people in theneighbouring countries, as victims or as helpers.They now deserve to be given the best assistancepossible at this time in history so that the crisis tobe brought to a dignified conclusion. Many needspecial assistance and care to continue their livesand build a new future. We must remember thateach person affected, as refugee, host, or other-wise, is a unique human being.

THE FUTURE

We have expressed hope and optimism concern-ing Afghanistan's future development. Whetherwe have been too optimistic or not the readerwill have to judge. The ultimate answers lie inthe future. But there is a lot that leaders andordinary people can do - Afghans, neighbouringcountries and their institutions, organizationsand companies, the multilateral and bilateralorganizations, various governmental and non-governmental organizations, and so on. Thefuture lies in the hands and minds of people, inparticular the great powers and leaders at all lev-els. It is our belief that everybody can and shouldcontribute to shaping the future of Afghanistan.The better educated and trained people are, thebetter equipped they are to contribute. BEFARe'sreturning teachers and pupils are important, asare other returnees from Pakistan.

In the new 2002 edition of a book byProfessor Johan Galtung et al, entitled "Searchingfor Peace: The Road to Transcend", there is a sec-tion on Afghanistan, giving the following prog-nosis, as it is termed: "Afghanistan will continueto be a battlefield among external powers andtheir allies among Afghan fractions, at theexpense of the Afghan people. The 'humanitari-an intervention for US bases' scenario is likely.This is because Afghanistan is weak, not militari-ly, but fragmented, dependent on foreign aid,with divisive identities, and neighbour quarrels."

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The conclusion is drawn on a broader analysis ofcurrent and historical factors, most of which wehave taken up above. While Galtung et al arestating that "Afghanistan is inserted in a complexconflict formation", one aspect can be highlight-ed from their list of factors, notably, "the US pin-cer move expanding NATO eastward and AMPOwestward creating a strong Russia-China bondwith ties to India-Iran-Iraq". (Note: NATO isthe American-European defense organization.AMPO is the American-Japanese defense organi-zation.)

Furthermore, on a more positive note,Galtung et al have a four-tier peace 'therapy' forAfghanistan, which includes, in exerts; develop-ment of a strong Afghan people; a basic-need ori-ented country, with a broadly based central gov-ernment; development of a central-South AsianCommunity capable of resisting external pres-sure culturally, economically and politically; anda UN Security Council (SC) with cooperationwith the Organization of the Islamic Conference(OIC), noting that the SC today has no Muslimmember, but four Christian and one Confusianmember.

Recently, we interviewed a political scientistat the Islamia College, University of Peshawar,Dr. Tauqir Alam, to get his views on the future ofAfghanistan and the Afghan refugees.27

"I think Afghanistan will remain much thesame as it is today for decades to come. I do notsee any miracles happen. Afghanistan will contin-ue to have some internal squabbling and thecountry's poverty will remain one of the worst inAsia and the world. I hope that the internationalcommunity will continue helping in rebuildingwhat has been destroyed during the wars, muchof it by foreign superpowers. The external inter-ference in the local development affairs will con-tinue, mainly due to long-term strategic and geo-political reasons. I do not expect that therefugees in Pakistan, Iran, USA and elsewherewill return home. I think the majority will preferto stay outside Afghanistan, also because many ofthem have lived abroad for so long that theywould become strangers in their own land of ori-

gin if they were to return." "I am also of the opinion that many of the

refugees, for example in Peshawar, contributesignificantly to Pakistan's economy. In our dailydealings with people in the city we are oftenunable to tell who originates from which coun-try, even if we wanted to make such distinctions,which I don't think we really are. Many people,refugees and ordinary Afghans and Pakistanishave family ties across the borders", Dr. Alamsays.

Today there are tens of thousands ofPakistanis working in Afghanistan, mainly inmiddle level but also in more senior functions inthe private sector. Pakistan has a large export ofgoods to Afghanistan, especially of cement andother reconstructions materials. Meat and lives-stock are also exported due to drought inAfghanistan, and meat is the central in theAfghan diet. Pakistan will continue to have ahuge trade surplus since Afghanistan has verylimited export products. A prosperousAfghanistan is in Pakistan’s interest as seen fromtrade and political perspectives.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this chapter we have attempted to present anoverall description and some analysis of histori-cal and current issues concerning Afghanistan.We have discussed broad and complex issues andalso given some more ordinary glimpses of theland and people. However, a short chapter likethis has many shortcomings. Perhaps the chap-ter's incompleteness will encourage further read-ing and debate?

We hope that the chapter gives the reader anoverview that serves as a useful backgroundwhen reading the other chapters in the book,which will focus more specifically on refugeeeducation and in particular the BEFARe educa-tion project for Afghan refugees in Pakistan andsome other refugee education projects in thecountry.

The intention of the chapter was to put edu-cation in its broader context and to help create

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sympathy for the difficulties that affect refugees,returnees, inhabitants of refugee hosting areasand Afghans at large in the current post-conflictsituation. Heavy burdens rest on the educationsector in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The betterthe education partners and service providers arein their work, the more useful they are to theusers, the pupils and their families - and the bet-ter and more relevant education the usersreceive, the more successful we believe that thehealing and reconstruction of Afghanistan andaffected areas of Pakistan will be. Education canplay a key role in the difficult processes ahead -for the countries, communities, families and indi-

viduals. Other sectors of the societies must playtheir parts as education, and again, the interna-tional community must contribute with fundsand other support.

Afghanistan’s future success in developmentis far from certain. The illigal production andsale of poppy opium (mainly for heroin in theWest), the role of the independent regional lead-ers/worlords, and the related insecurity hamperspeaceful development and can derail the process.However, the cautions having been mentioned,the many positive achievements should also notbe overlooked, especially in the social and educa-tional sectors, not least for girls and women.

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A homemade map of Afghanistan and neigbouring countries displayed in a Head Teacher’s office in Jalozai RefugeeCamp/Village, NWFP. 2005

1 The figures for Afghanistan’s population various indifferent sources. In spite of the wars and many peoplebecoming refugees the country has had a populationgrowth. UNDP estimates that the population could be ashigh as 30 million. (a) UNDP: Afghanistan National HumanDevelopment Report 2004. Kabul, 2004. Our estimate isslightly more conservative, 25 million, and other sourcesuse 20 million, or sometimes 20-25 million. (b) Girardet,Edward and Jonathan Walter: Afghanistan. Essential FieldGuides to Humanitarian and Conflict Zones. InternationalCentre for Humanitarian Reporting/CrosslinesCommunications Ltd., Geneva and Dublin, 1998. (c) Pocketbooks: (a) Medley, Dominic and Jude Barrand: Kabul. TheBradt Mini Guide. Bradt Travel Buides, Bucks, UK andGuillford, Connecticut, USA, 2003. (b) Xact Group Dehli:Know about Afghanistan in 24 Hours. Knowledge Incl.,New Dehli. iii. Kamal, Yousaf: Pakistan 2003. StatisticalPocket Book. Statistical Division, Government of Pakistan,Islamabad, 2003.

2 There is a large number of books aboutAfghanistan’s history. Most of them cover the recent cen-turies, with emphasis on last century and in particular fromthe 1970s up to the present time. See: (a) Saikal, Amin etal: Modern Afghanistan. A History of Struggle and Survival.I.B. Tauris, London-New York, 2004. (b) Magnus, Ralpg H.and Eden Naby. Forward by Dan Rather: Afghanistan.Mullah, Marx and Mujahid. Westview, Cambridge, USA, andOxford, UK, 2002. (c) Rubin, Barnett R. The Fragmentationof Afghanistan. State Formation and Collapse in theInternational System. Yale University Press, Yale, 2002. (d)O’Balance, Edgar: Battles in a Hostile Land. 1839 to thePresent. Brassey’s, London, UK and Book International,Herdon, VA, USA, 2002. (e) Dupree, Louis: Afghanistan.Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1973. (f) Article byGirardet, Edward and photographs by Steve McCurry:‘Afghanistan – Between War and Peace’in NationalGeographic, Vol. 204, No. 5, November 2003. NationalGeographic Society, New York, 2003.

3 See the mentioned history books, such as Saikal,Amin: Op.cit., p. 7, where the term ‘Great Game’ is men-tioned as a conflict “from its onset in the Napoleonic wars”.Reference is made to p. viii, in, Edwards, Michael: Playingthe Great Game - A Victorian Cold War. Hamilton, London,1975.

4 Interview with Dr. Babar Shah, Associate Professor,

Area Studies Centre for Central Asia, Russia and China,University of Peshawar, 14.05.05. Special thanks are extend-ed to Dr. Shah at the Area Studies Centre and his colleagueDr. Tauqir Alam at the Islamia College, University ofPeshawar, for their comments and contributions to thisChapter.

5 UNDP: Op.cit. 6 See various UNHCR reports and booklets. UNHCR

Branch Office, Pakistan, 2000-2004.7 See above-listed history books. Special reference is

made to the Introduction chapter, including a map, inMagnus & Naby: Op.cit.

8 As for issues related to development of various liveli-hoods, see, for example, UNDP: Op.cit. See also reports fromvarious other United Nations and bilateral agencies, such as,ILO, UNDP, FAO, WFP, JICA, and others. As for the fightagainst poppy cultivation and narcotics trade, see reportsfrom the United Nations agency UNODC, WHO andUNAMA. UNESCO’s ‘culture of peace programme’ and the‘2001 – 2010 International Decade for A Culture of Peaceand Non-Violence for the Children of the World’ taking upmany related issues.

9 Interview in Kacha Garhi refugee camp/village outsidePeshawar, 14.05.05. See also, Nancy Hatch Dupree: TheWomen of Afghanistan. ACBAR, Peshawar, with UNAMA,Kabul, 1998. The booklet also includes sections on Afghanrefugee women and the future of Afghan women.

10 Reference is made to (a) Documents made availableat the University of Peshawar Area Studies Centre, includinga UNHCR booklet article (undated) entitled ‘AfghanRefugees Stunned and Scorned’, p. 15. (b) Masood,Alauddin: Impelled Afghan Migration to Pakistan 1978 – 84.Ed.: Abdul Hamid Malik. University of Peshawar AreaStudies Centre and Hanns Seidel Foundation, December2000. (c) Various HR organizations, media and news agenciesfollow the HR developments in the country, including the sit-uation of women. UNOCHA’s news network, IRIN, regular-ly releases news and feature articles on a variety of humani-tarian issues. On 11.07.05 it released an article about a recentreport published by the Human Rights Watch concerning warcrimes and the prosecution of perpetrators, inter alia, so thatthey cannot stand for elections or hold public office. Perhapsa ‘Truth and Reconciliation Commission’, modeled on whatSouth Africa had after the defeat of apartheid, could helpbuild a new and better future in Afghanistan?

11 See references under Note 8 above.

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Notes

12 Ibid. 13 See the history books referred to above, such as

Amin, Saikal: Op.cit. See also, Galtung, Johan et al: Searchingfor Peace. The Road to Transcend, Pluto Press, London, andSterling, VA, USA, 1995 and 2002.

14 See the article referred to in Note 10 above.15 UNHCR. Editorial Team: Cutts, Mark et al: The

State of the World’s Refugees. Fifty Years of HumanitarianAction. UNHCR, Geneva, and Oxford University Press,Oxford, 2000. pp. 115 – 121, incl. Map 5.2 and Figure 5.2.

16 UNHCR: Searching for Solutions. 25 Years ofUNHCR – Pakistan Cooperation on Afghan Refugees.UNHCR, Islamabad, 2005, p. 19.

17 Ibid., p. 25. 18 See UNHCR’s three recent repatriation booklets.

UNHCR: Voluntary Repatriation to Afghanistan 2003, 2004and 2005. UNHCR, Islamabad,

19 See preliminary and final reports from the ChiefCommissionerate for Afghan Refugees (CCAR), Islamabad,and UNHCR, Islamabad, May-August 2005. The Census wascarried out by the Government of Pakistan, CCAR, assistedby UNHCR, in February-March 2005, followed by a dataanalysis period, which again will be followed by furtheranalysis, policy and planning work. Actual registration ofAfghans living in Pakistan will take place in the forth quarterof 2006.

20 UNESCO and UNHCR planned joint projects in2002-2003 but could not secure funds from the donors nei-ther for the camps/villages nor for the urban refugees.Furthermore, UNESCO planned a relatively large project toup-grade the qualifications of refugee teachers before theirrepatriation, including facilitating their return home, contin-ued training modules and employment in the education sec-tor. The project has still not received funding. These issuesare pondered on further elsewhere in the book.

21 Community officers in UNHCR’s offices inPakistan and Afghanistan have good knowledge of the needsand also the lack of availability of resources in these fields.The NGO sector has data concerning urban refugees, and

some experience in providing assistance in refugee-hostingareas and in Afghanistan when the refugees have reachedAfghanistan. The needs go beyond vulnerable groups toinclude many ordinary and sometimes educatedrefugees/returnees.

22 Galtung, Johan et al., Op.cit., p. 295.23 Ibid., p. 295.24 Ibid., pp. 295 – 296.25 Interview with Dr. Tauqir Alam, Asst. Professor,

Area Studies Centre for Central Asia, China and Russia,University of Peshawar, 14.05.05.

26 (a) For further historical literature we refer to theabove references. The Bibliography includes additional pub-lications. (b) For more academic and comparative studiesrelated to refugees and forced migration we refer the readerto Websites of universities and research institutes, such as,the Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford University, UK.Website: www.rsc.ox.ac.uk RSC also publishes ajournal/magazine entitled Forced Migration Review. Website:www.fmreview.org For further information about UNHCR’sbook referred to in Note 15, see Website: www.oup.com orE-mail: [email protected] for its availability in other languages.In 2006, UNHCR has published a similar book about thefirst five years of the new millennium and questions andchallanges concerning refugees, IDPs and other grpups ofdisplaced people and migrants. (c) For more specializedstudies into legal issues, we refer to, Chimni, B.S.:International Refugee Law. A Reader. Thousand Oaks, NewDelhi, and Sage Publications, London. © UNHCR.

27 Interview with Dr. Tauqir Alam 14.05.05. In aniterview in the News on Sunday, Lahore/Islamabad/Karachi,26.02.06, Dr. Alam’s colleague, Dr. Azmat Hayat tooexpresses pesimistic views as for Afghanistan’s possibility forpeaceful development. He draws particular attention togepolitical issues and doubts that the great powers, includ-ing the super power, finds it in their interst thatAfghanistan’s situation becomes settled or that it indeed canbee settlet yet.

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Part III

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Refugee Issues andRefugee Education in PakistanPast experiences, current situation andproposals for the future

3Chapter

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Refugee Issues and Refugee Education in Pakistan

Past experiences, current situation and proposals for the future1

This chapter is about Afghan refugees and refugee education in Pakistan, with some backgrounddata about Afghanistan’s history. We describe and discuss issues, more in the form of an on-

going debate than an analysis. Refugee education is placed in the broader context ofrefugee/returnee issues in Pakistan and Afghanistan. We also advocate an urgent short-term

increase in funding for education for Afghan refugees to enable them to return home. BEFAReand other NGOs are capable of shouldering a major thrust over the next

couple of years.

Refugee education is a neglected area of “Education for All” (EFA) in general and that includesAfghan refugee education in Pakistan. In spite of tireless work by BEFARe, other NGOs, and theGovernment and donors, refugee education is currently in greater difficulties than before. This is

due to the international donor community, through the main funding agency the UnitedNations Refugee Agency UNHCR, reducing budgets to education in the refugee camps in thecountry by about thirty percent in 2005 with further reductions foreseen as refugees begin

returning in larger numbers from the camps/villages. Currently, the reduction of funds is abovethe proportion of refugees returning home from the camps/villages, which we estimate at over

150,000 out of a total of about 500,000 returnees from the country in 2005. The total numberof returnees is higher than expected; it has slowed down in 2006.

We argue for an increase in allocation of funds, not a decrease, as will be explained below.Education and skills training contribute to repatriation, not to keeping people in the host coun-

try. This is something which the donors don’t seem to have grasped. Also, at this stage in therefugee history it is about time that the refugee host communities in Pakistan, not least in poorneighbourhoods in cities like Peshawar, get their fair share of assistance. BEFARe, with the sup-port of the Government of Pakistan, continually argues for such essential assistance. Poverty

feels the same irrespective of nationality, legal status, colour, creed, religion, or other character-istics that may separate people in the eyes of other people.

The marked budget cuts in 2005, which we expect will continue in the coming years, lead toreduced education quality for the refugees. Instead of keeping children and adolescents busy at

school they may venture into antisocial activities and even develop an interest in extremistactivities. They will become generally disillusioned and there could be a breakdown in the social

fabric in the camps/villages. This is sad since Pakistan has reason to be proud of the way ittreated the huge number of refugees over many years. Indirectly, the budget cuts are actually

encouraging the refugees to leave the camps/villages, which may be premature. It is not certainthat they will return to their homeland as they may prefer to trickle into the urban centers ofPakistan. To encourage or push refugees to leave their exile would be going beyond UNHCR’smandate, but the Government of Pakistan, and also Afghanistan, have the right to influence

repatriation directly in any way they choose; whether we as humanitarian aid workersagree or not.

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Source: The State of the World's Refugees 2000. Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action. UNHCR, Geneva, 2000. Figures for recent years added by the author.

Table 3.1 Cumulative Figures of Afghan Refugees in Pakistan, 1979 - 2005

1979: 0, 402,000 1980: 1,400,000 1981: 2,375,000 1982: 2,877,000

1983: 2,873,000 1984: 2,500,000 1985: 2,730,000 1986: 2,878,000

1987: 3,156,000 1988: 3,255,000 1989: 3,272,000 1990: 3,253,000

1991: 3,100,000 1992: 1,630,000 1993: 1,477,000 1994: 1,053,000

1995: 1,200,000 1996: 1,200,000) 1997: 1,200,000 1998: 1,200,000

1999: 1,200,000 2000: 1,200,000 2001: 1,300,000 2002: 1,700,000

2003: 1,400,000 2004: 1,200,000 July 2005: 1,100,000.

From Afghanistan. Photo: Fiona Torrens-Spence, 2003.

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Refugees in Iran and Pakistan

- More refugees have been hosted by Pakistan than by Iran. However, in Iran, UNHCR with the authorities, registeredmost of the refugees. In Pakistan, large numbers of refugees and other categories of Afghans in the country were not reg-istered. Even in the two hundred or more refugee camps/villages in Pakistan the refugees were not always registered andother data about the refugees was missing, such as literacy rate, total number of school-age children, etc.

- From the mid-1980s particularly large numbers crossed the border into Iran and the figures remained high through-out the 1990s. For some specific years the numbers of refugees registered with UNHCR was as high in Iran as in Pakistan.The majority were urban refugees, i.e. non-camp refugees, but registered with UNHCR.

- In Pakistan, the urban refugees did not usually register with UNHCR or even the Pakistani authorities. In order to get a true picture of the number of Afghan refugees in Pakistan, as compared to those in Iran, the unregistered refugees, and other categories of Afghans, must be included in statistics or, estimates as they are. (See, Notes 4 and 5 for references to the Census of Afghans living in Pakistan carried out by the Government of Pakistan, assisted by UNHCR, in February/March 2005 and the Registration in the forth quarter of 2006.)

- UNHCR's repatriation figures for early-2002 until mid-2005 show that about 1.2 million people have returned home toAfghanistan from Iran during that time. About three quarters million refugees still live in Iran as repatriation continuesand tighter registration, residence and work regulations are applied. However, some Afghan refugees migrate back to Iran if they find it impossible to settle at home.

- Relatively many refugees who have gone to Iran have been men going into exile alone, sometimes almost as, or indeedas 'foreign workers', leaving their families behind in Afghanistan. In Pakistan, this has been more rare and whole fami-lies have usually fled and settled in exile, especially in camps/villages.

- In Pakistan men move on a periodic basis, i.e., daily/weekly/monthly, much more frequently than women do outside the camp to seek employment. They go to Peshawar city from camps elsewhere in NWFP; and they go to Quetta and Karachi cities from camps in Balochistan. As for the current repatriation we now sometimes find that the men return to Afghanistan alone to take up jobs, leaving their families behind in Pakistan in more secure circumstances,in better dwellings and with better education opportunities for children and adolescents.

Source: The State of the World'sRefugees 2000. Fifty Years ofHumanitarian Action. UNHCR,Geneva, 2000.

Note: The figures in the mapinclude registered refugees only.In Iran the total caseload is fair-ly correct. In Pakistan , however,there was always a large addi-tional number of unregisteredrefugees.

Map 3.1 Main Afghan Refugee Flows, 1979-90

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1. In refugee situations it is alwaysthe host country’s governmentthat sets the rules and takes allmajor decisions, in consultationwith the sending country, whenpossible, and the internationalcommunity under the leadershipof the United Nations HighCommissioner for Refugees,UNHCR.

2. In spite of Afghanistan havingbeen one of the world’s largestrefugee sending countries andPakistan one of the world’s largestrefugee hosting countries, neitherof the two has signed the 1951United Nations RefugeeConvention or the 1967 Protocol.Few countries in the South-Asiaregion have signed the said docu-ments although the refugee crisisfollowing the 1971 separation ofEast and West Pakistan was thelargest operation of UNHCR untilthen. Since 2002, the largest repa-triation exercise that UNHCR hastaken part in is the on-goingreturn of Afghan refugees fromPakistan. In practice, Pakistan hasbeen a generous host country forhuge numbers of refugees for anunprecedented length of time, andit is unlikely that it would havemade much difference if it were asignatory to the international con-vention. However, it would havegiven the refugees a greater feelingof security and clear legal status.

3. It should be borne in mind thatit is always the refugees, the hostcountry’s people and the hostcountry’s Government that carrythe heaviest burdens in refugee sit-uations. It is their daily lives,livelihoods and resources that areinterrupted and often stretched.Environmental over-taxation iscommon, with long-term effects.The local authorities and theinternational donors are rarely

able to give sufficient support tothe environmental sector, eitherduring or after refugee situations.

4. In most refugee situations, andcertainly in the larger ones, thehost country requests internation-al donor support, usually coordi-nated by UNHCR and other mul-tilateral organizations. Emergencyfunding for protection, food, shel-ter, health, community servicesand education is needed when therefugees arrive, sometimes in coldwinter weather, extreme heat ofthe summer sun, or dessert cli-mates with hot days and freezingnight temperatures. Makeshiftcamps have to be established fast.

5. Most refugees settle in therefugee camps temporarily andmany will live there during theirentire time in forced exile. Otherrefugees will move away from theestablished camps and becomeurban refugees (or, non-camprefugees, since some will also livein rural areas). In the latter casesthe refugees receive no (or irregu-lar) assistance from UNHCR andthe rest of the international com-munity, but they usually have bet-ter opportunities to earn someform of income outside thecamps, especially if the camps arein remote areas. In Pakistan morethan half (and in some cases andat some times, up to two thirds)of the refugees have been urbanrefugees.

6. Refugee situations last formonths, years and sometimesdecades. On average, refugees livein forced exile for more than tenyears. The latter has been the caseas regards the majority of theAfghan refugees. Between five andseven million Afghans have soughtrefuge in Pakistan since 1979/80.Iran has also hosted millions of

Afghan refugees (3.5-4 million),and hundreds of thousands havetraveled to other countries.

7. From March 2002 until theautumn of 2005 more then 4 mil-lion Afghan refugees havereturned home; nearly 3 millionfrom Pakistan alone, but Pakistanis still host to about 3 millionAfghans. Many are urbanrefugees; about one million arerefugees in camps/villages and oth-ers are other categories of Afghansliving in Pakistan.

8. UNHCR is the funding organi-zation; the policy and planningorganization; the coordinator ofoperational activities; the monitorand reporter of developments and,last but not least, theGovernment’s partner. Pakistan’sMinistry for States and FrontierRegions, SAFRON, has a depart-ment handling refugee issues, theChief Commissionerate for AfghanRefugees, CCAR, in Islamabad,with Commissionerate offices(CAR) in Peshawar and Quetta.

9. In addition to the above, co-ordination of refugee activitiestakes place in other major refugeehosting cities, notably Peshawarand Quetta, and also in Karachiand Mianwali. UNHCR hasoffices in the three cities but notin Mianwali town which is cov-ered from UNHCR’s office inIslamabad.

10. Overall coordination of allrefugee activities is the responsi-bility of SAFRON and CCAR.UNHCR plays a key role as themain funding agency. Its interna-tional and local implementationexperience is drawn upon by allpartners. Unlike in ordinary devel-opment aid today, UNHCR oftenhandles implementation outside

Box 3.1 Mandate and Activities of UNHCR, Government and Partners

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the Government system due to theemergency and (in theory) short-term nature of the work. UNHCRsub-contracts ImplementingPartners, and enters into sub-agreements for the various proj-ects with each of them.

11. In the first half of the Afghanrefugee era, most refugee activitieswere implemented by theGovernment, with internationalorganizations providing funding,technical assistance, training andsome direct project assistance.Funding became increasingly

problematical in the 1990s, andfrom the mid-1990s the interna-tional donors requested the use ofmore international NGOs inimplementation, hoping it wouldincrease professionalism, efficien-cy and assurance of good use offunds. In education there has onlybeen a handful of major imple-menting partners. Except for oneNGO in special education(SWAJO) and theCommissionerate’s Education Cell(CAR/EC), Peshawar, all imple-menting partners in educationhave been international organiza-

tions. After 9/11, a few additionallocal NGOs were added.

12. BEFARe has been the largestimplementing partner in educationthroughout, working in the largestrefugee-hosting areas of Pakistan,notably in North-West FrontierProvince (NWFP), with its headoffice in Peshawar. Over threequarters of the refugees incamps/villages live in NWFP.

UNHCR has developed the over-all Guidelines, which all NGOsand implementing partners (andUNHCR itself) strive to fulfill.

The summary below is from,UNHCR's Education FieldGuidelines. UNHCR, Geneva,February 2003.

• UNHCR advocates for edu-cation as a basic human right inthe context of the 1951 RefugeeConvention and other relatedinternational declarations andinstruments.• UNHCR's Agenda forProtection and the Action Plan(approved by the agency's execu-tive board in October 2002)specifically underline the impor-tance of "education as a tool forprotection".• UNHCR is committed to thekey principles of refugee partici-pation, local capacity building,gender equality and addressing thespecific needs of groups at risk.

In implementing education pro-grammes, UNHCR will:

1. Safeguard the right ofrefugees to education and imple-ment the six goals of Educationfor All (EFA) which include freeaccess to primary education, equi-table access to appropriate learn-ing for youth and adults, adult lit-

eracy, gender equity and qualityeducation.

2. Ensure the provision of basiceducation, for refugees and otherpersons of concern, to ensuretheir protection and security andto enhance the possibility ofdurable solutions.

3. Guarantee the availability ofprimary education (standardizedas the first eight grades of school-ing) as a first priority, includingcommunity based initiatives pro-viding early childhood and pre-school education, where these areprerequisites for formal education.

4. Support the provision oflower secondary education (stan-dardized as grades 9 and 10). Inaddition, UNHCR will supportthe enrolment and retention ofachieving students in higher sec-ondary (grades 11 and 12) as aprerequisite to post-secondaryeducation. Moreover, UNHCRwill advocate for tertiary educa-tion and will support effective useof resources donated for this pur-pose.

5. Provide low-cost adolescentand adult non-formal educationlinked to the psychosocial devel-opment and specific needs of thegroups. Where appropriate, thiswill include technical and voca-tional education.

6. Promote quality of educationas a high priority commitmentthrough teacher training and thedevelopment of quality teachingand learning materials.

7. Support innovative enrich-ment programmes in life skills andvalues education that improve thequality of education.

8. Ensure early intervention anddevelopment of education pro-grammes in the earliest stages ofan emergency, and access to edu-cation programmes by childrenand adolescents upon arrival.

9. Co-ordinate local, national,regional and global inter-agencymechanisms and partnershipsregarding refugee and returneeeducation issues including educa-tional materials, certification ofstudies, teacher training and sup-port for education. In addition,there will be inter-sectoral collab-oration to ensure a cohesive andintegrated approach.

10. Monitor and evaluate allrefugee education programmes inline with the established standardsand indicators, ensuring that theseprogrammes receive the necessaryhuman resources and appropriatefunding at all levels and phases ofUNHCR's operations.

Box 3.2 UNHCR's Education Policy Commitments

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• Society for Community Support for PrimaryEducation

Main coordinating body inEducation in Pakistan

• Education Sub-Committee, Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief (ACBAR), Peshawar

• ACBAR has a large Library, Afghan Research and Information Center (ARIC), which includes materials in education, Peshawar/Kabul

Implementing Partners inEducation in Pakistan

In the education sector the mainimplementing partners are the fol-lowing: • BEFARe • Save the Children, United

States (SC/US) • International Rescue

Committee (IRC) • Norwegian Refugee Council

(NRC)• Ockenden International (UK) • Basic Education and

Employable Skills Training (BEST)

Box 3.3 Implementing Partners and Coordination of Education in Pakistan

Table 3.2 Number of pupils by gender in Afghan refugee schools (primary level)in Pakistan's three major refugee-hosting provinces in the late 1990s.

Province Type of school Boys Girls Total

(NWFP) NGO schools 117,617 58,262 175,879Private schools 12,108 4,500 16,608

Balochistan NGOs schools 17,790 1,154 18,944Private schools * - - -

Punjab NGO schools 1,155 1,075 2,230Private schools 2,800 4,200 7,000

Total ** NGO/Private schools 151,470 (69%) 69,191 (31%) 220,661

Note: • The data in this table is relatively accurate for the NGO schools, most of which receive UNHCR support. The datais tentative for the private schools. The definition of and distinction between private and self-help school is not clear.The quality of private and especially self-help schools can be questionable since they often lack basic funding and theparents are too poor to pay necessary fees. • The NGO schools are mostly in refugee camps/villages. In NWFP the camps (often called villages) are in Peshawarcity's outskirts and also in remote areas of the province. In Balochistan, the camps are mostly several hours' drive fromQuetta city. In Punjab, the camp population is concentrated to Mianwali town.

* This table does not have data for private and self-help schools in Balochistan. However, Quetta city has a large urbanrefugee population, and also an old Afghan migrant community, with many urban schools.** It should be noted that the number of refugee pupils is estimated to be lower today (end of 2006) than in the late1990s when this table was compiled.

Source: The data was originally collected by UNHCR (advised by UNESCO) related to an Education for All (EFA)study, released in 2000. Dr. S.B. Ekanayake oversaw the work and used data from the survey in his book: Educationin the Doldrums. Afghan Tragedy. Al-Noor Publishers & Printers, Islamabad, 2000. (Revised edition 2004.)

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The project can be split into sever-al periods, partly overlapping eachother: • 1979/80-1984: Initial assis-tance, assessment, mobilization,and training. A separate project intechnical training started as earlyas 1982. • 1982 - 1996: During thisperiod the Pak-German TechnicalTraining Programme (PGTTP) wasthe most dominant project, espe-cially during the early years.BEFARe started gradually from1990. • 1984 -1996: Pak Bas-Ed,sometimes referred to as Pak-German Bas-Ed, was establishedin 1984 to provide basic educa-tion to Afghans and Pakistanisaffected by the influx of refugeesin North-West Frontier Province(NWFP). In 1993, an Afghan off-shoot, Ag Bas-Ed (Afghan GermanBasic Education) was establishedin Afghanistan and it is still inoperation.• 1996 - 2003: In 1996, fol-lowing changes initiated byUNHCR, which recommendedinternational NGOs and otherorganizations as its implementingpartners, GTZ-BEFARe was estab-

lished. The host Governmentbecame responsible for post-pri-mary education and for overallplanning and coordination.• 2003/2004 - onwards:BEFARe gets established as a localPakistani organization with itsown Board of Trustees. Work con-tinues much as in the past, but itsties with GTZ become looser andend in the autumn of 2005.BEFARe maintains its status as animplementing partner forUNHCR, which again welcomelocal NGOs as implementing part-ners. However, UNHCR's generalbudget cuts from 2005 affectorganizations like BEFARe badly.UNHCR is the main fundingagency for all primary educationschools in the camps/villages inPakistan, and in spring 2005BEFARe ran schools for about100,000 pupils with 2,500 teach-ers; in the autumn only 80,000pupils and 1,700 teachers.- Although large numbers ofrefugees repatriate, relatively fewhad gone from the camps/villagesat the time of completion of thisbook. BEFARe is, therefore, in adifficult situation, depending ondonor funding for all its work.

In 2005, BEFARe has had to layoff teachers and reduce it activities.- Unlike most internationalNGOs, BEFARe does not have ahead office abroad, which cancontribute/top-up project/pro-gramme funding, and guaranteepayment of salaries to office staff,house rent and other basic run-ning costs.- As a humanitarian aid organi-zation BEFARe has a responsibilityvis-à-vis its staff, teachers and,above all, the Afghan refugee chil-dren and their communities,which often also include Pakistanibeneficiaries. - BEFARe's leadership andmanagement qualities will be test-ed in the current difficult periodand in the coming years. BEFARe'sapproaches and fields of work willhave to be adapted to the currentand future environment. There isneed for innovative approaches.Yet BEFARe should not compro-mise on the high quality of itsactivities, with main focus onbasic education, adult educationand literacy, vocational and tech-nical education, and skills trainingfor livelihoods. Other secondaryactivities can be added.

Michael Hirth Ulf Bartholomae Holger Munsch Shakir Ishaq

BEFARe Project Leaders 1996 - 2005Until 2003, the project was named GTZ - BEFARe, except for the initial years in the 1980s. Smaller projectshad their own names used mainly internally. The Project Leader was named Chief Technical Adviser (CTA).

BEFARe became an independent Pakistani organization from 2003/2004 withShakir Ishaq as Chief Executive

2000 - 2001 2001 - 2003 2003 - present1996 - 1999

Dr. Hirth was also CTA of an earlier project. There was overlapping between CTAs. Mr. Ishaq took over as ChiefExecutive in early December 2003 and Mr. Munsch, the last German CTA left at the end of the month.

Box 3.4 Chronological Project Development of BEFARe

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Current Situation and Dilemmas

When refugees return home, dignity must alwaysbe maintained, and the returnees must be able tofind livelihoods, accommodation, education fortheir children and adolescents, health services,and so on. In our case, when about three millionpeople have already returned to Afghanistanfrom Pakistan and more than a million from Iran,we must also consider the tempo in repatriationin relation to the home country’s absorptioncapacity. For example, Kabul is estimated tohave more than three and a half million inhabi-tants but the affordable housing is basically thesame as when the population was a third of thatnumber just a few years ago.2

The reconstruction of Afghanistan is ongo-ing, but there are relatively few tangible resultsyet, and the poor, who have lived at home dur-ing the quarter century of wars and instability,including returnees, are getting poorer. Thecountry has been listed as the fifth or sixth poor-est country in the world, even when illegalopium income has been included, which countsfor more than half, or maybe as much as threequarters of the economy. Afghanistan’sGovernment, with international assistance,actively works to curb the scourge, but it willtake many years to achieve results since itrequires alternative livelihoods with competitiveincomes.3

Promotion of and support to repatriationand reintegration at home are important. Still wemust consider carefully how it is being done inorder to make it as successful as possible for gov-ernments, donors, various organizations and par-ticularly the refugees/returnees.4

We find it difficult to justify funds beingreduced to refugee education in Pakistan at thiscrucial time. We believe, based on empirical data,that funds should be increased – and should havebeen much higher earlier. We believe that thiswould contribute to repatriation and higher sus-tainability in the durable solutions.

Difficult questions

How can the United Nations and the rest of theinternational community reduce its assistance torefugee education in Pakistan under the prevail-ing circumstances and nobody seems to say thatit is wrong? Why are the NGOs, which areimplementing the education activities not raisingtheir voices more loudly? Are the refugees them-selves too powerless, or have they given up vis-à-vis the all-powerful international donors? Inwhich case, what are we teaching the Afghansand people in other countries in crisis and recon-struction about democracy?

The refugee authorities in Pakistan, such asthe Chief Commissionerate for Afghan Refugees(CCAR) are concerned about the consequencesof reduced services before the refugees leave.The provincial leaders in North-West FrontierProvince (NWFP) and other refugee hostingprovinces are concerned. UNHCR is also con-cerned and, since it is one of the best UnitedNations agencies we have, we expect nothingless. But then the Pakistan office seems not to begiven enough funds for education from itsHeadquarters, who again, would probably passthe buck to the rich donor countries. Are theyvigorous enough in trying to mobilize supportfor additional funding for education? Are the

ACHIEVEMENTS AND SHORTCOMINGS

NGOs vigorous enough in explaining the realityin the field?

TODAY AND TOMORROW

On a positive note, all organizations are involvedin giving inputs to CCAR and UNHCR in devel-oping comprehensive solutions for how to handlethe situation of refugees and other Afghans livingin Pakistan in the years ahead.5 This is commend-able. Let us hope that the international commu-nity will pay up when that time comes to safe-guard durable solutions for all refugees andAfghans in Pakistan. Let us hope there will beacceptable systems developed for repatriation,resettlement for a few, and integration for others.

Education is the topic of this book and it isour duty to argue for educational activities forrefugees, even at this late stage in the refugee era,in 2005 - 2006.

It seems not to have been realized by thegood partners that we still need funding forAfghan refugee education in Pakistan – and weeven seem to overlook that education wasalready severely underfunded for many years.There was also lack of sufficient involvement ofprofessional international and local expertiseand leadership. It is not possible to find compre-hensive solutions unless education is a key com-ponent.6

In the years ahead, we need Pakistani andAfghan institutions and organizations to beinvolved much more, in addition to individuals,and in addition to overseas partners. We need tonormalize the country-to-country cooperationbetween Pakistan and Afghanistan, where termslike, migration, labour exchange, academicexchange, etc., are becoming common vocabu-lary instead of the refugee vocabulary. However,we should also be realistic and remember thatthere are still almost three million Afghans inPakistan, and more than half of them arerefugees, although we have no accurate data.Such a large number of Afghans will not returnovernight and bring the three-decade refugee erato a successful conclusion in a year or two. A

number of conscientious and planned mecha-nisms are needed. The above-mentioned policiesand plans concerning comprehensive solutionswill give us some help and some tools.

Education is an essential tool in all steps of arefugee era and in other disasters. It is essentialin all steps of the traumatic years, including inpreparing refugees for repatriation. This oftenincludes skills training and education for liveli-hoods, information about the actual repatriation,and training and other support related to reinte-gration when the refugees reach Afghanistan,when they have to begin building a new life anda new home. Without skills and knowledge, andother assistance, the future will be bleak for themajority of the poor Afghans who have enjoyedPakistan’s generous hospitality for years anddecades – certainly not in luxury but mostly inacceptable circumstances.7

In this introductory section, let us drawattention to the devastating earthquake on 8October 2005 in the Kashmir, NWFP and theNorthern Areas of Pakistan. There are manyparallels between refugees and the victims of theearthquake. Currently, priority is given to theearthquake victims. This is the way it should be;the needy groups are not to be put up againsteach other. When possible, refugees and earth-quake victims should cooperate for commonfunds, and, refugees could be employed in help-ing out the traumatized and suffering Pakistaniearthquake victims.8

Afghan refugees have unique experience andcompetence in coping under difficult circum-stances. In addition, in Mansehra and some otherareas, refugees were themselves victims of theearthquake.9

BEFARe was assessing the situation quicklyafter the earthquake in several areas, including inAbbottabad, where it has a sub-office (resourcecenter). BEFARe established about twentyschools as an initial response; with the help ofUNESCO, the United Nations education agency.BEFARe also plans to be involved in otherhumanitarian relief and reconstruction workover the coming years.10

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MISSED OPPORTUNITIES?

In refugee education, we could have done betterin the past, when the author of this book workedas a Refugee Education Consultant withUNHCR and UNESCO. In 2001, after ‘9/11’, weall seemed to forget what we should be doing inPakistan. Instead of providing less education tothe refugees, we should have provided more toprepare refugees for returning home.11

The author of this book does not want toblame others only for the shortcomings. All whowere involved in the past and present have toshare the positive and negative outcomes. Thereis much to celebrate but also much left to bedesired. Change and improvement rarely comefrom complacency, but from critical analysis, andpersistent day-to-day efforts.

Thus, there is great need for the work ofBEFARe and other partners in the education sec-tor and related fields in the years to come, toserve refugees/returnees and refugee host com-munities.12

‘EDUCATION FOR ALL’ – ALSOFOR REFUGEES?

UNESCO is the UN organization entrusted withthe task of monitoring implementation of EFA,with universal primary education (UPE) andother goals to be achieved worldwide in tenyears’ time. ‘Education in emergencies and crisis’has been termed an “EFA Flagship”.13 It is agood slogan, but we are waiting for action, inAfrica, which is the main refugee-producing con-tinent, and also in Asia, where the long-termAfghan refugee crisis is the largest one, in addi-tion to the Palestinian crisis. The UN has coinedanother catching term of relevance here; notably‘inclusive education’, which mainly refers to spe-cial education for handicapped and education fornomads, ethnic minorities, and other marginal-ized groups. Refugees are to be included, too, asone of the most marginalized groups; they live atthe mercy of their host countries, internationalcivil servants and donors. The Afghans have a

particularly sad history over the past quarter cen-tury.

Before the refugees can return home in dig-nity, we need, even at this late stage, to providebasic education for all refugee children inPakistan. There should be literacy classes foryoung women and men, and even older people;training in skills, vocational and technical fields,non-formal and informal civics education andorientation courses about the ‘New Afghanistan’,about peace and gender equality, about a varietyof reconstruction and community issues, andabout planning and leadership.

In addition, we need ‘bridging assistance’ tohelp the refugees to return and get into employ-ment at home, as we mentioned above. It is stillnot too late to do this, but we have no time towaste.14 First, we need to ascertain that the edu-cation budgets are not reduced and, secondly,that they are increased in a major educationthrust over the next few years. The internationalcommunity can afford this and the Afghansdeserve it!

Furthermore, education, training and relatedsettling-in assistance may be the only true incen-tives we have to enable the majority of therefugees to return home. Otherwise a large num-ber may try all possible ways of staying on inPakistan.

IS PAKISTAN BEING SHORT-CHANGED?

It is important to give large amounts of aid toAfghanistan, but it should not be given at theexpense of aid to the Afghan refugees, who needto be prepared and enabled to return. What weneed for the refugees in Pakistan (and possiblyalso in Iran) is a fraction of the rebuildingrequirements inside Afghanistan. It is importantto help in other crises, such as the tsunami vic-tims in South-East Asia, and the reconstructionof South Sudan, and especially the earthquakevictims in Pakistan, as mentioned above.

We are pleased that aid goes to tsunami, theSudan, the earthquake, and other important

emergencies. But the international communityshould not aid other areas at the expense ofAfghan refugees in Pakistan, who, for a limitednumber of years, need our care and increasedsupport in many fields, and indeed in the varioussub-sectors of education. The international com-munity and local partners talk about ‘comprehen-sive solutions’; we await the operationalization,as they call it in office memoranda and seminarspeeches. All partners need to contribute to thiswork. If we don’t contribute we are also respon-sible for possible shortcomings in the plans.

The responsibility for providing the requiredservices for the refugees lies with the host gov-ernment; in our case, the Government ofPakistan. Pakistan has hosted a large number ofAfghan refugees over a quarter century, whichprobably totals in the range of 5-7 million, andstill hosts more than three million refugees andother Afghans. However it is clearly impossiblefor the Government to provide all the supportneeded for the refugees without help from theinternational community. International assis-tance is always common in huge and long-lastingrefugee situations of this kind. Why are donorsso eager to cut it so quickly now – especiallysince reduction does not have the intendedeffect? Yes, it may be time for Afghans to return,but they should return in dignity and with a real-istic possibility to make it, and to get a better andsustainable life for today’s and tomorrow’s gen-erations - facilitating them through educationand other incentives to finally begin a life andbuild a future in some kind of prosperity, withsome hope, some comfort, some dreams cometrue… That cannot be asking for too much?

That is why organizations like BEFARe areso essential. They were essential yesterday andthey are essential today and tomorrow, too. Theyknow how to get the job done, but their activitiesare ‘donor driven’. Unless funds are providedfrom the international community and, ofcourse, from the host country, its governmentand people, projects like BEFARe cannot do thework needed for the beneficiaries.16

Pakistan – a generous host

Pakistan has always been a generous host to theAfghan refugees, often far beyond what wasrequired of the country, but it is also in Pakistan’sinterest to have a stable and prosperous neigh-bour to the West. The refugees should, and will,eventually return home, although it is expectedthat a good number of Afghans will continue tolive in Pakistan – and one would foresee a largernumber of Pakistanis than the estimated 60-70,000 foreign workers who are currently inAfghanistan, will live and work there in thefuture. Nationals from both countries will main-tain family and business linkages across the bor-ders. It would be useful to have research carriedout in these fields, especially as regards the costsand benefits of the refugees to the host country,Pakistan. The international community has failedto provide funding for research and analysis.

Refugees want to go home

It should be mentioned that, based on our gener-al information, the majority of Afghan refugeesseem to have a desire to return to their home-land, when conditions permit. “My heart is inAfghanistan”, we hear Afghans say. They are inPakistan temporarily, although many young onesmay never have lived in Afghanistan. In Pakistan,they have sought to find “a place to call home”,to use UNHCR’s theme for last year’s WorldRefugee Day. In 2005 the theme was“courage”.17 Education is the most concrete andbasic tool to give people competencies andcourage to return home, to what should be calledthe real home.

Education – a major tool in repa-triation

The more education a person has, the betterequipped he or she is to return home andbecome a successful returnee, who will remain athome and do well there. Education gives peopleknowledge, skills, competence, and so on, andthrough that, self-cconfidence and courage, so that

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they can face harsh and difficult situations inrebuilding their lives and country at home inAfghanistan. The refugees need help to do this.They cannot do it with their bare hands. Withouteducation and employable skills, and withoutother “bridging assistance” to go home and getinto salaried employment or self-employment,repatriation plans just remain a desk officer’simpracticable dream. Help is needed, and thatmeans increasing budgets, not reducing budgets,to education and related fields.18

EDUCATION IN REFUGEEHOSTING AREAS IN PAKISTAN

In Pakistan, the international community, mainlythrough funding from UNHCR, provides servic-es to the refugees in the camps, but very little tourban refugees, who have to fend for themselves.Many of them live in great poverty – often sideby side with poor Pakistanis, or in neighbouringshantytown dwelling communities.

The majority of those who have repatriatedup until now are urban refugees. If and when theremaining ones return home, poverty will be asbad as, or worse than in exile, and some will beforced to return to Pakistan for a second ormaybe third time – as has happened to some ofthose who went over the last couple of years.Some NGOs work to assist the vulnerable andextremely vulnerable refugees (EVIs) andPakistanis, such as the International RescueCommittee (IRC), which we believe does excel-lent work.

Let us mention here that the repatriation ofAfghan refugees from Pakistan and Iran was thelargest voluntary repatriation exercise thatUNHCR has ever assisted. It is a major achieve-ment, and shows that refugees are willing toreturn home.

The poor urban Afghan refugees should notbe forgotten when we talk about increased assis-tance. They still constitute a large number of therefugees in Pakistan, perhaps more than half ofthe refugee population. Lack of statistics andresearch data and analysis are yet again a visible

shortcoming. The Afghan Census carried out bythe Government of Pakistan in February-March2005, assisted by UNHCR, has provided somefurther statistical details. However, sometimeswe cannot wonder if data is gathered too late andin a self-serving form.

Since the international community has notmade funds available for migration and refugeeresearch, and UNHCR has hardly seen therationale for scientific knowledge, we know littleabout the urban refugees in general – even thecamp refugees.19

Some key questions would be: How muchdo refugees contribute to Pakistani society andthe country’s economy, and in which fields? Towhat extent are they a burden on the host coun-try? Are they more involved in crime and smug-gling than locals? And so on.

We only have anecdotal knowledge aboutthe various groups, and answers do not have sci-entific empirical foundations, unlike otherrefugee hosting countries. There is still time todocument and learn in Pakistan. Let us remem-ber, Pakistan and Afghanistan are neighbours.They will always share part of their history anddestiny.

The urban refugees have had to fend forthemselves in the urban slums, and sometimes inrural poverty, where only rudimentary self-helpschooling, literacy and skills training have been

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Dr. Sabiha H. Syed, Director, Migration Research Centre,Islamabad, discussing with Waheeda Farouk at BEFARe,Peshawar, spring 2005.

provided to children and adolescents. ManyAfghans live side by side with poor Pakistaniswho also need help.

This being the situation, there is yet onemore reason for increasing the education budgetsat this particular time to these important groupsof poor Afghans and Pakistanis, living on thefringes of society. Some donors have begun pro-viding assistance to some refugee hosting areas,but it is far below requirements. This sector maybe an important future area for the bilateraldonors, to urban areas, rural areas and remoterural areas, including the tribal areas.

BEFARe is particularly concerned aboutbroadening its assistance to include morePakistani beneficiaries, and also to expand itswork to fields other than basic education.Various types of skills and vocational training areobvious, but also micro-finance and managementof projects in other development fields, with orwithout education components.20

RETURNEES HAVE LITTLEEDUCATION

About three quarters of the returnees who havereturned home have done so without any formaleducation at all.21

They are poor, illiterate, untrained andunskilled, and they lack general knowledge, andprobably even quite a bit of courage and self-con-fidence – all of which are essential in rebuildingtheir lives and their home country. We shouldnot forget, though, that uneducated refugees areas intelligent as other people, and many may havebeen able to learn through exposure and infor-mal channels – but still, they have been deniedformal education before and during their time asrefugees. They have learned from people theyhave met and lived with, and on the job inAfghanistan and Pakistan. But in today’s world,everyone needs knowledge from schooling.

The sad fact remains that the internationalcommunity did not provide education for themajority of the Afghan refugees in Pakistan. Therefugees have had to return with minimal formal

‘old-fashioned’ and ‘modern-time’ schooling andknowledge. Yet, we expect that they will be trueto their culture and heritage, which every personshould be. We also expect them to know when toembrace modern ideas, like children’s rights,women’s rights, human rights, and other areas webelieve are important. We expect people tounderstand what democracy is, that the weakand poor have the same rights as the rich, pow-erful and perhaps we should add, the ones whopossess arms and weapons, or even the owners oflucrative, illegal, but tolerated, opium poppyfields. We expect uneducated Afghans andreturnees to be able to solve problems that noneof us know the answers to, in spite of our degreesand Internet connections!

We know that education and enlightenmentare helpful tools for solving the difficult prob-lems that the Afghans will have to solve in duecourse, with international help. We also knowthat education leads to employment, which,together with other investments, leads to better-ment of children’s and women’s situations; fewerchildren in a home; better nutrition, and bettereconomic conditions for everyone. Over a cou-ple of generations, education is the main avenueout of poverty. It is the main tool to develop apeaceful and ‘New Afghanistan’. Education givespeople an opportunity to cultivate their idealsand to live a life as law-abiding, ethical and dem-ocratic citizens – in accordance with people’swishes and religious beliefs.

We have already mentioned that about onemillion refugees live in refugee camps/villages inPakistan. (See the boxes at the introduction ofthis chapter for details.) Until now, we havenever had more than about 50-60 percent of theschool-going age children actually enrolled inschools. They only get six years primary school,not eight years, as advised worldwide by theUNHCR Education Field Guidelines (Geneva2003).22 Only about a third of the pupils inrefugee schools in the camps are girls. Less thanfive percent continues to secondary level andonly a handful has received tertiary education. Itcould be mentioned that UNHCR administers a

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German funded higher education scholarship pro-gramme, known as DAFI. However, it has onlygiven higher education at Pakistani universitiesto about nine hundred refugees. The IslamicDevelopment Bank (IDB) has provided loans(which in practice are scholarships) to severalhundred students, and some other sponsors havesupported individual candidates. Considering thelarge number of refugees, this has been a drop inthe ocean. It is good for the individuals who havebenefited, and good for Afghanistan to the limit-ed degree that the candidates have been able andwilling to return home.

Post-pprimary education falls outsideUNHCR’s main field of responsibility in the edu-cation sector, which is generally limited to basiceducation for children and adolescents, as perthe above-mentioned UNHCR Education FieldGuidelines. Special groups of young people shallbe given priority, such as vulnerable boys, whomay have been child soldiers or have used drugs,young unaccompanied girls and boys withoutfamily members, single mothers, the physicallyand mentally handicapped, and others. There ishardly any funding available from the interna-tional community for special education forrefugees in Pakistan. How come?

We know from the United NationsDevelopment Programme’s National HumanDevelopment Report for Afghanistan that some25-30 percent of the Afghans have been psycho-logically scarred and traumatized; many to such adegree that they have daily and ever-lasting diffi-culties in functioning and living normal lives.Many refugees have similar illnesses.23 The edu-cation and health workers are expected to dealwith them. The UN Children’s Fund UNICEFhas published estimates about the number oflandmines in Afghanistan, and has said that theremay be as many as 10 million – one per child. Itis disturbing for us to think about these facts.

Various educational courses, training andawareness programmes, etc., are required for thehandicapped and their families and communitiesbefore returning home and after they have comehome. Teacher training is important in these

fields. If it is to be done at home, it may not takeplace and returnees may not be given priority.

On a positive note, UNHCR in Pakistan pro-vides mine awareness briefings, limited as theymay be, to all returnees before they travel home.However, mine awareness is one thing, anotherthing is how you till your land if there are stillmines on it, or how you make a living if you cannot till your land. Often, nobody knows wherethe mines are. Children are the first victims.Domestic animals also perish.

WHY DO WE LACK RENEWEDINTERNATIONAL SUPPORT?

In trying to understand the lack of internationalsupport for Afghan refugee education inPakistan, and also for funding of other social sec-tors, we must look beyond UNHCR. Actually,UNHCR is, within its limits, doing a fair job, butit seems they lack the support of other donors;both bilateral donors and multilateral agencies.The agency lacks an intellectual and research cul-ture, which UNESCO has. Even at Headquarterslevel, UNHCR only has a rudimentary set-up ofprofessionals in the education sector, and locallyin Pakistan there are only a handful of employ-ees. The UN agencies need to collaborate withlocal and international institutes and universitiesfor research and analysis, but they also need tohave a core group of sector specialists within theagencies. If we had had more specialists, withinand without the UN agencies, the status of edu-cation would have been quite different.

Why is there so little support from the UNagencies dealing with education – for literacy,teacher training, vocational and technical train-ing, education policy and other related fields?The main agencies mandated to assist in suchfields are UNESCO, UNICEF and theInternational Labour Organization ILO, but wedo not see their proactive participation. Theymay lack funds, but why do they not vigorouslyseek out funding? Even with the little funds theymust have, they could play active support rolesto help UNHCR in its work as the main agency

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even in refugee education, although with limitedtheoretical expertise. We believe little, if any,such help is being given to the sister agency. Whyhas not UNDP in Pakistan been doing more inpolicy development and provision of funds torefugees and assistance to refugee hosting areas?Is the United Nations Assistance Mission toAfghanistan (UNAMA), which has a liaison officein Pakistan, actively facilitating cross border ini-tiatives, preferably in cooperation with UNHCR,UNDP and sister agencies?

The bilateral donors are doing very little forrefugees in Pakistan, as far as is known. They areproviding assistance to Pakistan, not to refugees,unless they happen to ‘stumble across them’intermingled with Pakistanis when funding otherprojects and sectors. Bilateral agencies mayexplain the situation by saying that theHeadquarters of their aid agencies and foreignoffices in the rich countries transfer funds to theHeadquarters of agencies like UNHCR,UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO and UNDP, and it isthose agencies’ responsibility to distribute fundsto the various countries, sectors and progar-mmes, including to refugee education in Pakistan,if considered a priority area. This is true. But do

the bilateral diplomatic missions know the localsituation well enough to inform their capitalsabout the refugees’ needs in education and otherfields in Pakistan? Do they lack full understand-ing of the politics and dynamics of education ingiving the refugees courage and competence toreturn, reintegrate at home and stay at home forgood?24

SOME QUANTITATIVE DATAABOUT REFUGEE EDUCATION

The total number of children in refugee schoolsin Pakistan is now only in the range of 150,000.The largest project in Pakistan and, until now, inthe world is that of Basic Education for AfghanRefugees, BEFARe, in Peshawar, with about80,000 pupils and about 1,700 teachers. It hasbeen reduced markedly as a consequence of thebudget cut in 2005. In 2006, the enrolment willbe down to about 60,000 pupils, or less, unlessthey find some magic formula, such as increasingthe class sizes or running half-day schools,although UNHCR recommends six-hours perday as advisable.

Medallions always have a reverse side; herethat would mean reduced quality, and parentsmay not find it worthwhile to send their childrento such schools. Girls’ enrolment has gone downby some eight percent in 2005, from over 35%to about 27%. Already, some schools have over100 pupils per class, although the average is still40-50. BEFARe has already announced that itmay have to lay off more teachers and supervi-sors since it is common in education that some80% of the budget goes to paying teachers’salaries, called ‘incentives’ in our refugee con-text, as the teachers are not paid full salaries. Thereasoning behind this is that the communitiesshould contribute, which even the poor Afghanrefugees somehow manage to do, if not to theteacher, then to the school compound, latrines,and such things.

It is not certain that the refugees will returnhome to Afghanistan immediately but rathertrickle into the poor neighbourhoods in the large

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Overcrowded classroom as a result of the major cuts inbudgets in 2005. It is normally recommended that thenumber of pupils per class/teacher does not exceed 40– 45 pupils. Girls’ education is particularly at risk whenbudgets are cut, as seen in BEFARe’s schools in the sec-ond half of 2005 when enrolment of girls droppedmarkedly. Also older boys are at risk of dropping out.

cities in Pakistan. The teachers may return toAfghanistan and get employed there, whichwould be a positive achievement, sinceAfghanistan would then get needed experiencedteachers. However, the teachers and other par-ents may be reluctant to return immediately,especially those with children in secondary edu-cation, since there are very few good secondaryschools in Afghanistan. Even parents from thecamps with primary school age children, bothsons and daughters, may be reluctant to returnbecause of the low quality of Afghan schools andspecial worries about girls’ education. It shouldbe noted that camp schools in Pakistan are gen-erally of good quality thanks to UNHCR’s sup-port and good implementing partners, includingBEFARe.

Women of child-bearing age may face severedifficulties in Afghanistan during and after preg-nancy, and twenty percent of children die beforethey reach their fifth birthday because of theinadequate health system in Afghanistan.

These are just some examples. There aremany factors, which warrant a delay in, and awell-planned, repatriation process which mustinclude education on both sides of the border andother ‘bridging assistance’ to help the returneesinto employment so that solutions will be com-prehensive and durable.25

EDUCATION IS AN ASSET, NOT ACOST

Education should be seen as an asset, not a cost.Education is a tool, which can be used proactive-ly to reach other goals. The refugees must beallowed to return and set up a new life and a newhome in dignity and in ways which give realistichope and mechanisms for a better life for today’sand tomorrow’s generations. Anything less isunworthy of the international community in2005.

The United Nations organizations, withUNHCR being the lead agency in our context,have many goodhearted people. There are excel-lent NGOs in Pakistan, such as BEFARe, the

International Rescue Committee (IRC),Ockenden International (OI), Basic Educationand Life Skills Training (BEST), Save theChildren, World Vision and others includinglocal NGOs. The country’s government has com-petent institutions and people and there are alsoexcellent Afghan refugee organizations, such asthe Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief(ACBAR). The UN education agencies and thebilateral donors seem to be slumbering, but theyhave important competence and we believe thatUNESCO is planning to play a more proactiverole.26

The media too have a role to play in advoca-cy and the spread of information, but they seemto focus on other crises, and on the overall situ-ation inside Afghanistan rather than therefugees.27

The above does not give the full answers forour neglect of refugee education, but it shedssome light on the problems. Simple practicalthinking, which UNHCR is usually good at,would tell anybody that not investing in educa-tion now, and even reducing funding, is wrong –as seen from moral, economic and educationalperspectives. Instead of reducing funding at thiscritical stage, we should increase funding forimplementation of education, and for documen-tation, research and analysis of experience andwe believe that UNESCO is planning to take amore proactive role.28

Let us take one particular area of interest toall of us; notably girls’ education. We have neverhad more than one third of female pupils inschools in the refugee camps, except for a briefperiod in BEFARe schools in 2005, and even lessin urban areas. Why are not the Western womenin Islamabad, and the well-to-do Pakistaniwomen, holding seminars and meetings aboutthis? We don’t think they are. However, at thetime of completing this book, we believe the var-ious NGOs and private groups are active in solic-iting support for the victims of the earthquake,which in some areas would include refugees.

Counting urban and camp refugees together,far less than half of the boys have been provided

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with formal primary schooling. We have hardlyprovided any literacy training and other adulteducation, except for BEFARe’s non-fformal edu-cation programmes which are an exceptionwhich just goes to prove the rules.We have pro-vided very little skills, vocational and technicaltraining. Even the vulnerable and handicappedhave largely been ignored.

Anybody who has tourist-level informationabout refugees and returnees can see thatAfghanistan needs people with knowledge andskills of all kinds.

Without that piece of luggage, notably edu-cation and skills, the refugees remain hesitantabout returning home, and if and when they gothey will endure miserable lives in poverty, whichthey will rarely be able to get out of. Some willbe forced to come back to Pakistan. Many maynot try to return to Afghanistan at all.

SOLUTIONS AND COSTS

It would not cost much to provide the educationneeded so that all refugees could go home withgeneral knowledge, literacy, civics education andskills. ‘Bridging assistance’ is needed, beyondwhat UNHCR already provides, preferablytogether with the International Organization forMigration (IOM) and the Afghan GovernmentDepartment of Refugees and Returnees. Thereturnees will need some reintegration trainingat home, following the training in Pakistan, andconcrete assistance so that they can find liveli-hoods. We should be reminded that education isa tool, but other tools and investments arerequired for people to be able to make a living.Keep in mind, too, that people are re-startingtheir lives from scratch. Even educated peoplecannot rebuild a country with their bare hands,irrespective of how many degrees and skills theymay have! This partly explains why very fewhighly educated Afghans overseas have yetreturned.

What specifically should be done? Anexhaustive answer requires another chapter, butlet us give a few pointers: We suggest that for

fifty to sixty million dollars over the next two tothree years, we can meet most of the needs forthe Afghan refugees in the field of basic educa-tion, secondary education, vocational and tech-nical training, and other training needed foremployment at home, including ‘bridging assis-tance’ to help the returnees into permanentlivelihoods at home. Specific documents for eachproject and programme, and costing of them,must be made. UN organizations and NGOs havedraft plans ready.

Donors should be challenged to contributeat least modest amounts. A donors’ conferencefor refugee education is urgently needed, withlocal preparatory meetings in Pakistan. We canassure the donors that there is ample expertise inthe existing NGOs, consultancy firms and localinstitutions to plan and implement projects andprogrammes. Naturally, we also need to drawupon the know-how of the UN and the bilateraldonor agencies; the latter mainly for funding.The problem is not lack of knowledge, but lackof funds, and lack of focus and passion. We alsoneed the local Pakistani institutions to be includ-ed, and they should now begin establishing for-mal long-term, future-oriented linkages with sis-ter institutions and colleagues in Afghanistan.

It is our challenge to the international donorcommunity in Pakistan, and the capitals in therich countries and to all the diplomats inIslamabad to roll up their sleeves and play aproactive role. If most of what we propose couldbe done, then the refugees/returnees andAfghanistan, and the long-term host country ofPakistan, will be able to meet a different future.That is the real achievement we all want.

Let us not only blame the current diplomats,but they should take their share. (The author ofthis book has above admitted to taking part ofthe blame himself.) It must be added that thosewho should have done much better in their jobsearlier, before ‘9/11’, were the UN staff anddiplomats, who had been evacuated from Kabulfor security reasons and had to live and work inIslamabad in the 1990s. They must have had alot of idle time on their hands and should have

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ascertained better implementation of educationand other activities for the refugees andreturnees-to-be. They should have done better inplanning repatriation of the refugees; their rein-tegration at home, and the reconstruction ofAfghanistan. There were some exceptions, suchas UNICEF/Afghanistan, with offices inIslamabad at that time, who actively engagedthemselves in refugee education work.Improvement of girls’ education is UNICEF’sresponsibility under the EFA movement.29

COURAGE AND DEEDS

The 2005 theme for the World Refugee Day 20June was courage, and in 2006 it was hope. Weneed to provide education to the Afghan refugeesin order for them to get courage to return home.Without education there is not much of a futurefor them at home; many may resist going home,and many may come back to Pakistan; perhapsfor good. Even worse, some of the refugees andthe marginalized returnees in the major citiesmay engage in destabilizing and antisocial activi-ties, or be hijacked into extremist groups, includ-ing terrorism. When that happens to young peo-ple, we as educators, parents and concerned citi-zens find it particularly saddening, because wehave failed in our task in bringing up and guid-ing the future generation.

Providing education is a multifaceted taskand it is basically a moral obligation, resting onethical principles. Knowledge and skills comesecond. Powerful organizations and staff withimpressive titles have great responsibilities, par-ticularly those in the UN organizations,embassies and ministries. We hope they havecourage to do what is right.

We know it was possible to receive fundingfor the terrible tsunami catastrophe.Governments and ordinary people all over theworld assisted, which was the right thing to do.A donors’ conference in Oslo for SouthernSudan also received what they needed to beginrebuilding the war-torn south of the country andestablish peaceful relations with the capital. The

donors’ conference in Islamabad in November2005 succeeded in receiving a large amount forthe emergency, medium-term and long-termresponse to the victims of the earthquake inPakistan on 8 October 2005.30

We hope that the donors and planners gath-ered at the conferences realized the importanceof education, including providing education forthe millions of Sudanese refugees, so they can getcourage and become able and willing to returnhome. This includes education for employmentand ‘bridging assistance’ for the returnees; edu-cation for traumatized families in the north ofPakistan; the handicapped and war victims inAfghanistan; and just ordinary poor people inhosting or sending countries, of refugees andothers affected by natural and man-made disas-ters.

Regarding South Sudan, what we did in thepast decades, with five-six million refugees andIDPs, is a typical example of our short sighted-ness in the field of education. We educated fartoo few, especially at post-primary levels. This isnot unlike what we have done with the Afghansin Pakistan. We never gave them the educationthey needed; basic education, skills, vocationaland technical training, higher education, peaceeducation and so on, all of which are required ifpeople are going to manage their own lives andrebuild their country. This neglect is now real-ized at the time of repatriation and reconstruc-tion - in South Sudan and in Afghanistan.

Let us mention, too, that the refugees are ingeneral a resource to their home country, but tounlock the returning refugees’ potential requireshelp and investment. After wars and long years inexile, some returnees will need medical, psycho-logical and other help and social benefits for therest of their lives. They can still contribute torebuilding of their country.

The author of this book was part of theinternational workforce in the Sudanese andAfghan long-term refugee crises. Although wespoke up, we failed to get the results that wererequired. “It is not words but deeds that count”,the former Norwegian Prime Minister Hon. Kjell

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Magne Bondevik said in Oslo, at the opening ofthe donors’ conference for South Sudan in April2005. We wish he would also be our spokesmanfor Afghan refugee education in Pakistan, where

we are in a great hurry to implement educationprojects to enable the refugees to return home indignity to rebuild their lives and country.31

The refugees are one of the most marginalized groups in any society and the international community has a great respon-sibility to give them courage and skills to return home in dignity, so that they have a realistic chance of re-building theirlives and country, and are able to stay at home for good. They need education and skills. The international communityshould set up a special emergency education programme for Afghan refugees. Similar programmes can be set up for othercountries and sectors.

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1 (a) This chapter includes some background informationon Afghanistan’s history, refugee history, opinions of donorsand other partners, and other issues, which were not includ-ed in the Summary Volume. (b) The Boxes at the introduc-tion of this chapter include some details about refugeeissues and refugee education. (c) This chapter attempts tomake a case for Afghan refugee education in Pakistan. (d)We would like to give special support to the RefugeeAffected and Hosting Areas (RAHA) initiative by theGovernment of Pakistan (SAFRON/CCAR) and UNHCRsupported by the UN and core NGOs. Needs assessmentreports have been prepared in 2006. Donor pledges andproject/programme preparation and implementation of actu-al activities to benefit Pakistanis and Afghan refugees areurgently needed.

2 See various reports by the Government ofAfghanistan and the UN, such as, UNDP: AfghanistanNational Human Development Report 2004. Kabul, 2004.

3 Ibid.4 Quantitative data about repatriation can be found in

UNHCR’s three repatriation booklets. (a) UNHCR:Voluntary Repatriation to Afghanistan 2003, 2004 and2005, respectively. UNHCR, Islamabad. 2003. (b) See also,UNHCR: Searching for Solutions: 25 Years of UNHCR –Pakistan Cooperation on Afghan Refugees. UNHCR,Islamabad, 2005.

5 See various internal CCAR and UNHCR documents.See also the open documents from the Census aboutAfghans in Pakistan, carried out by the Government ofPakistan, assisted by UNHCR, in February-March 2005. In2006 and 2007, UNHCR and CCAR, GoP, will preparedocuments from the Registration exercise.

6 See references in the substantive chapters about edu-cational issues.

7 In an evaluation study of a durable solutions projectfor vulnerable and extremely vulnerable refugees inPeshawar, carried out for the International RescueCommittee (funded by ECHO) in September/October 2005,we discussed some of the issues related to livelihoods, etc.See, Hetland, Atle: Evaluation of the IRC-DSP Project. IRC,Peshawar/Islamabad, 2005.

8 The author touched upon some of these issues in anewspaper article entitled “ABC of post-disaster”, TheNews, Lahore/Karachi/Islamabad, 30.10.05.

9 Interviews with the Vice-Chancellor of Hazara

University, Mansehra, Professor Dr. Daud Awan, Octoberand November 2005.

10 A brief article is included in, BEFARe MonthlyNewsletter, Issue 25, Vol. 3, October 2005. Peshawar. (Thatarticle does not include information about UNESCO-BEFARe cooperation, which we have obtained from othersources in the refugee education community.)

11 The author discussed some of the issues in hisinternal report upon completion of his consultancy con-tracts with UNHCR, submitted to UNHCR, Islamabad andGeneva, 2002.

12 Discussions about BEFARe’s future are included inseveral chapters in this book. See also, Annual Reports for2004 and 2005. BEFARe, Peshawar, 2005 and 2006.

13 See various UNESCO booklets and documents con-cerning emergency education. UNESCO, Paris, variousyears, mainly from 2000 onwards.

14 The term ‘bridging assistance’ is frequently used invarious BEFARe documents by Berthold Wohlleber,Technical Adviser.

16 See internal documents in BEFARe. 17 See UNHCR public information materials.18 In our report referred to in Note 7 above we dis-

cuss some issues related to funding, mainly related to vul-nerable and EVIs.

19 Dr. Sabiha H. Syed has taken initiative in establish-ing Migration Research Centre, Islamabad, and has takenup these issues in several seminar papers in 2004 and 2005.Recently, AREU, an Afghanistan based NGO has carried outseveral surveys and studies, inter alia, in Karachi, Peshawarand Quetta, and on cross-border migration.

20 See our comments and references in Note 12above.

21 See data in UNHCR’s booklet about repatriation in2003. (For exact reference, see Note 4 above.)

22 UNHCR: Education Field Guidelines. UNHCR,Geneva, 2003.

23 For exact reference, see Note 2 above.24 This debate is not new. Concerns about these issues

have been discussed internally in the various UN organiza-tions. In UNESCO, for example, several policy documentsand reports have been prepared and some work on emer-gency and refugee education has been implemented in vari-ous countries, including Pakistan and Kenya. See theWebsites of the various organizations.

25 Except for IRC, Mercy Corps and Save the

Notes

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Children, there seem to be few international organizationstaking up protection issues publicly as seen from therefugees’ own perspective. UN organizations like UNHCR,UNOCHA, UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO, WFP and others dis-cuss the issues in various surveys, reports and policy docu-ments.

26 We do not feel that we are unfair when expressingcriticism about the performance of UN organizations inthese fields. Surely, they are aware of their own shortcom-ings, but improved results seem to be missing.

27 The English language print media in Pakistan givefair space to refugee issues. For example, The News has aseparate page daily about Afghanistan, sometimes combinedwith Iraq and Kashmir news. However, the refugee issuesseem to move more to repatriation issues, such as an excel-lent ‘Special Report’ on several pages in The News onSunday 26 June 2005.

28 See references in the substantive chapters abouteducation.

29 During the Taliban regime international organiza-tions, diplomatic missions and most NGOs were housedtemporarily abroad for security reasons, most of them in

Islamabad although some (NGOs) were in Peshawar.30 As for summary reports from the conference, see,

for example, The News on Sunday 20 November 2005,including the editorial, “Gesture of generosity”. We estimatethat less than half of the pledges were grants. Thus a largeamount was soft loans and implementation to take placeover five years. Pledges don’t always materialize in actualfunds, goods or services. (Being a Norwegion citizen, andhaving worked in Africa and Asia for over 20 years, theauthor was proud of Norway’s particularly generous andspeedy response after the erathquake in Pakistan. Norwayhas granted more than USD 100 million and the figurekeeps going up.)

31 (a) A number of references of relevance to thischapter are included in the substantive chapters about edu-cation. (b) The evaluation of the response to tsunami hasbeen released and it leaves a lot to be desired. For someaspects, see an early account in the journal Forced MigrationReview, Special Issue, July 2005, published by the RefugeeStudies Center, Oxford University, UK. The issue has thefront-page heading, “Tsunami: learning from the humanitar-ian response”.

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Part IV

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Leaders, Mangers andAdvisers in BEFARe

4Chapter

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Leaders, Mangers and Advisersin BEFARe

This Chapter presents leaders, managers and advisers in the GTZ-BEFARe project and its pred-ecessors. It presents not only the people but also their work; the projects. The projects were,throughout, headed by Chief Technical Advisers (CTAs) recruited by the German Agency for

Technical Cooperation (GTZ); the leaders were German nationals, Pakistanis and Afghans, andsome other nationalities.

GTZ-BEFARe, which became the project name as of 1 January 1996, was the major implement-ing partner in education for the United Nations Refugee Agency UNHCR in Pakistan for over

ten years. Some other donors also contributed to the operations, out of which the GermanFederal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development was the major and most regulardonor, while others joined in only for short-term activities, sometimes with a one-time grant, ora grant over a few years. “It was indeed serious work to run activities of this importance and

magnitude”, one of the German leaders told us.

The reader will discover that the German leaders, and the local staff, have been particularlyconscientious and committed individuals. We learn about their efforts, achievements and short-comings, and we are reminded that leaders always operate within structures. Unfortunately, theglimpses we can give of the persons behind the job titles are brief, and so are the tentative and

analytical comments.

History about projects and organizations, and stories about leaders and their achievements, maymake interesting reading, and there are always lessons to draw. However, Shakir Ishaq,

BEFARe’s new Chief Executive will still have to find his own ways and means in a new terrainwithout any blueprint for guaranteed results. The refugee aid climate and economic conditions

are different and tougher now than earlier. This is indeed a challenge to Shakir’s leadershipand, we should add, to his staff, including the beneficiaries, especially the teachers and commu-

nity leaders.1

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The German assistance to Afghanrefugees in Pakistan gave attention topractical training during the initialyears, and then again for a few yearsfifteen-twenty years later in the VETproject. Lack of funds is the reasongiven for reducing assistance to thefield, which is correct enough since pri-mary school education was alwaysgiven highest priority in accordancewith UNHCR’s guidelines, and UNHCRpaid for the bulk of the expensesthroughout the time GTZ was imple-menting partner. However, UNHCR’sguidelines also emphasize training foradolescents and handicapped, and skillsand vocational training shall be given pri-ority. Germany is known for having top-notch practical expertise in these fields.

Several of UNHCR’s leaders inPakistan also wanted practical trainingto be expanded, in particular Hasim

Utkan, who spent three terms in high-level posts in UNHCR, Pakistan. Therefore, it remains puzzling why practical train-ing was not given more attention than was the case. How come the otherwise excellent German project leaders, man-agers and advisers could not secure additional funding for such training, from German bilateral sources (BMZ), or fromother sources? At the current time (2006), when refugees are returning home in large numbers, everybody can see thatskills, vocational and technical training would have made a great difference for returnees in finding employment andrebuilding Afghanistan. It would also have reduced the number of refugees who have to migrate abroad again becausethey cannot find livelihoods at home.

Just like a piece of cake? “No,moving from GTZ-BEFARe to establish-ing the large project as a local organi-zation, notably BEFARe, without GTZ,was far from easy”, Holger Munschsays. “It was a difficult process andthere were opposing interests andstrong feelings among the staff andpartners. However, I believe wereached the right conclusion and I amglad that the new BEFARe has becomea Pakistani organization and is movingforward.”

In this photo Holger Munsch takesa piece of cake and Shakir Ishaq, thenew BEFARe’s Chief Executive, seemsto be pleased with the new state of theaffairs. Peshawar, November 2003.

See Chapter 3, Box 3.4, for a chronological description of the project development and photos of the project leaders,1996 – 2005.

ESTABLISHING ASSISTANCE FORREFUGEE EDUCATION

The German assistance to the Afghan refugees inPakistan dates back to the early years after theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan at the end of1979. Various educational fields were consideredimportant, including basic education, adult edu-cation, literacy and community services, voca-tional and technical training, and related trainingof personnel. Several German assisted assessmentmissions undertook surveys, case studies andplanning work to explore the most relevant andeffective fields for German assistance. Expertsfrom other European countries, and fromPakistan and Afghanistan, also took part in thiswork and development of teaching-learningmaterials for pilot projects. The long list ofnames from the early years include, Messrs.Brarotzky, Peter Trott, Gottfried Marienfeld andmany others. Gottfried Marienfeld, an engineerby training, was the Chief Technical Adviser(CTA) of the Pak-GGerman Technical TrainingProgramme (PGTTP) from 1982. 2

In 1984 the first broader basic educationactivities became more formalized with theestablishment of Pak-GGerman Bas-EEd, a GTZ-project under the Education Department of theNorth-West Frontier Province (NWFP). It oftenused a longer name, notably “Basic Education inAreas Affected by the Influx of Refugees,NWFP”. Dr. Udo Bude was the first ChiefTechnical Adviser from 1984-1987. He includeda number of foreigners and locals (Pakistanis andAfghans) as consultants and advisers to establishthis important project – which over the yearsbecame one of the world’s largest basic educa-tion projects for refugees, possibly the largest. In2002, when the author of this book was a sec-onded education expert in UNHCR’s Pakistanoffice, Dr. Bude was recruited to be a member ofthe Evaluation Team, which looked into the per-formance and impact of the long-lasting project,which had throughout been managed by GTZbut mainly funded by UNHCR with someGerman assistance, through the German Federal

Ministry of Economic Development andCooperation (BMZ). In the early years, theAdvisers included Wilhelm Schuldt, who wasinvolved in assessment of training needs andother issues, and Manfred Wehrmann, who inparticular worked on development of teaching-learning materials, assessment of learning needs(with Schuldt) and various fields of non-formaleducation. Messrs. Schuldt and Wehrmann bothcame back to head the project some years later;Schuldt from 1987 – 1988, when Wehrman tookover and stayed on for his two-year period until1990. Mr. Schuchart was a frequently hired tech-nical expert assisting Schuldt.

Throughout GTZ-BEFARe’s history, therehave been relatively few women in senior postsand as advisers, but there have been some. Dr.Gisela Frommer from GTZ in Germany wasinvolved in project planning in the early years,and Detlef Reuter and his wife, both accom-plished teachers and teacher trainers, were con-sultants in the late 1980s.

There have been a number of local projectmanagers and advisers involved from the earlyyears, such as Dr. Zainul Abudin Mumtaz, SaidAhmed Mohmand, Hakim Taniwal, Prof. Habib-ur-Rahman and Ms. F.A. Bhatti. During the earlyyears, several senior advisers were Afghans,while that seems to have changed somewhat overtime, as more Pakistanis have been recruited intothe permanent posts. Afghans have kept playingkey roles, but more in second row rather thanfirst row positions. It is probably natural, or atleast common in long-term refugee-situations,that the host country’s experts and managerssoon begin occupying the key managerial posts,with experts from the refugees’ home countryplaying second fiddle. But the Afghans have beeninvaluable sources of advice, especially aboutindigenous Afghan issues. At the end of a refugeeera, emphasis changes, and the home country’sexperts should increasingly take over leadershipfunctions.

Although few women held key posts in main-stream fields of the GTZ education projects,women were usually in ‘women fields’ like home

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economics, community development, motherand child health care (MCH), and similar fields.For example, as early as in 1987, there was ateam of women (under the leadership of a man)handling key planning issues in communitydevelopment. The team included, Mr. AlamgirShah with Ms. Rubina, Ms. Sarvat, Ms. Fhimaand Ms. Palwasha.3

Women have been involved as teachers, butrelatively few have become head teachers andmanagers, although improvements have beenmade in recent years. With the expansion ofgirls’ education more posts became available forwomen teachers and head teachers. Also in liter-acy, MCH and other non-formal education activ-ities, the majority of the participants werewomen.4 (See other chapters for substantivedata.)

As seen from a gender perspective, it wasencouraging that the only external evaluationever undertaken of the GTZ project work had awoman team leader, notably Dr. Eva MarionJohannessen, a Norwegian Psychologist and spe-cialist in emergency education, but that was aslate as 2002, and all the other team memberswere men.5

VOCATIONAL TRAINING ANDBASIC EDUCATION

Let us now go back to the initial years of Germanassistance to Afghan refugee education inPakistan, with particular emphasis on vocationaland technical training. The first project to startwas in these fields, notably the PGTTP project, asmentioned above. Its implementation activitieswent on until 1996, with Engineer Marienfeld asthe first CTA, and Dr. Jarik Lette as the chiefover the last three years.

For several years, the Pak-German TechnicalTraining programme and the Pak-German Bas-ED were parallel projects; one focusing on tech-nical, vocational and skills fields, the other oneon formal, community based primary education(COPE). PGTTP was more oriented towardsnon-formal education, but it never gave compre-

hensive attention to functional literacy and ordi-nary adult education programmes. Consideringthe long-lasting and significant German involve-ment in Afghan refugee education in Pakistan,there could have been room for developing thisfield further, but then there was always competi-tion for funds between formal education for chil-

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Textbooks displayed in a BEFARe school in Jalozai Campabout one and half hour's drive from Peshawar city. BEFARehas developed much over one hundred books/booklets andsupplementary materials for pupils and teachers. The pub-lications are listed in a Catalogue prepared by Atteeq UrRahman, GTZ-BEFARe. Peshawar 2003. The catalogueincludes a one-page summary of each title. In addition tothe textbooks and supplementary teaching materials,BEFARe's backlist includes research-oriented studies andother publications in formal education, non-formal educa-tion, teacher training, pedagogical and methodologicalfields, and so on.

BEFARe, Pakistan, and GTZ worldwide, should beproud of the quality curriculum and textbook work it imple-mented. As long as there are refugees in Pakistan,BEFARe's textbooks will continue to benefit Afghan pupilsand other beneficiaries in schools in Pakistan. We also hopeAfghanistan's educators will make use of the materials.

For further information, contact BEFARe's R&D Section.E-mail: [email protected] (See also Chapter 7.)

dren, which fell well short of reaching all school-going-age children in the target areas, and thenon-formal fields. However, BEFARe didincreasingly include NFE in its work, but it wasan uphill struggle to find funds and to get recog-nition for the field. The only woman at manage-rial level in BEFARe, Waheeda Farouk, finallymanaged to get NFE more recognized towardsthe end of the GTZ era, when BEFARe became alocal Pakistani organization in 2003. (See theNFE Chapter.)

Although non-formal education, in a tradi-tional sense, was not given major attention, weshould recall that the first 15 years saw majorfocus given to vocational and technical training,and then for a short two-year period around2000, with the VET project, under BEFARe,which was temporarily funded by UNHCR (notby BMZ or GTZ). This shows that there was aclear will to include non-formal education andindeed the VET fields, but there must have beensome lack of understanding of the importance ofthese fields in the central donor quarters.

PGTTP had several international, mostlyGerman advisers, including Messrs. Peter Trott,Horst Metzger, Pott, Zingler, Schubert and oth-ers. The last chief of the project was Dr. JarikLette (1993-1996) with D. Betz as internationaltechnical adviser. Pakistani experts also playedkey roles, with German-educated EngineerHamish Khan as a particularly competent andpersistent adviser, with clear leadership and man-agement qualities. He took with him his experi-ence when he left PGTTP at project close in1996. For some time Hamish worked with GTZ-BEFARe but could not fit into the new set-up andleft, and some years later he established BEST,Basic Education and Employable Skills Training,which initially had operations only in NWFP inPakistan and now increasingly operates inAfghanistan, with offices in Kabul andJalalabad.6 (See Chapter 1, where HamishKhan’s statement about the good work of GTZand BEFARe has been included.)

Hamish Khan’s success is partly a credit to

the German assistance to Afghan refugee educa-tion to Pakistan, and a product of Khan’s ownhard work. Shahnaz Akhtar, currently CountryDirector of Ockenden International (UK) inPakistan, is similarly a product of many years ofGTZ experience. (She mentions this herself inher statement in Chapter 1.) While working forGTZ in Pakistan, Shahnaz did not work inrefugee education, but moved to that field in hernext post. She is the only Pakistani to head aninternational NGO in refugee education, and sheis the only woman at such a high level.7

Several Afghan nationals, affiliated to GTZin the early years, have done well in connectionwith the on-going reconstruction of Afghanistan,working in NGOs, United Nations and otherinternational organizations, Government postsand politics. One example is Hon. HakimTaniwal, who has served as a Minister inPresident Karzai’s Government in Afghanistan.

The vocational and technical training projectfor Afghan refugees in Pakistan started as early as1982. We find it natural that a German adminis-tered project started with vocational and techni-cal training since these are fields where theGerman educational system has unique expert-ise. The country has its own model for vocation-al training in schools and apprenticeship workplaces. Other countries still ‘look to Germany’ tolearn from the country’s model, and we find thataspects of the model are particularly relevant inlong-term emergency situations and early recon-struction phases. As we mentioned above, it wasunfortunate that the practical training project forrefugees was closed in Pakistan in the mid-1990sdue to lack of funding and that similar trainingactivities could not be provided for many years.In our context, we would have liked to seeexpansion of the training activities of the kindPGTTP offered, and possibly included a scholar-ship programme for vocational and technicaltraining similar to the German-funded andUNHCR-administered DAFI ScholarshipProgramme for Higher Education. (See Chapter7 for a brief description of DAFI.)

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Even if GTZ’s vocational and technical train-ing work did not lead to long-lasting results ofthe kind we mention, the project can definitelybe listed as one of the good practices of GTZ’swork in Afghan refugee education in Pakistan. Inaddition to the thousands of skilled Afghan grad-uates from the training courses, PGTTP’s resultsshould also be measured in the ideals and modelsit provided, which can be built on in futurerefugee and reconstruction situations. Perhapssome of the leaders who were involved in theproject, and whom we have named above, couldbe encouraged to write articles and interestGerman and local students and researchers in get-ting involved?8

FROM PROJECT TOORGANIZATION

We shall now present the primary educationactivities and their many leaders, managers andadvisers. Pak-German Bas-Ed started in 1984and ran as a project until 1996 when GTZ-BEFARe took over. But some years earlier, start-ing in 1990 and going on gradually until 1993, ina part of the project known as AG Bas-Ed,Afghan German Basic Education, had been estab-lished in Kabul with Dr. Y. Noristani as its leader.AG Bas-Ed is still in full swing in Afghanistan.

The first leader of Pak Bas-Ed was Dr. UdoBude, who was CTA from the end of 1984 to theend of 1987. He was also a member of the teamevaluating the project in 2002. (See exact refer-ence in Footnote 5.)

The various project leaders, managers, advis-ers and other staff members made their mark onthe project. Among the particularly strong-head-ed and let us hasten to add, competent and pas-sionate German leaders was Dr. Michael Hirth,who started out in PGTTP in 1992 beforebecoming CTA of Pak-German Bas-Ed from1994 until 1996, after which he became the firstHead of the new and reorganized project organ-ization, GTZ-BBEFARe, from its establishment in1996 until 1998. When we spoke with Michaelin the autumn of 2005, he was just back in the

region; this time as GTZ’s Senior EducationAdviser in Afghanistan.9

“It is important that a leader of a large proj-ect like BEFARe has a clear vision for the project.To have a clear vision and long-tem goals areimportant in any project but it is particularlyimportant in large-scale projects and not least inrefugee situations where the environment changesall the time. We had no blueprint for how toreach our vision, but we worked together anddeveloped our vision into strategies and plans,which we then turned into practical and opera-tional activities”, Dr. Hirth says, and we cansense that he is quite satisfied with the achieve-ments made during his term as the GTZ refugeeeducation chief in Pakistan.

“I believe we managed to establish good projectactivities. We developed BEFARe with its manyactivities into an organization based on solid founda-tions with clear vision. This was needed in order tobe able to expand and improve the project and itsoutputs, notably tens of thousands of children andadults whom we provided quality basic educationfor in the ordinary schools and the non-formal edu-cation programme. We managed to do this thanks tojoint efforts by all our staff, including the Afghanand Pakistani teachers in the classrooms.”

GROWTH, TURBULENCE ANDCHANGE

By the time Dr. Hirth’s term was over, the proj-ect had grown to include about 80,000 pupilsand adult learners and more than 2,500 teachersand staff. The project continued to grow duringDr. Ulf Bartholomae’s two-year period as CTA,from 2000 to the autumn of 2001, and peakedwith more than 100,000 children and 20,000youth and adult learners before the “9/11”events shattered the world and the local scene.

“9/11” led to the invasion of Afghanistanand the overthrow of the Taliban regime and thebeginning of the largest repatriation exercise thatUNHCR had ever been involved in, from earlyspring 2002. Finally, there was hope for somesort of normalcy in Afghanistan, even though it

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was fragile and uncertain. Huge numbers ofrefugees in Pakistan did take the chance andreturned home to Afghanistan. 10

Dr. Bartholomae’s tenure was made difficultfrom the time he came in 1998 by various fac-tors, and at a time when nobody could predictthat ‘9/11’ would happen, that Afghanistanwould be invaded by America and the West, andthat refugees would indeed be able to returnhome from the turn of the year 2001/2002.

When Dr. Bartholomae came there was anatmosphere of resignation and people saw noend to the Taliban regime and hope of goinghome. The international community was also notproactive in supporting new initiatives in educa-tion and other fields. Since the Afghan tragedyhad gone on for so long, there was also a feelingof ‘donor fatigue’, especially within UNHCR.On the part of the beneficiaries, i.e. the refugees,there were groups who had become impatient:they wanted assistance which could give themand their children an acceptable life in exile sincethey had little hope of returning home.

Some of those who wanted better conditionswere the teachers and staff in BEFARe, who feltthey should be paid better salaries. Technically,teachers were never paid salaries but incentives,using UNHCR’s terminology, however the teach-ers saw their monthly pay as salaries, which wasabout PKR 2,200 at the time. It was increased toover PKR 4,000 a few years later, but that wasafter Dr. Bartholomae had left. He became theGTZ leader who had to face teachers’ demon-strations, sometimes threats, and other difficul-ties in daily operations. He was willing to reasonwith the teachers, parents and community lead-ers about what was fair pay for hard and impor-tant work. Yet, he also had to explain to theteachers that it was difficult for him to convincethe main donor to pay more. Dr. Barholomaerightly thought the teachers deserved better pay,but the main donor, UNHCR, did not have themoney, and the Head of the Programme Sectionat that time was unwilling and unable to under-stand the seriousness of the problem. This showsthat a project leader, even in the world’s largest

refugee education project run by GTZ, can betrapped in an impossible situation if the donor/sdo not have the required competence to pledgefunding and other resources.

It should be recalled that these difficultieshappened at a time when it was a known factthat only about half of the children of school-going age were enrolled in primary schools inBEFARe’s target areas and in other camps/vil-lages in Pakistan, and less than 1/3 of the pupilswere girls. Hence, there was an objective need toincrease, not decrease project activities.UNHCR’s own field guidelines for educationstipulated at that time, and it has been re-empha-sized in the new guidelines (2003), that all chil-dren should be given primary education and thatfurther education should also be made availableon merit. Formal and non-formal skills and voca-tional training should also be provided, especial-ly for handicapped and vulnerable men andwomen.

Let us mention that UNHCR’s CountryRepresentative to Pakistan until 2003, HasimUtkan, was always keen on arguing for increasedallocations to education, including vocational,technical and other secondary level education, inaddition to primary education and education forthe handicapped. Although the quality of theeducation provided to refugees in Pakistan wasseen as high, not least in GTZ’s schools, it didnot reach all children in the refugee camps/vil-lages in Pakistan. Very little was done for urbanrefugees, who actually constituted about 50% ofall Afghans in Pakistan, but statistical data aboutthis was not available at the time.

The above problems marred Dr.Bartholomae’s term as head of BEFARe,although they were not of his making. Hereceived little support from his GTZ countryoffice, as far as we know, but we believe theEmbassy of Germany, which oversees all aidactivities and makes proposals for allocation ofaid, played a more positive role. Dr. Victor Matzwas, at that time, the Head of the EconomicDevelopment Cooperation Section at theEmbassy, and was proactively seeking additional

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funding for refugee education, i.e. GTZ-BEFARe, which in many ways was a flagship ofGerman development aid in Pakistan and inrefugee education worldwide. However, after“9/11”, the world outlook of the Embassy swift-ly changed focus, from refugees in Pakistan toreconstruction in Afghanistan.11

Although we know from a professional pointof view that this was a wrong approach, it wasnot ill intentioned. The aid to Afghan refugees inPakistan should have been increased markedlyfor some years parallel with major assistance toAfghanistan, so as to enable refugees to prepareto return home with knowledge and skills.Experience from elsewhere in the world teachesus that this is the preferred result-oriented action,which promotes repatriation and reconstruc-tion.12 If the donors had been more farsighted,and better advised, they would also have allocat-ed increased funds to vocational and technicaltraining (cf. GTZ’s initial assistance to refugeesin Pakistan). We believe German developmentaid historians will be critical of the bureaucraticdecisions taken at the time. Perhaps it could beadded that education and training is still not seenas an essential field of the basic assistance torefugees.13

Since Dr. Bartholomae knew that UNHCRwas unlikely to increase its funding to GTZ-BEFARe, and the same was the case with theGerman bilateral source, BMZ, he proactivelysought additional assistance from other donors.Thus, GTZ-BEFARe succeeded in receiving allo-cations from The World Bank (partly thanks toUNHCR’s support), the British government aidagency DFID and the Canadian government aidagency CIDA. Furthermore, this also openedinternal discussions in BEFARe about fundingfrom other sources, i.e. loosening its dependenceon UNHCR, with some assistance from BMZ.

Innovative discussions also began aboutexpanding BEFARe’s activities to fields otherthan education and training and to includePakistani recipients, not just Afghans. These wereall farsighted actions, which the CTA and his sen-ior staff should be given credit for having

addressed, in particular Syed Junaid Shah. Hehas worked in BEFARe since its early years, deal-ing in particular with project preparations andfund-raising. He is a lawyer by training and aCanadian citizen of Pakistani origin. During Dr.Bartholomae’s time, few external consultantswere employed. Ms. Kate Smith was the onlyinternational one.

CREATING A NEWORGANIZATION

Holger Munsch, an Engineer and Sociologist,took over as CTA in the mid of 2001 and stayed

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Some of BEFARe's recent annual reports. The reader willnotice that from the 2003 annual report, GTZ's logo is notincluded, only BEFARe's logo, since the project from thattime became a national Pakistani entity. BEFARe continuesworking for refugees and more and more also for Pakistanibeneficiaries, especially in poor urban refugee host com-munities and in areas affected by the devastating earth-quake in northern Pakistan on 8 October 2005.

Left, cover page of BEFARe's original project descrip-tion from1996, and one of its publications in teacher train-ing from 1995, prepared in cooperation with UNESCO.Thoroughness was always a trademark of BEFARe, in proj-ect planning, selection of areas of work within the educa-tion sector, selection of geographic areas within NWFP,additions and minor alterations of curricula and textbookdevelopment, teaching methods, and so on. The largenumber of studies, reports and books is proof of the pro-ject's thoroughness. However, it is less than five years agosince a professional R&D section was established inBEFARe. One would have expected such a large projecthaving done that earlier.

until the end of 2003, when BEFARe became aPakistani Trust, and GTZ only funded a part-time adviser from savings made during Munsch’stime. Berthold Wohlleber, an agriculturalist andproject administrator, mainly with experiencefrom Africa, was recruited to spend about sixmonths per year at BEFARe, split into shortblocks of about 6-8 eight weeks per visit, uponcompletion of Munsch’s term as CTA.

When Munsch was CTA he included severalinternational consultants in his team, of whomJurgen Wintermeier was probably the mostprominent, with long experience as a manager inthe German Development Service (DED) and asa consultant for various organizations, includingGTZ and UNHCR. Wintermeier’s particularstrength was his innovativeness, especially asrelated to BEFARe’s future operations after theGTZ affiliation had ceased.

Together with another international consult-ant, Dr. S. B. Ekanayake, a Sri Lankan teacher-training specialist who had retired from posts inrefugee education in UNESCO/Pakistan andUNHCR/Afghanistan, Munsch, Wintermeier,Junaid and other local management staff, spentconsiderable time discussing and planning howto organize BEFARe as a viable local organiza-tion for the future so that it could not only con-tinue its work in refugee education, but also takeon additional tasks related to Afghans andPakistanis alike.

Dr. Mehmooda Rehman, a retired Professorin Education from the University of Peshawar,was recruited to head a unit for professionaldevelopment and innovation. (See Chapter 7.)All the local management staff, mostly Pakistanisand some few Afghans, continued performingtheir duties and preparing themselves for theirtasks in the new BEFARe as a local organization.In addition to Junaid, we should mention TanvirAhmad Awan, Head of Administration andFinance, who played a proactive role in this tran-sition period. (In the two chapters about Formaland Non-formal Education we have presentedthe heads of those departments.)

Munsch was a particularly committed proj-

ect leader, and could not easily let go of thisimportant project. In fact all GTZ and BEFAReleaders, managers and advisers we have got toknow, either in person or through reports andproject records, have become absorbed in theimportance of refugee education projects, withworkloads far beyond normal office hours andgreater responsibilities than chiefs of main UNoffices and comparable organizations. GTZshould be commended for having chosen suchhigh quality personnel. Let us add, though, thatnone is faultless, and we should not exaggeratethe importance of foreigners in aid projects. Weshould be reminded that without the good work ofthe local Pakistani and Afghan staff, the Germanswould not have been successful.

A few more words could be added about thework and time of the ‘good man HolgerMunsch’, a characterization applied by several ofhis colleagues and staff; Afghans, Pakistanis andforeigners. The author of this book dealt withMunsch on behalf of UNHCR and UNESCO. Weimplemented several collaborative projects,including, for example, the development of a“Database of Afghan Refugee Teachers inPakistan”.14 We recall that Munsch would always‘go the whole mile’ and a bit more to reach thegoals set out.

Munsch has continued to come to Pakistanand Afghanistan after his GTZ contract was over,as a consultant for various multilateral organiza-tions. Munsch has visited BEFARe whenever pos-sible and offered support and advice to the newPakistani Chief Executive, Shakir Ishaq, whotook over the large BEFARe project and organi-zation at a time when funding for Afghanrefugees in general, including for education,began to face severe reductions. Since most ofthe funds had come from UNHCR, it wasUNHCR’s reduced funding that was most notice-able. In the past, about 20% of the regular budg-et for education and educational advisers, includ-ing the CTA, had come from BMZ, throughGTZ. BMZ’s allocations ceased in 2004 andthere was only limited contact with GTZ afterthat time, mainly through the Adviser (TA)

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Wohlleber during his part-time consultancy. Webelieve UNHCR was appreciative of GTZ keep-ing some international presence in this long-termand large project. It is normal that UNHCR’simplementing partners/NGOs have internationalstaff when their projects receive large funding.BEFARe is by far UNHCR’s largest implementingpartner in education in Pakistan, receiving abouttwo million dollars annually in 2005, reduced byabout 30% from the previous year, when allimplementing partners faced similar reductionsin education.

GTZ’s Country Office in Islamabad moni-tored BEFARe’s project activities through theCTA, who seemed to be given quite free hands,yet great responsibility. The various CountryDirectors in Islamabad only paid occasional vis-its to the project, usually if BMZ in Germany orthe Embassy in Islamabad wanted to come. AfterBEFARe had become a local entity, from 2004(with all preparations having been made in2003), the role of the Germans was actually over.However, the new dynamic Country Director ofGTZ, Dr. Ingolf Vereno, who came in 2004played a proactive role in increasing GTZ’s aidportfolio in Pakistan, and he also explored possi-bilities for continued support to refugee educa-tion and related fields. It was encouraging forBEFARe that he paid several visits to BEFARe’sPeshawar office and discussed various otherrefugee and returnee issues with staff and con-sultants. At the end, though, it seemed impossi-ble for GTZ to secure new funding for this orother projects related to refugees, returnees orrefugee-hosting areas in Pakistan. The latter maystill be possible, but it is not entirely certain thatassistance would be channeled through BEFAResince GTZ also manages another large educationproject in the area through the Ministry ofEducation, NWFP. 15 However, it is BEFARe thathas the expertise in the field.

After the earthquake in Northern Pakistanon 8 October 2005, GTZ has played a proactiverole in various fields of implementation of assis-tance. BEFARe on its part implements activities,notably in education in Abbottabad in NWFP.

THE FUTURE

Much of the German development aid still runsmany of its larger projects with German staff, orat least a German CTA, at a time when mostother aid organizations have handed over imple-mentation to the recipient country’s organiza-tions and institutions.16 However, in connectionwith UNHCR’s type of work, notably refugeeissues, the German model is quite common.GTZ’s model has proven usefull after the earth-quake.

In the mid-1990s UNHCR agreed with thehost country Pakistan that it would implement allits project activities through international part-ners/NGOs rather than the Government toincrease quality and accountability vis-à-vis thedonors and reduce corruption, or suspicionsabout corruption. On the other hand, interna-tional organizations often run their projects andprogrammes outside the host Government’sstructures, and the costs usually become higherthan if local organizations and institutions runthem, mainly caused by costly international staffand consultants and various other overheadcosts.17 In GTZ’s case, it is a general fact thatmost of its projects are large, otherwise therewould be no need to include GTZ as technicalexpert organization and overseer of implementa-tion.

However, the fact that projects are large alsocreates problems, especially at the time of hand-ing over to the local partners (Governmentand/or NGO).18 Currently, when GTZ has pulledout, we believe it is unavoidable that BEFARewill face a difficult transition period with manychallenges, which it is left to solve on its own. Itis a fact that without GTZ’s good work overmore than two decades, BEFARe as an organiza-tion would not have come into being. We hopethat BEFARe will manage to establish itself as asustainable Pakistani NGO, otherwise some ofGTZ’s investment will be wasted, and that it willbe made good use of in education and relatedfields, not only for Afghans but also Pakistanis.19

We have praised the high caliber of the staff

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the Germans sent to the GTZ refugee educationprojects in Pakistan, from 1982 until 2005.However, it is not easy for a local organization,notably BEFARe, to take over without havingGTZ in front of its acronym. It does not have thestrong GTZ leaders and organization to lean onany more. We should always bear in mind, asmentioned above, that leaders, projects and

organizations work within specific structures.Thus, the German CTAs, TAs and advisers alloperated within the official GTZ structures, withBMZ support. They performed well, but wouldthey have been as successful outside these struc-tures? The new BEFARe has to find its own wayin the new world without any parent organiza-tions behind it.

No project or organization can succeed without secretaries,IT specialists, drivers and other support staff. They areessential in the day-to-day work of the administrators andprofessionals. Many support staff stay for many years andoften become unnoticeable members of the institutionalmemory. GTZ-BEFARe has been able to attract good sup-port staff.

Freshta Pamri is the current Secretary to the ChiefExecutive. Freshta is an Afghan from Bamiyan and was arefugee in Iran for many years before she came to Pakistanand joined BEFARe.

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1 This chapter has to a large extent been based on datacollected through communication with current and formerGTZ and BEFARe leaders, managers and advisers. Theauthor has held a number of formal and informal meetingswith staff members in the early autumn of 2005, discussingissues related to this chapter. Correspondence through e-mail was essential to receive invaluable comments from for-mer CTAs. We extend our sincere thanks for the help pro-vided. Yet, all interpretations remain the responsibility ofthe author.

2 (a) See PGTTP Progress Reports for the initial years.GTZ, Peshawar. (b) See also substantive documents, mainlyissued by Pak-German Bas-Ed. GTZ, Peshawar. Selectedreports: i. Habib-ur-Rahman and Udo Bude: Constructionand Utilization of Lesson Plans, teaching Units and TeachingModules (Workshop Report). September 1985. ii. Udo Bude:Information Seminar for Headmasters/Headmistresses ofPak-German Bas-Ed Schools, September 7th – 10th, 1985.November 1985. iii. Case Study: The Situation in 24 PilotSchools in North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan. December1985. iv. Developmental Approach to the Acquisition of thePashto Language. DAPL. March 1986. v. Udo Bude/Habib-ur-Rahman: What did you learn in school today? MonitoringClassroom Interactions in Pakistani Government and AfghanRefugee Schools in the North-West Frontier Province. 1987.vi. Manfred Wehrmann: Community Survey. An attempt toassess the learning needs of 18 communities in the North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan. April 1987.

3 See reference in Note 2vi, p. 17.4 The issue of girls’ education and female teachers is

recurring in many documents by GTZ and other imple-menting partners. It concerns refugee/emergency educationand ordinary education in developing countries. Headwayhas been made in recent years and more females are comingin at all levels, but we are far away from the Education forAll (EFA) goals about gender parity at primary level, origi-nally aimed at by 2005.

5 Johannessen, Eva Marion, Udo Bude and S.B.Ekanayake: Evaluation of GTZ/Basic Education for AfghanRefugees (BEFARe) in Pakistan. Final Version. UNHCR,Geneva, 2002.

6 Interview with Mr. Hamish Khan, ExecutiveDirector, BEST, in Peshawar, 21.12.04, and in Islamabad,25.09.05.

7 Special thanks go to Ms. Shahnaz Akhtar for her

constant encouragement and professional inputs during thework with this and other chapters of the book. Her experi-ence from work for GTZ and in a top post in another inter-national organization, Ockenden International (UK), madeher comments particularly useful. Yet, all interpretationsremain the responsibility of the author.

8 We hope that the Embassy of Germany and GTZ’sCountry Office in Islamabad will consider this proposal.Germany has an excellent organization for university coop-eration and exchange of students and teachers, DAAD(German Academic Exchange Service), which it may be pos-sible to get help from for the mentioned work. Here, werecommend that studies be made of vocational and techni-cal training, which are often neglected in educationalresearch; also other fields of German assistance to Afghanrefugee education should be studied further. For example,issues related to human resources, which is the topic of thecurrent chapter.

9 (a) Interview with Dr. Michael Hirth in Islamabad,25.09.05. (b) Reference is made to a particularly useful doc-ument prepared at the beginning of the new project phase:BEFARe Project Description. GTZ-BEFARe, August 1996.

10 Assessment made by the author on the basis of fre-quent professional contact with GTZ-BEFARe from the endof 2000 onwards. Reference is also made to internal docu-ments in UNHCR/Pakistan.

11 UNESCO and UNHCR organized a Donors’Meeting to refugee education in Islamabad in the autumn of2002. At that meeting Victor Matz and Hasim Utkanexchanged views on the importance of GTZ’s contributionto refugee education in Pakistan. Matz was quite self-criticalwhile Utkan maintained that good work had been done byGTZ in practical training and in basic education. “It wasnot all wasted”, he jokingly said. (Internal minutes from themeeting are available in UNESCO and UNHCR,Islamabad.)

12 See, for example, an interview with Dana Burde,Columbia University, New York, USA, by Muhammad BadarAlam, The News, 14.08.05, Lahore/Islamabad, entitled“Women of Crisis”.

13 (a) As for the first remark, notably the need forresearch into the project, reference is made to Note 8above. (b) As for the second remark, we refer to UNHCRand UNESCO documents, including various policy docu-ments. Reference should also be made to initiatives taken byINEE, Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies,

Notes

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which was established in 2000 as an open network of indi-viduals, organizations and institutions. One of its tasks isadvocacy.

14 GTZ-BEFARE with UNESCO, UNHCR, UNICEFand NGOs: Afghan Refugee Teachers’ Profile DatabaseNWFP and Balochistan. GTZ-BEFARe, Peshawar, 2003.

15 This is the author’s assessment based on reading ofnumerous reports and documents, and attending variousmeetings and discussions, with members of the professionalAfghan refugee education community in Pakistan, withGTZ-BEFARe as one of the prominent partners.

16 This is the author’s assessment based on more than25 years of experience in development aid and research,working for key bilateral and multilateral organizations. Seealso debates about development aid issues in various publi-cations and journals, such as, for example, the German aidjournal D+C, and GTZ Annual Reports and booklets,Eschborn, Germany. The three-volume NorwegianDevelopment Aid History (in Norwegian) has taken upthese issues in greater detail, in particular Vol. 3, Part 3,

“The Internal Economic and Administrative Framework:Implementation of the Principle about the Recipient’s Roleand Responsibility.” Liland, Frode and Kirsten AlsakerKjerland: Norsk utviklingshjelps historie. Bind 3. 1989-2002. “Paa bred front”. Fagbokforlaget, Bergen, 2003.

17 See internal documents in UNHCR, Islamabad, andin other multi, bilateral and non-governmental organiza-tions. See also documents by recipient governments. For abroader debate, see, Bolid, John and George M. Thomas(Eds.): Constructing World Culture. InternationalNongovernmental Organizations Since 1875. StanfordUniversity Press, Stanford, California, USA, 1999.

18 See a model for sustainability of developmentprojects developed by Jairo Morales-Neto, currently withUNHCR, Pakistan. September 2005. The model will appearin his forthcoming book on key aspects of development eco-nomics and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

19 See internal working documents in BEFARe. Theauthor has held numerous discussions with Mr. ShakirIshaq, Chief Executive, and senior staff about these issues.

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Formal Educationin BEFARe

5Chapter

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Formal Educationin BEFARe

Whereas Non-FFormal Education is the cornerstone in any early response, and part of the long-term response of a refugee crisis and early reconstruction, Formal Education is the cornerstoneof regular education provision in crises, which last for more than 3 to 6 months. The sooner

structured activities can be organized for refugees, in camps/villages and or urban settings, thebetter. Often, refugees settle in poor shantytowns on the outskirts of cities, such as Peshawar,

and the children in the host communities should also be included in the education activities. Inthe Afghan refugee situation in Pakistan, where many refugees have stayed for many years, even

decades, and many children were born in exile - education should be considered an obviouspart of every-day life.

As we have pointed out frequently in this book, the host country has not been able to receiveenough international funding to realize the goal of Education for All (EFA) and the education

provision has been particularly poor for the poor urban refugees. In the camps/villages the situ-ation is better. In BEFARe's target areas, notably Peshawar and the North-West Frontier

Province, which hosts some three-quarters of the refugees, the organization can pride itself ofthe highest primary school enrollment of refugee children in the country. Since figures are rarelyaccurate, especially not at a time of repatriation, we have to estimate the enrollment rate anduse 50-60% of the school-age children. In certain areas (camps/villages) it is higher, and in oth-ers lower. Recently, more than 35% of the pupils have been girls. This is an impressive achieve-ment considering earlier resistance to girls' education in many groups, and also restrictions overhow it should be provided. Unfortunately, the primary school cycle has remained six years forboys and girls, not eight years as recommended by UNHCR. However, some have also been

able to continue to middle and full secondary schools and even college and university.

We begin this chapter by paying tribute to the excellent work BEFARe has done in including thelocal community in its education activities. This means that each and every school, and there

have been over 300, has a school management committee (SMC). The community participationand development work (CP&D), with the involvement of the SMCs, is multifaceted, and now,

at the time of repatriation, the usefulness of the knowledge and skills aquired is recognized.Parents and other community members know how to organize a school, even a very rudimenta-

ry self-help school, in a refugee community in Pakistan or at home in Afghanistan.1

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HISTORICAL ACHIEVEMENTS

1. BEFARe and its predecessorshave provided education for hun-dreds of thousands of Afghanrefugee boys and girls. The statis-tics show that over 600,000 pupilshave completed primary school. Inaddition close to 100,000 havegone through various adult educa-tion programmes.

2. In the 1980s and first half ofthe 1990s, vocational training wasgiven more attention than laterand a total of about 70,000youths completed training courseswith employable competencies invocational fields. In addition, vari-ous courses have been organizedfor groups in the communities,school management committeesand others. Pre-service and in-service orientation and trainingcourses have been provided tomore than 6,000 teachers.

3. Thus, we approach a total fig-ure of nearly one million individu-als who have benefited directlyfrom BEFARe’s education. If weadd the ‘indirect beneficiaries’,which is common practice, using amultiplication factor of six, i.e. sixfamily members benefit per directbeneficiary in the home, we reacha total number of 5-7 million ben-eficiaries from efforts of BEFAReand its predecessors over a periodof more than twenty years.

4. Without being able to quantifythe results, we should alsoacknowledge that BEFARe has hada major impact on the totality ofthe local refugee communities, thecamps/villages and the urbanneighbourhoods. BEFARe hasbeen the major ‘change agent’, asthe largest refugee education proj-ect in Pakistan, which has benefit-ed sister NGOs and United

Nations organizations. It has hada direct impact on attitudes andopinions of tens and hundreds ofthousands of refugees and mem-bers of host communities. It hasalso influenced Pakistani hostcommunities. In short, BEFARehas contributed significantly toparents’ understanding of theneed for educating their sons anddaughters.

5. BEFARe has advocated qualitystandards in its work, and theschools are on a par with, or bet-ter, than most government schoolsin Pakistan or Afghanistan.BEFARe has provided qualityteaching materials, improved cur-ricula, textbooks and supplemen-tary materials, improved teachingmethods, with a view to modernpedagogy and psychosocial issues.Teacher training, professionaldevelopment and innovation havereceived a more central place overrecent years.

6. The majority of pupils werealways boys but in recent yearsabout a third of the pupils havebeen girls. Home schools wereused for girls and also for boys,who for cultural and other reasonscould not attend ordinary schools.Sometimes, they would be olderthan other pupils and begin at ahome school, with a condensedprogramme and in some casescomplete the full primary schoolat an ordinary BEFARe school, orfrom a home school.

CURRENT SITUATION

1. Budgets are being cut as donorfunding goes down in accordancewith, or before repatriation takesplace. BEFARe cannot provide thesame services as earlier, althoughit tries to use innovative andcheaper methods, but the unit costfor a child in a BEFARe school isonly on average about 1,500Rupees per year. Few further sav-ings can be made without affect-ing the quality. The unit cost ofUSD 22 to 25 per pupil/yearseems very low. Alternatively, par-ents’ contributions can beincreased, but again that is prob-lematic since the refugees arepoor, often living below thesocalled poverty line or absolutepoverty line.

2. However, if BEFARe considersit impossible to run a qualityschool, there are examples ofrefugees establishing private self-help schools so that their childrenget some education. In the midstof such a crisis, there is also a pos-itive message; notably that parentsand refugee communities havelearned to appreciate the value ofeducation. It is a pity that full orpartial donor contribution is notavailable.

3. BEFARe has already noticedmarked reduction in girls’ partici-pation in 2005. It had grown toover 35% but in the autumn 2005was down to an average of 27%.

See also BEFARe’s monthly statis-tical summaries.

Box 5.1 Some Facts and Figures about Formal Education

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ABBOTTABAD

HANGU

MARDAN

BANNU

PESHAWAR

TIMERGARA

Box 5.2 BEFARe’s six sub offices (resource centres)

Six sub offices (resource centres) in

North-West Frontier Province

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The term community-based education is used todescribe fundamental aspects of refugee educa-tion, such as non-formal education, teachertraining and teachers’ tasks. The community-based, or community-oriented aspects are notleast important in formal education, inter alia,since that usually becomes the most importanteducation activity in long-term refugee situa-tions. This means that the host country, in ourcase Pakistan, supported by international andlocal non-governmental and community-basedorganizations, play key roles in provision of edu-cation in various refugee situations. Beyond theinitial emergency stages, when some outsidersmay intervene and provide temporary schooltents, equipment, materials like ‘school-in-a-box’, and possibly some teachers or communityleaders from outside to begin education, or edu-cation-related activities of more recreational andhealing nature, the continued education activitiessoon become joint efforts with major involve-ment from the community’s side. Funding isoften received from outside sources, and localand international NGOs and other implementingpartners are essential. However, without formal-ized cooperation with the communities, the par-ents, elders and the community at large, refugeeeducation activities cannot succeed. The teachersare usually drawn from amongst the refugees andthe community wants to be involved in decidingon curriculum and how to organize the schools.

The key document for everybody who dealswith refugee education is UNHCR’s EducationField Guidelines.2 Although the agency does notpossess deep expertise in the field of education,it does possess broad experience from more than

five decades dealing with refugees and otheremergencies and, at least over the last twodecades, UNHCR has also been dealing witheducation. Still, UNHCR will need technicalassistance from various organizations and institu-tions, such as the specialized United Nationsagencies with education as part of their mandate,mainly UNESCO and UNICEF, and others likeILO, WFP and UNFP. It should be underlinedthat even if UNHCR’s education expertise isshallow, UNHCR’s Guidelines are the mostauthoritative ones. They can be enriched if sup-ported by some UNESCO background, policyand strategy documents, and common docu-ments issued over the last five years by the INEENetwork.3 UNHCR’s Guidelines have madecommunity-based refugee education a corner-stone from day one of its operations in protec-tion, education, and community services.

Since we discuss community-aspects ofrefugee education in BEFARe in other chapters,the current section will be relatively brief.

“When I came to BEFARe from theCommissionerate for Afghan Refugees (CAR) in1995 the importance of efforts to involve thecommunity in our education activities was high-er than before. GTZ was clearly in a lead role inthe work, which was also evident, for example,by the name of its main project, CommunityOriented Primary Education (COPE). WhenBEFARe was established, from January 1996,COPE was still used, and even today, the correctname is COPE. However, BEFARe has becomethe name commonly used, since it is also thename of the organization. It is more an internalissue to distinguish the projects by their specific

INTRODUCTION

Section ICOMMUNITY PARTICIPATION – THE FOUNDATION OF

REFUGEE EDUCATION

names”, says Azad Khan Khattak, the ProjectManager for Community Participation andDevelopment (CP&D).4

“COPE’s activities, which are the formal pri-mary school activities are by far the largest activ-ities of BEFARe even today. Let me just remindyou that we tipped over 100,000 pupils someyears ago but the number has gone down recent-ly by over 30,000 pupils due to UNHCR’s budg-et cuts, and since UNHCR is our main donorthat influences directly our activities.”

“On a positive note, let me add that in spiteof schools being closed and teachers laid off, andsometimes children left without any schooling atall, we also have many teachers who have nowestablished schools on their own. There areabout seventy such self-help or private schools atthe moment.”

“I am proud of this fact”, Azad says. “I feelit is a direct result of the tireless efforts ofBEFARe as an organization and the refugeeteachers, enlightened parents and other commu-nity members, and current pupils and formerpupils. Today everybody is interested in educa-tion. That is part of the result of our communitymobilization work, which doesn’t only includeeducation, but also other fields like nutrition,health, civics education and information, andother issues, including awareness-creation aboutthe dangers of drug and alcohol abuse, how toavoid getting communicable diseases likeHIV/AIDS, and so on. We also help the refugeecommunities in preparing themselves for thefuture, either in exile or, for the majority, asreturnees in Afghanistan.”

“When BEFARe was established, it was orig-inally the plan that all schools should be handedover to the refugees themselves and run as self-help or private schools. Food-aid ceased to therefugees in the camps/villages, and the interna-tional community also hoped to pull out of theeducation sector. However, this was unrealisticin our situation and after the then HighCommissioner for Refugees, Mrs. Sadako Ogata,had visited Pakistan and the refugee settlementsin BEFARe’s target areas in 1996, the immediate

plans were put aside. Instead, greater emphasiswas placed on community development, includ-ing establishment and development of SchoolManagement Committees (SMCs) in everyschool.”5

“This has meant a lot of focused work overmany years, including training of the members ofthe committees. The head teacher is the secretaryto the committee, but otherwise we want amixed group of parents and community mem-bers. Considering the cultural traditions thereare only men on the SMCs for boys’ schools andonly women for girls’ schools. I cannot see thatchanging quickly. I don’t even think people areready for having men and women on the teach-ing staff in the same school. However, attitudesdo change. For example, when it comes to girls’education, most parents are now glad to sendtheir girls to school. Some schools are even co-educational.”

“I think that all these, often small and quiteinvisible, things we have done in communitydevelopment, including the SMCs, are thingsthat the Afghans will appreciate when they movehome to Afghanistan. They have developed aninterest in education and they know how toorganize a school.”

“In most places in Afghanistan they will haveto do most of the work themselves, I believe”,Azad explains. “There are still few governmentschools or private schools, or if there are schools,the quality is often low. Good, then that therefugees have learned how to build a school, oradd a few classrooms, build toilets and wash-rooms for girls and boys, maintain the rooms andcompound, and so on. Perhaps not least impor-tant, is that parents and other community mem-bers have learned how to mobilize all communi-ty members for a common cause.”

“In the BEFARe schools we ask for modestcontributions; usually 5-25 Rupees per child permonth, but it varies depending on how poor thefamily is and how many school children theyhave. However, through this system we havemanaged to collect quite large sums of money forthe aforementioned self-help activities.”

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“It makes me happy to have had this oppor-tunity to help Afghan refugees in this way. I havealso learned a lot from it myself, and I think wecan learn from BEFARe’s work to benefitPakistani schools as well”, says Azad KhanKhattak.

He explains that over the last 10 years, morethan 15 million Rupees have been collected bythe SMC’s in BEFARe’s schools. Every year thecollection was between 1.5 –2.0 million Rupees,and it increased over recent years, with 2002 and2004 showing collections of over 3.0 millionRupees per year. The SMCs have spent mostfunds on building extensions and repairs, pay-ment of rents, electricity, fans, and so on. Manynew schools saw the light of the day thanks tothe work and funds of the School ManagementCommittee. The most recent expense is paymentof salaries (or incentives, as they are termed inUNHCR’s terminology) to teachers and watch-men.6

In this short Chapter we shall not attempt tojudge the roles and functions of the communityparticipation, including SMCs. However, wewould like to note that it is beyond discussionthat a school should be integrated in the commu-nity to which it belongs.7 Yet, a school must alsobe liberal and open-minded, as is only natural forinstitutions seeking knowledge and education.This means that a school must encourage toler-ance and openness to other cultures and ways ofthinking, and ways of doing things. Yet, a schoolis also the community’s main socialization agentoutside the home.

We mention these aspects here, perhaps inparticular, since girls and women have tradition-ally not had much say in the public sphere ofAfghan society, or Pakistani society. Some partic-ularly backward areas in these respects, are thetribal areas in Pakistan and Pashtun areas insideAfghanistan. These are examples of fields wherethe community must not stifle the school. Thecommunity must ‘allow the bird out of the cage’so that it can become the real bird it was meantto be.

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Former UnitedNations HighCommissioner forRefugees (1990-2000) ProfessorSadako Ogata visit-ed Pakistan severaltimes, including in1996, at a timewhen GTZ-BEFARewas shaping its pro-gramme. Mrs.Ogata supportedstrongly theinvolvement of therefugee communities in education but thought it wasunrealistic to expect the poor communities to takeover full responsibility, including the cost, of runningthe schools. In order to increase enrolment, amonggirls and boys, it was necessary to support educa-tion, which UNHCR has kept doing throughout thelong Afghan refugee era. For some time, incentiveswere also given (usually by WFP) to parents in formof eatable oil to encourage enrolment of girls.However, some evaluation reports were inconclusiveabout the effect of such incentives, and it endedalmost ten years ago in NWFP, and more recently inBalochistan. Photo: UNHCR. The State of the World'sRefugees. Geneva, 2000.

Guenet Guebre-Christos came froma UNHCR posting inWashington D.C. totake over asUNHCRRepresentative inPakistan in 2003when the legendaryHasim Utkan's thirdterm in Pakistanwas over. In coop-eration with theGovernment ofPakistan, she ishandling particular-ly difficult tasks notably the large programme ofassisted voluntary repatriation of refugees home toAfghanistan, in addition to continued, and oftenreduced assistance to the refugee sector in Pakistansince the number of refugees is decreasing. WhetherGuebre-Christos attaches the same importance toeducation as Ogata did in UNHCR we do not know,but even if she does, there is probably not muchroom for changing the course of events, i.e. thatrefugees should return now, with or without educa-tion and skills for livelihoods at home. Will returnees in the future be entitled to minimumeducation standards before repatriation, or uponreturn home? Will the international community underthe 2015 targets of Education for All (EFA) and theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) ensure thatrefugees are included too?

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Likewise, we find it important to note thatschools can rarely be run only by contributionsfrom the communities they belong to withoutadditional outside financial support. Better offcommunities can run their own schools, particu-larly if such schools have some special pedagogi-cal or other approach which attract parents andpupils. Yet, in ordinary poor societies, which arethe majority anywhere in our context, there isneed for transfer of funds from the state, or fromlocal and foreign donors.

Still, the way CP&D has managed to involvethe communities in the schools’ work can beused as examples for other schools and commu-nities. Contributions and participation should, ofcourse, not only be to the building fund, butmust be broader and deeper by parents and other

community members to a number of materialand non-material activities. It is not only the par-ents who gain from the close participation; theschool also gains. For example, we would neverhave seen 35%, or even more, of the pupils beinggirls if there had not been active dialogue andparent-teacher-community participation. Sadly,the percentage has gone down recently due tobudget cuts.8

CP&D states its philosophy in the followingthree sentences: “No education comes to thecommunity unless the community wants it. Nodevelopment comes to the community until theyparticipate in it. No quality education is achievedunless the community participates in the educa-tion process.”9

Azad Khan Khattak is heading the CommunityParticipation and Development Department in BEFARe, ajob he was promoted to about five years ago. Azad'sprofessionalism and enthusiasm for community partici-pation is unique. It also proves that it is not only peoplewith background in teaching who can do such work, orperhaps it is an advantage not to be a teacher in orderto see issues from the point of view of the largerrefugee community? Azad is a lawyer by training and hehas dealt with refugee issues for the Government andBEFARe for almost twenty years.

Afghan refugee girls at school in Pakistan. BEFARe hasactively promoted girls’ education through cooperationwith the local communities, parents and teachers. Allschools now have school management committees(SMCs). Compared with 1996, there are now three timesas many girls in BEFARe’s schools. However, girls onlyconstitute about 1/3 of the total number of all pupils. Azad Khan Khattak

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When the German assistance began in Pakistan inthe early 1980s a thorough fact-finding periodtook place, bordering on research, prior to open-ing schools. In 1984, 24 schools were taken overand run through GTZ assistance and monitoredby the organization. Shortcomings were identi-fied, and improvements were made such asbuilding improvements and repairs ofcontent/curricula, teaching materials, teachingmethods and training and orientation courses forteachers

Then it was done: GTZ had been ‘hooked’and a long-lasting and successful bilateral donorrelationship with Pakistan in the field of refugeeeducation had been established. At that timenobody could have foreseen that GTZ-BEFARein 2002, when the project peaked, would runabout 330 primary schools for over 100,000 pri-mary school pupils and more than 3,000 teachersand other staff. GTZ-BEFARe also, conductedteacher training courses, non-formal educationprogrammes, and various other courses, includ-ing in peace education and, moving with the timeand needs, courses specifically targeted onwomen.10

In its early years, the German focus was toprovide education for deprived children/familiesirrespective of whether they were Afghans orPakistanis. “The project is therefore not a refugeeproject, but an area oriented programme whichaims at helping Afghan refugees and theirPakistani hosts”, the Community Survey Reportpresented in April 1987 stated.11 Inclusion ofhost-country pupils was done in order to avoidcreating further discontent among Pakistanis,who had begun feeling neglected by their own

Government as they saw that the foreign aid wasprimarily channeled to the Afghan refugees. Notthat the hosts had any problems with that, butthey also wanted a ‘fair share’. The above reportsstated: “They accept the refugees as Muslimbrothers and agree to help them, but they feel that– in economic terms – they are neglected.”12

Although the local Pakistani community hasalways been a concern of GTZ-BEFARe (andrelated projects/organizations), it was given lessattention over the years until recently. Since mostof the foreign assistance went to refugeecamps/villages, and not to ordinary urban neigh-bourhoods, which had mixed Afghan andPakistani inhabitants, this explains whyPakistanis were left out as direct beneficiaries ofassistance. Naturally, through business and vari-ous activities, the host country and, to someextent, the refugee host communities inPeshawar and elsewhere, would have additionalincomes because of the refugees. Such incomeswere indirect and not at all obvious. In manycases, the Pakistanis and the Afghans would com-pete for the same jobs and resources in theirneighbourhoods. In Peshawar and the mixedAfghan-Pakistani communities there has been lit-tle tension between the Afghans and thePakistanis.

It should, be added that refugees and localsshould be treated equally by donors and civil ser-vants as far as possible, when they share the sameresources, especially during long-term refugeesituations in urban (non-camp) areas. At the ini-tial stages, the new-arrivals need special assis-tance and care, including trauma healing andother help. The locals also need special assistance

Section IITHE PIONEERING YEARS: LOCAL INTEGRATION

to know how to handle an emergency situation,which places high demands on individuals andpublic services.

In Pakistan, UNHCR, in cooperation withThe World Bank, provided assistance for threelarge income-generating projects for refugeeareas in NWFP, Balochistan and Punjab from1984 - 1996.13 After ‘9/11” UNHCR, in cooper-ation with UNDP, tried to develop similar newprojects, with special emphasis on income-gener-ation, environmental issues and public services,but has had little success in attracting funding. 14

It is only more recently that interest hasgrown for emphasizing combined assistance torefugee-hhosting areas and refugees. The approachwhich GTZ and UNHCR/The World Bankapplied in the early phases of the long Afghanrefugee era has come full cycle. In education, webelieve that organizations like BEFARe will serveneedy people irrespective of nationality in thefuture. As refugee camps close, there will be lit-tle distinction between urbanneigbourhoods/communities and camps/villages.However, some camps/villages are likely to beneeded for several years to come, but the numberwill be much lower than today.15

THE ROLE AND CONTENT OFEDUCATION

Although it is usually said that the refugee erastarted with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan inDecember 1979, many Afghans had alreadybegun to flee in the 1970s, especially after 1973.As we have discussed in a chapter 2 (and in a sep-arate booklet) most of the refugees who live inNWFP are Pashtuns.16 Initially, most refugeechildren lost contact with formal learning. Inaddition, it should be mentioned, that there weregroups indoctrinating the refugees, especiallyolder boys and youth. During the turbulence inAfghanistan in the 1970s, there was competitionfor peoples’ minds and souls, and when theSoviet Union invaded, its propaganda machinerywas also fought by jihad counter-propaganda andindoctrination. The various groups would prob-

ably claim that they were involved in education,or training of ‘freedom fighters’. As professionaleducationists we would consider most of it prop-aganda and antisocial behaviour from the side ofthe teachers, pupils as well as the parents, or thefathers, uncles, elder brothers, and or otheradults who would be aware of and recruiting intothese activities. The “Hizbi Group’, receivingPakistani assistance, trained for the Hikmatyarfighting group in Afghanistan, and is said to havehad over two hundred schools, fifteen hundredteachers and up to forty thousand pupils.17

In Pak Bas-Ed’s and BEFARe’s connection,the task was to provide ordinary, good qualitybasic education, skills and vocational training,which parents would consider useful. It was noteasy to change attitudes in groups of the refugeecommunity and develop new, more relevant andacceptable content and curricula. It took surveys,studies, seminars, and many meetings and discus-sions with the concerned partners. Then camethe process of writing the additional books andbooklets, which were called supplementaryteaching materials. The core curriculum wasalways Afghanistan’s own curriculum with itsown books and teachers guides. Over the years,changes and improvements were made to suit theAfghan authorities and elders. Perhaps we shouldadd too, the foreign and local education experts,especially as regards teaching methods.18

The University of Nebraska at Omaha(UNO) in the United States of America came toplay a particularly central role in assisting inimprovement and change of curriculum anddevelopment of materials. The printing tookplace in Peshawar, where a printing press andnewsprint had been available through donorfunding. The administration and management ofthe press changed over the years, probably since itusually printed at a loss! However, the importance ofthe press should not be under estimated. For exam-ple during the Taliban regime, the UNO printingpress in Peshawar was a key supplier of textbooks forAfghanistan’s rudimentary education system.19

In this section we only draw attention tosome aspects, or examples of, issues related to

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the role and content of education in and afterconflicts. These are broad and complex issues.BEFARe and its predecessors gave due attentionto these issues, but it was often a thankless taskbecause there are always strong opinions aboutthese issues. Until recently, BEFARe has, forexample, had to endure criticism for not havingfollowed Afghanistan’s curriculum to the letter.We have looked into those issues in some detailand cannot find that BEFARe has deviated morefrom the general standards than other imple-menting partners and NGOs in Pakistan.

Since BEFARe is so large, it sometimesbecomes an easy target for criticism from com-peting organizations and authorities. From a pro-fessional point of view, we would have beenmore worried if there was silence about curricu-lum, teaching methods and policy issues. We alsobelieve that other implementing partners shouldhave done more of certain things which BEFARehas done, and been criticized for, such as teach-ing Urdu. After all that is the language of the hostcountry and it is common for refugees and otheroutsiders to learn about the local culture and lan-guage. This is also mentioned in UNHCR’sGuidelines.20

Furthermore, we would like to emphasizethe importance of peace education. BEFARe andother implementing partners have taken uppeace issues, especially recently. Peace issuesshould always be included in training and orien-tation courses for refugee teachers. In formaleducation peace issues can be handled as specialthematic projects, or, they can be included inordinary subjects. UNHCR, UNESCO, UNICEFand other organizations have developed bookletsand materials that can be used as advisory mate-rials.21 BEFARe has recently prepared a summa-ry evaluation of its work in peace education.22

Environmental studies were never given promi-nent attention but they were among the crosscut-ting topics included, alongside a number of issuessuch as health, nutrition, HIV/AIDS, and otherissues.23

In attempting to define the basis for formal,basic education for refugees we would like to

emphasize that in addition to the 3Rs (reading,writing and arithmetic), social studies, historyand the other basic education subjects, we find itimportant that the broader character-buildingfields are included, and also psychosocial issues.These are fields making refugee education a‘hyphenated discipline’, with similarities toteaching of marginalized and underprivilegedgroups in general. Refugee education includessocial and special educational fields.24

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Pamela Baxter, a special education teacher by background, hasbecome UNESCO’s and UNHCR’s peace educator. This photo isfrom one of her visits to Pakistan in 2004, when she gave acourse for teachers and other staff from BEFARe and otherrefugee organizations.2001 - 2010 is the International Decade for a Culture of Peaceand Non - Violence for the Children of the World. Its slogan is:“Peace is in our Hands” .

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IImmaall SSddaallaamm is 10 years old and in 4thgrade in BEFARe School No. 160 in Kacha GarhiRefugee Camp outside Peshawar. His father, whohas a small shop selling radios and TVs in thecamp, and his mother, who is a housewife, fledtheir village in Kamar district near Jalalabad inAfghanistan some time after the Soviet Unioninvaded the country. Imal and his two brothersand two sisters were all born in the refugee campwhere his parents got married and where thefamily has always lived.

“I have only visited Afghanistan once. Westayed with my grandfather and grandmother forabout one month. My family is not rich but wehave enough land for a small house and space togrow vegetables. I think my parents talked aboutthe war when we were in Afghanistan, but whenwe are in Pakistan we don’t talk about the war athome.”

Imal says that he thinks his family will all gohome to Afghanistan one day. “When theGovernment of Pakistan tells us to go, we willgo”, he says. But for the time being, Imal likes tolive in Kacha Garhi and he likes his school andclassmates. There are 49 boys in his class and hetells us that his favorite subjects are Pashtun andMathematics. One of his younger brothers is alsoa pupil in the same school, and his two sisters areat the girls’ school, which is in the next-doorcompound.

We ask Imal what he wants to do when hegrows up. “I want to become a teacher at homein Afghanistan”, Imal tells us. Why not a shop-keeper, we wonder? But he says that there is nofuture in that kind of work. He thinks that all therefugees will have to move away from KachaGarhi Refugee Camp one day and there will beno customers then.

FFaarreeiidd AAbbdduullrraahhmmaann is 11 years andin 5th grade. He is the son of a tailor and ahousewife. There are eight brothers and sisters inhis home; some older and some younger, and allborn in the refugee camp in Pakistan. Fareid hasone brother in the same school. ”I have a sisterwho is a year younger than me, but she does notgo to school. She is just helping my mother athome. The other sister is still little and maybe shewill go to school later”, he says.

“I went home to Afghanistan last year to visitmy grandparents and my uncle. My uncle is mak-ing cement blocks for sale in Kas village inLaghman province. We stayed for three monthslast year. When I grow up I want to move backto Afghanistan and I want to become an airplaneengineer and work in Kabul”, Fareid tells us. “Ialso like living in Pakistan. At school I likePashtun and Dari subjects most”, he says.

AAssiiff KKhhiiaallzzaammaa is 12 years old. He is in5th grade in the same class as Fareid. His fatheris a truck driver and his older brother is a turn

boy, helping his father, but he wants to become atruck driver, too. Asif ’s mother stays at home.She is looking after his three brothers and a sis-ter.

Asif Fareid Imal

Profiles of a Handful of BEFARe School Children inKacha Garhi Refugee Camp outside Peshawar

Interviews on 14.05.05

“My parents came to Peshawar during thewar. People died in Afghanistan at that time. Wewere lucky and none of my relatives died, but weall had to flee”, he says.

Asif wants to become a teacher. “I have to goto high school when I complete primary schoolnext year, and the nearest school in this camp isRahman Baba High School”, Asif explains. “Ilike all school subjects, especially languages”, hesays.

“My parents say that we will go home to ourvillage outside Jalalabad in Afghanistan when wehave been able to complete building our housethere. My grandparents live in the villagealready, but their house is very small and it onlyhas one room. I have not been to Afghanistan atall in my life”, Asif says.

MMaajjaann DDaawwoooodd is 12 years old and in6th grade at BEFARe’s School No. 099 in KachaGarhi Refugee Camp. She is the oldest child inher family with four sisters and two brothers.One younger sister is in the same school in KachaGarhi Camp and a brother is in the boys’ schoolnearby.

Majan’s father is a daily labourer and hermother is a housewife. She has not decided whatshe wants to do when she grows up. She wouldlike to become a teacher or maybe even a doctoror engineer. She likes English and Pashtu subjectsin her class of 27 pupils. After primary school,which she will complete this year, she would liketo continue with secondary education inPakistan, or even in Afghanistan if her parentsdecide to return home. “I have two aunts livingat home in Afghanistan, and I went home to visitthem four years ago”, she says. “But we don’thave a house in Afghanistan so it will be difficultto move there. I like city life in Pakistan, too. Ihave a relative living in Peshawar city and I liketo go there. The house is clean, there is electrici-ty all the time and you can watch TV. Nearbythere is also a nice park.”

Majan’s parents came to Pakistan as refugeesabout twenty years ago. They had to flee the warat home in Kama town outside Jalalabad city, and

several of their neighbours got killed. “I wasborn in Pakistan and so were all my brothers andsisters, but we always think of ourselves asAfghans, not Pakistanis. I want to work inAfghanistan when we move home”, Majan says.

ZZaakkiiaa SSaaeeeedd MMuuhhiibbuullllaahh is 14 yearsand in 6th grade, in the same class as Majan. Herfather is a policeman and her mother is a doctor.She also wants to become a doctor when shegrows up.

“My parents and my two younger brothersand two sisters came to Pakistan four years ago”,Zakia tells us. “My mother found work as a doc-tor in the refugee camp immediately. She hadalso been working at home in Jalalabad inAfghanistan, where we lived in a rented housethat we got through my father’s job. My fathercould not find any job in Pakistan, so he wentback to Afghanistan three years ago.”

“It was my mother who decided that we hadto leave Afghanistan, and she still doesn’t think itis safe for us to live at home. But we will moveback as soon as possible”, Zakia says. But she isalso a bit worried about not finding any second-ary school in Jalalabad and would like to attendsecondary school in Peshawar. “Before we left,during the Taliban time, very few girls were givenpermission to go to school.”

Zakia tells us that she likes Pakistan and herschool. “We have electricity in Kacha Garhi, and it ispeaceful here, women are allowed to work and thereis also entertainment. But when I am through withmy education I want to go back to Afghanistan.”

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Zakia Majan

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BEFARe’s education activities follow the overallinternational and national policies and guidelinesfor refugee and emergency education, in particu-lar those detailed by UNHCR,25 including com-munity-based education, as explained above inthis Chapter. The overall objective (or missionstatement) of the organization, as stated inBEFARe’s Annual Report 2003, as it became anindependent, Pakistani entity, reads as follows: “BEFARe provides basic education on a nationaland regional level to the identified vulnerable anddisadvantaged groups. This is achieved through alearner centered and activity based approach.”(See also the Box at the beginning of thisChapter.)

It is worth noting that the term refugees, orAfghan refugees, is not used, as the new BEFARewishes to cast its net wider to include needy ben-eficiaries irrespective of nationality. In additionto formal basic education, BEFARe wishes toexpand its work to help formal and non-formaleducation (and often the difference between thetwo is blurred, especially at post-primary level).BEFARe also wishes to venture further into othernon-educational activities. BEFARe’s main activ-ity is still likely to remain formal basic (i.e. pri-mary) education for the foreseeable future.26

QUALITY AND QUANTITY

The German assisted refugee activities forAfghan refugees in Pakistan have been quality-based since the initial work began in the early1980s, as we have discussed elsewhere in thisbook. The work started with fact-finding andassessment surveys and studies, curriculum/con-tent studies, development of materials, and

teacher training courses. These activities bor-dered on research, or were at least highly profes-sional. The initial focus given to education,notably vocational and skills training and basiceducation, originated in German educational tra-ditions, on the one hand, and in the needs of therecipients on the other hand. In addition to thelivelihood-oriented training, ordinary basic edu-cation was given major attention in BEFARe’swork and that of its preceeding projects andorganizations.27

BEFARe has always been known for provid-ing high-qquality education. This is also the mainconclusion in the evaluation report, whichUNHCR carried out in 2002. However, in somefields it was mentioned that improvements couldbe made, for example in fields related todropout, repetition and examination forms.28

Although it falls outside the mandate ofBEFARe, the progression rate to secondary edu-cation has always been limited due to very limit-ed availability of secondary school places. Onlyfive percent of adolescent Afghan refugees havehad an opportunity to continue to secondarylevel.29

Girls often do well at school examinations.Yet, girls also drop out of school more frequent-ly than boys. The aforementioned evaluationreport concludes that BEFARe in general hasdone well in expanding education opportunitiesfor girls over the last decade. The evaluationreport shows that there were about three times asmany girls in primary schools in 2002 as com-pared to 1996. The number of female teachershas increased accordingly. The percentage ofgirls in BEFARe schools went up to thirty fivepercent in the first half of 2005 but decreased to

Section IIIBEFARe’s WORK AND ACHIEVEMENTS IN FORMAL EDUCATION

OBJECTIVES

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about twenty seven percent in the second half ofthe year. The reason is budget cuts, which haveled to closure of schools and reduction of servic-es.30

The evaluation report mentions the value ofBEFARe’s home schools, giving educationopportunities for older girls. In BEFARe there

are also home schools for boys, who for variousreasons cannot attend ordinary schools. It shouldbe noted that BEFARe has several co-educationalschools.31

The table below summarizes some of themajor aspects of BEFARe’s formal education pro-gramme over the last decade.32

Year Enrolment ofPupils

Number of Teachers

Pupil-TeacherRatio

Number ofSchools

Number of FieldOverall

Supervisorsper Teacher

1996 62.092 1,560 1:40 264 40 391997 69.254 1,627 1:43 274 50 331998 85,658 2,076 1:41 281 52 401999 98,351 2,180 1:45 284 53 412000 100,000 2,4292 1:44 289 60 402001 103,890 2,528 1:41 301 70 372002 117,749 2,844 1:41 327 78 372003 112,181 2,878 1:39 320 82 372004 106,834 2,526 1:42 264 51 492005 May. 99,528 2,056 1:48 235 35 592005 Sept. 77,368 1,707

Table 2.1 Quantitative Summary of BEFARe’s Formal Education Programme, 1996 – 2005.

The Table shows enrolment of pupils, number of teachers and the pupil-teacher ratio. It also shows the number of schools.Finally, it shows the number of Field Education Supervisors (FES) overall and per teacher. (Although not shown in this table,about 30% of the pupils are girls, and the number has increased over the years, until it decreased due to budget cuts and schoolclosures in the second half of 2005, as we have mentioned repeatedly.)

Source: Based on, “History and recent achievements of Formal Education Department”, an internal BEFARe document, pre-pared by Wajid Ali Khan, Head of FE, 11.07.05, and BEFARe’s monthly statistical summary report for September 2005.BEFARe, Peshawar.

Out-of-school boys outside a refugee camp/village on the outskirts of Peshawar, September 2005.

CURRICULUM, CONTENTS ANDTEXTBOOKS

We have mentioned that the German assistanceto education for Afghan refugees and refugeehost communities in Pakistan began with givingattention to curriculum and content issues.33

Throughout the history of the German assistedprojects, teaching materials, curriculum and con-tent were important aspects. In addition to ordi-nary school subjects, crosscutting issues werealso included, such as health issues, genderissues, drug awareness, mine awareness and morerecently, HIV/AIDS and other issues. Peace edu-cation was also given attention.

Although the German assistance initiallygave attention to practical subjects, those sub-jects were given less attention in the last decade.There are no practical subjects for boys or forgirls in the formal education schools.

Revision and development of teaching mate-rials were key areas of BEFARe’s work related toquality improvement. The work was often con-nected with teacher training and improvement ofteaching methods and pedagogical issues.BEFARe has developed, printed and distributedmore than one hundred and thirty five titles in itsteaching materials programme; mostly supple-mentary teaching materials and teachers’ guides,but also some studies, research-oriented reportsand books. Some of the books labeled ‘supple-mentary teaching materials’ are complete text-books, updating the old UNO books (see above),which it was mandatory to use in all Afghanrefugee schools in Pakistan. Most of the booksand booklets are in Pashtu and Dari and we are,therefore, not including a complete list in thisEnglish-language book. An annotated bibliogra-phy is available from BEFARe. Textbook analyseshave been made of some of the books/themes.34

Many issues related to curriculum, contentsand textbooks were handled in cooperationbetween BEFARe and UNESCO.35

ADMINISTRATION AND COST

German assistance to Afghan refugee educationin Pakistan has always been well managed, andthe new BEFARe organization continues in thesame way. BEFARe is a large project and requiresgood administrative procedures. Questions canbe raised about the magnitude of the project:Was it too large? Perhaps it should have beensplit between several NGOs or implementingpartners, possibly in a consortium? Or, perhapsthere were essential advantages and major sav-ings to be made out of such a large project, runby one administration, split in six sub-centers?

We shall not attempt to answer these ques-tions here. However, it is important that consid-eration be made of these issues for future proj-ects and for the future work of BEFARe. InChapter 4 we have discussed some problematicaspects related to ‘handing-over’ and ‘sustain-ability’ of development aid projects. We believethat GTZ could have prepared the project betterfor becoming a local organization.36

However, we would not like to end this briefdiscussion on a negative note. We would like tounderline that the administrative issues havebeen handled well in BEFARe. The team leaderof the 2002 UNHCR evaluation turned the ques-tion the other way. She said that she sometimesfelt that BEFARe gave more attention to admin-istration than to professional, school-orientedissues, which are the end-purpose of the whole‘operation’.37

The unit cost could not have been as low ifthe project did not benefit from being a large-scale operation. Currently, it only costs aboutUSD 22-225 per pupil per year in primary school.This is lower than similar projects implementedby other organizations we have compared with.The large scale of the project contributes to thelow unit cost.38

It is likely that the unit cost will go up whenthere are changes in the coming years, unlessthere are some special cost-saving measures,which will also reduce quality, for example run-ning schools in two or even three shifts.

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We recommend that BEFARe itself and also otherorganizations dealing with refugee educationstudy cost and financing aspects in refugee edu-cation further. Lessons can be learned fromBEFARe, and from UNHCR’s major role in theproject. However, the dependence on one major

donor is a problem in a ‘donor-driven’ aid proj-ect, in this case, a long-term refugee educationproject, during the time of provision of assis-tance and in particular at the time of budget cutsand eventually project closure/completion.

Tanvir Ahmad Awan is the Division Chief ofAdministration and Finance. BEFARe handlesUSD two and half to three and half million peryear, dependent on availability of donor funds.UNHCR’s contribution to Formal Education,which is currently in the range of USD two mil-

lion, is the most reliable, long-term assistance toBEFARe’s work.39

Together with Syed Junaid Shah, the Division

Chief of Programme and Implementation, andShakir Ishaq, BEFARe’s Chief Executive and theBoard of Trustees, Tanvir has the challenging taskof reorganizing BEFARe from a project to a sus-tainable organization. Junaid is the most vocalone as regards broadening BEFARe’s field ofoperation to become a broad project implemen-tation organization in education and otherfields.40

BEFARe - CURRENT SITUATIONAND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTSComments by the Managers

Wajid Ali Khan is the Manager for FormalEducation in BEFARe, a post he has held for twoyears, but he joined the organization back in1997. Qaiser Jamal and Nazir Mahmanad werehis predecessors. Wajid is himself an engineer bytraining.41

“I am just back from Abbottabad to assessthe situation after the devastating earthquake in

Northern Pakistan on 8 October 2005. We willprovide about 20 tent schools in that area. Oneof BEFARe’s six resource centers is inAbbottabad and that is a great advantage for us.I also grew up in the town and that is again anadvantage when trying to understand the situa-tion on the ground and decide on how the mosteffective assistance should be provided. We areplanning school projects in the affected areas fur-ther north, including in Mansehra town, which isin great need of assistance. In both cases,

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Tanvir Ahmad Awan

Syed Junaid Shah

Wajid Ali Khan

BEFARe will receive special assistance fromorganizations like World Vision Pakistan,UNESCO, and others”, Wajid says.

“We believe we are well equipped to serve inemergency situations with our long experience,having provided education for refugees for morethan twenty years. The majority of the victims ofthe tragic earthquake were Pakistanis, but therewere also a number of Afghan refugees affectedin the areas where we work. For example inMansehra we plan to start with four schools,with equal numbers of Pakistani and Afghanpupils.”

“I also believe that experienced Afghanteachers have a special advantage teaching andmanaging schools in these difficult circum-stances, including how to deal with loss, grief,trauma and psychological problems. Havingbeen victims of wars, natural disasters(droughts), and decades as refugees, Afghanshave learned how to cope and solve problemsthat go beyond the comprehension of most otherpeople. Afghans and Pakistanis in the refugeehosting areas have unique experiences, whichwill be of great help in the immediate and longer-term rebuilding of the communities”, Wajid says.

Mujadidi Agha Shah agrees.42 He is theDeputy Manager of Formal Education inBEFARe and an Afghan refugee himself. Wajidand Mujadidi also agree that BEFARe, and itspredecessors have contributed significantly toeducating refugees in Pakistan. They say, that asseen from a professional point of view inBEFARe, it is regrettable that the internationalfunding is decreasing for refugee education.After the terrible earthquake, we fear thatrefugees will become still more neglected, andthat the main funding agency UNHCR will focuson that important work. “We don’t want to com-pete for the same funds, but we would likerefugee education to continue for as long as it isneeded”, the two BEFARe education leadersemphasize.

They draw attention to education statistics,which show that girls suffer more from thereduced funding and that their enrolment

decreases faster than that of boys.43 “This isunfortunate because girls have always had atougher time in education, in spite of performingbetter at exams than boys do”, Mujadidi adds.He can refer to annual reports and statistics,which all support his statement. Furthermore, ifwe say that about one-third of the enrolledpupils are girls, then we have to take note of thefact that the percentage is higher at the lower lev-els and decreases over the years. This is due tocultural reasons, which are hard to change.Changes are coming, mainly in the urban andsemi-urban areas, especially near Peshawar.

“Although most schools are separate for boysand girls, sometimes young teachers and evenparents will say that this is perhaps a question todiscuss now. Do the schools have to be single-sexschools? And teachers don’t always have to bethe same sex as the pupils. This is easier toaccept, and we have already done something inthose fields”, Mujadidi says.

When the former BEFARe pupils and teach-ers return to Afghanistan, we are confident thatwe are sending home Afghans who can performwell. We believe nobody has as good competen-cies as our pupils and teachers have!” theBEFARe education leaders say. “But that does notmean that the returnees will not face problems.The question of approving the certificates andexamination printouts of the pupils seem to havebeen sorted out after some problems a year ortwo ago. BEFARe’s service and training sheetsgiven to their teachers before they leave are alsoaccepted in Afghanistan, provided they are dulystamped and signed by the Afghan Consulate-

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Hon. Haji Abdul Khaliq FarahiConsul-General

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General in Peshawar.”“As educationists, we are glad to have assist-

ed hundreds of thousands of Afghans with for-mal basic education over the years, teacher train-ing and a number of other community and non-formal educational skills. Now we are increasing-ly including Pakistanis in urban refugee hostingareas, mainly in Peshawar, in our work. There isa lot of work for experienced organizations likeBEFARe, for vulnerable Pakistanis and Afghanswho will continue living in Pakistan.”

Mujadidi adds that in Afghanistan, there is agreat drive for provision of education for all.However, the main problem is lack of qualityeducation. Parents and pupils who return fromPakistan discover that very soon. In a rebuildingphase, such shortcomings can be explained butnot always accepted.

A former BEFARe teacher who returned toAfghanistan six months ago came back to visit hisfamily in Peshawar recently.44 He says that thereare many schools in Afghanistan, but outside themain cities the schools are often just a name; the

teachers are not well educated and not well paid,so often they do not show up for work as theylack motivation or are simply forced to earnsome money from other work.

“A vocational school teacher may just havecompleted secondary school training himself,and a university teacher may only hold a firstdegree, but still he prefers to use the titleProfessor, and so on. If NGOs run schools thequality is normally better. But if we want educa-tion for all we have to get the public school sys-tem working, not just the private one which willbe for very few. New textbooks are beginning tobe distributed this year. I think they are quitegood, but the teachers need teachers’ guides andthey need to be prepared for class. When I speakto my younger brother who goes to secondaryschool in Jalalabad he complains that he oftensuspects that the teacher reads the lesson in thetextbook for the first time when he is in the classwith his pupils”, the former BEFARe teacherexplains on his visit back in Peshawar.45

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BEFARe's achievements in increased enrolment of girls are impressive. In this photo, proud teachers, pupils, parents andother community members attend a graduation ceremony, and at the bottom, senior men on the podium. "We shouldn'tforget that older men still make most decisions in Afghanistan, including in Afghan refugee communities in Pakistan butwe believe our CP&D efforts have led to men discussing issues more with women now than before, and we are sure thatthe young generation will have more modern attitudes to women's rights", says Azad Khan Khattak, Head of BEFARe’scommunity development work. Photo: BEFARe Archives.

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Some young sportsmen entertaining age-mates and community members with their physical and artistic skills. Educationis not only bookish knowledge and practical skills training. It is also physical training, sports and character building.Perhaps it should be added that soccer football too is becoming very popular in Afghanistan. Cricket is more popular, butthen there is that fact that a top Afghan cricketer gives away the fact that he was a refugee in Pakistan, and he may notwant everyone to know that. Where would he otherwise have had the opportunity to excel in that sport if not in Pakistan,one of the world’s leading cricket nations? To beat Pakistan in cricket would be a dream come true for young Afghan sports-men! Photo: Azad Khan Kahttak.

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This young Afghan, Mohammed Ali, 28, is one of many vic-tims of the wars. He lost one leg in a landmine accidentwhen he came home to Afghanistan after having been arefugee for many years. A few years ago UNICEF estimat-ed that the country had up to ten million landmines andother undetonated ordinance. Just to clear the heavilymined area near Kabul airport takes several years, and afew weeks ago two Afghan mine clearers were killed.

Mohammed Ali is a determined man as this photoshows. With only one leg, even riding a bicycle can takeweeks of painstaking practice. “My life is like this circle”, helaments practicing riding bicycle round and around on apiece of wasteland with his one good leg. “Life turns andturns but it goes nowhere. Often in the morning I leave thehouse to search for work but I don’t know where to go”, headds. “But I am still lucky, I have a wife and two youngchildren, I have a place to live and I get some help fromgood relatives. I am next week going back for fitting of the

artificial leg and shoe and then practice, practice... Ihaven’t used it much because I find it difficult.”

Two weeks later when we come back, we findMohammed helping in a stationery kiosk in Kabul. He haslearned to walk a bit. “Look”, he says, “at last now I havetwo legs an maybe a future.”

The special education needs are always important inrefugee situations and after natural disasters. But fewteachers and medical workers are available and both phys-ical and mental treatment is usually very limited. UNHCR’sEducation Guidelines draw attention to special needs edu-cation. BEFARe has been able to give some attention tospecial education in teacher training and in a few cases forpupils in skills training. Psychosocial issues are given moreroom. In Afghanistan, ICRC (Red Cross/Red Crescent) pro-vides equipment and training to physically handicapped.

Photo: UNHCR Magazine “Refugees”, Vol. 1, No. 134, 2004. Geneva.

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Three generations Afghans: Father Syed Murad is head teacher in a BEFARe school in Peshawar, his son Javed is a teacherand computer specialist, and the young grandson, who just turned 6 some months ago attends first grade in grandfather'sschool.

The other pictures are from the family’s Photo Album: At the top, Syed Murad in Herat in the mid-1990s when heworked for an NGO at home for a while, but was forced to go back into exile in Pakistan again. The next picture is fromJalabad in 1998 and the bottom one is from Peshawar in 2003.

"Pakistan has been good to us", they say, "but we can never forget that we are in exile, and Jalalabad, where wecome from, only some hours' drive from Peshawar, is were our hearts are."“I have also left some of my heart here in Pakistan”, the younger Murad says. “It is also a fact that without BEFARe, ourincome and my own education would have been very limited."

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1 Special thanks for providing information and data forthis chapter go to the Chief Executive of BEFRAe Shakir Ishaqand his staff, of whom we only name a few by title, notably theHeads, and often also the Deputies and other staff of the follow-ing Departments/Divisions; Community Services, FormalEducation Programme and Administration. We would like toexpress appreciation to Berthold Wohlleber, Technical Adviser,for providing some background statistics, based on the data hewas able to obtain, and furthermore, the many discussions weheld with him. Thanks are extended to S.B. Ekanayake for com-piling background notes for the book.

Special thanks go to a small group of Afghan teachers andMaster/Lead trainers we had many discussions with, including,inter alia, Syed M. Tahir Murad, Head Teacher, his son SyedJaved A. Murad, Teacher, Baligis Rangg, Head Teacher,Mujadidi Agha Shah at BEFARe, and many others. We had anumber of useful discussions with many female and maleAfghan and Pakistani teachers, and many boys and girls in theirschools.

2 UNHCR Education Field Guidelines. UNHCR, Geneva.February, 2003.

3 See UNESCO documents, which can be found at theWebsite of the organization. See also INEE’s Website, whichincludes references to a number of organizations.

4 Interview with Azad Khan Khattak on 11.11.05.5 Above interview and various internal documents in

BEFARe and UNHCR.6 Figures provided in an internal write up by Azad Khan

Khattak, entitled “BEFARe Community Participation andDevelopment”, CP&D, BEFARe, Peshawar, 15.07.05.

7 See, Ibid, where the bottom-up approach is empha-sized.

8 See, BEFARe Monthly Newsletter, various months, 2005.9 See, the paper referred to in Notes 6 and 7 above, p. 3. 10 See various documents, such as BEFARe’s Annual

Reports. See also, Ekanayake, S.B. and Atle Hetland: WorkingNotes for the current book. Peshawar/Islamabad, 10.11.04.

11 Pak-German BAS-Ed: Community Survey. Peshawar,April, 1987.

12 Ibid.13 The World Bank: Pakistan Evaluation Report. Income

Generating Project for Refugee Areas. (3 projects) June 28,1996. Operations Evaluation Dept., The World Bank,Washington D.C, 1996.

14 See internal documents in UNHCR and UNDP

Pakistan, especially 2000-2001.15 (a) BEFARe has prepared a number of Working

Documents and Analyses on these issues. BEFARe is particular-ly interested in seeking durable solutions for urban refugees andprovide assistance to Pakistanis in refugee hosting areas. It isunfortunate that these issues are taken up belatedly. (b) VariousNGOs and UN organizations, including UNHCR and UNDP, arestudying these issues. (c) The European Commission (EC) andECHO, Pakistan and Afghanistan, are also concerned about pro-viding assistance to refugees and returnees, including, inter alia,some durable solutions projects in NWFP and Balochistan tobenefit vulnerable camp and urban refugees. Projects have beenimplemented by Mercy Corps (Balochistan) and theInternational Rescue Committee (Peshawar). For Peshawar, seethe IRC-DSP Evaluation Report (final draft) prepared by AtleHetland in October 2005. IRC, Islamabad/Peshawar.

16 Hetland, Atle: Historical Background: Afghanistan andAfghan Refugees in Pakistan. Mimeo, Islamabad, May 2005.

17 Ekanayake, S.B.: Education in the Doldrums: AfghanTragedy. Al-Noor Publishers & Printers, Islamabad, 2000, p.151. (Second edition 2004.)

18 See, annual reports, surveys, studies, etc., prepared bythe project organization in the 1980s. See also Chapter 4 in thisbook and the detailed list of Notes and References.

19 For information about the history of UNO’s assistanceto education in Afghanistan, including the importance of Afghanexperts at Omaha, see documents in the ACBAR-ARIC Library,Peshawar and Kabul.

20 See, UNHCR’s Education Field Guidelines. UNESCO,Geneva, February 2003. See, Section 2.1 concerning curriculumissues, and aspects concerning language of instruction.

21 (a) The best common kit has been put together by theInter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE),c/o UNESCO, Paris. Pamela Baxter has been the team leader forpreparation of the kit. (b) 2001 – 2010 is the InternationalDecade for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for theChildren of the World. Materials can be obtained fromUNESCO, Paris.

22 Munsch, Holger: Grunderziehung fur afghanischeFluchtlinge. Basic Education for Afghan Refugees (BEFARe).GTZ Fallstudie. Gutachten im Rahmen des Sektorhaben Bildungund Konfliktbearbeitung. Bremen, October 2004. (A summarybooklet is being prepared in English.)

23 BEFARe has prepared materials for teachers and pupilsin the various crosscutting fields. In new fields, such asHIV/AIDS, only brief materials and teaching guidelines have

Notes

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been developed.24 (a) For references and further considerations concern-

ing these issues, the reader is referred to BEFARe’s offices deal-ing with curricula, especially the Research and DevelopmentDepartment (R&D). (b) For discussion of attitudes, values,peace, etc., see, Sinclair, Margaret: Learning To Live Together.UNESCO’s International Bureau of Education (IBE), Geneva2004.

25 See, UNHCR’s Education Field Guidelines. UNHCR,Geneva, February 2003.

26 The BEFARe Monthly Newsletter, Issue 25, Vol. 3,October 2005, takes up BEFARe’s early response to the earth-quake in the Northern Areas and NWFP.

27 See reference mentioned in Note 18 above.28 Johannessen, Eva Marion, S.B. Ekanayake and Udo

Bude: Evaluation of GTZ/Basic Education for Afghan Refugees(BEFARe) in Pakistan. Final Version. UNHCR, Geneva, June2002.

29 These aspects have been taken up in various reports byBEFARe, UNESCO, IRC, RET, etc. The Refugee EducationTrust for Post-primary Education (RET), which has a smalloffice in Peshawar, has taken up various issues related to sec-ondary education. In 2005, a major reduction took place inenrolment since the Government of Pakistan (CAR/EC) had toclose its schools due to unavailability of donor funds.

30 See, inter alia, Johannessen, Eva Marion et al: Op.cit.,Chapter 5.

31 Ibid., p. 30.32 The table and additional data are available in, Khan,

Wajid Ali: “History and recent achievements of FormalEducation Department”, an internal BEFARe document,Peshawar, 11.07.05.

33 See Note 18 above.34 BEFARe’s R&D Department maintains detailed lists of

materials. See, for example, the complete annotated bibliogra-phy of teaching materials, a textbook analysis funded byUNESCO (under the CIDA-AREP project) in 2004, and otheranalyses and studies.

35 The UNESCO Office, Islamabad, gave special attentionto refugee issues during the time when S.B. Ekanayake workedthere, or, later, when he was with UNHCR OCM-Kabul, but hadoffice space at UNESCO and UNHCR in Islamabad.

UNESCO’s annual reports and library lists can be consulted toobtain exact references.

36 See Chapter 4.37 Interviews and discussions with Dr. Eva Marion

Johannessen in Islamabad, March 2002. 38 The unit cost issue is important since the unit cost is so

low and yet the quality is considered high. We have comparedwith similar projects and can not find any running operations forless – except for local self-help schools but there costs are ‘hid-den’, i.e., personnel work for free or for much lower salariesthan they would under normal circumstances. We have foundprojects on the other end of the costs scale (although for specialgroups of vulnerable beneficiaries) and unit costs may be 10 –15 times as high.

39 BEFARe prepared a detailed overview of its income,etc., specifically for our work, dated 22.03.05. We have chosennot to release details from the documents, which also givenames of each donor, amounts and other data. Some of thesedata should be seen as confidential but they should naturally bereleased to auditors from the donors.

40 Before BEFARe was established, a number of discus-sion meetings and seminars were held, and some studies werealso undertaken, such as, Bohm, Axel: OrganizationalDevelopment at BEFARe. Preliminary Report. PRO –Consulting & Training. Peshawar, February 2002. However, stillBEFARe has not found its long-term organizational form. Thisis only natural since an organization like BEFARe will developover time, most activities are donor-driven, and the organizationmust show flexibility in fields of work.

41 Interview with Wajid Ali Khan in early November2005, and several earlier discussion meetings.

42 Interview with Mujadidi Agha Shah in early November2005, and other interviews for other chapters in this book.

43 See internal BEFARe reports and analyses. Data arecollected continually and submitted to the head office on amonthly basis.

44 The former teacher was back in Peshawar the secondweek of November 2005. He requested that we do not disclosehis name.

45 After this chapter was completed, Mujadidi hasreturned home to Afghanistan and has found a senior post in theeducation sector.

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Non-Formal Educationin BEFARe

6Chapter

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Non-Formal Educationin BEFARe

Non-formal education is a cornerstone in any early response, and also part of the long-termresponse of a refugee crisis and early reconstruction. BEFARe's Non-Formal Education (NFE)

Programme started in 1989. Although some activities and support to non-formal and informaleducation had taken place since the Afghan refugees first began coming to Pakistan in 1978 and

after the invasion of Afghanistan between Christmas and New Year in 1979 - shocking thewhole world and beginning a quarter century of interruption of normal life in Afghanistan,

with more than one-quarter of the population being forced to become refugees; the majority inPakistan, followed closely by Iran. In addition, there were internally displaced persons (IDPs).Thus, it is considered that one-third of all Afghans were directly affected by the wars, and liter-

ally every household was affected, either directly or indirectly.

Various organizations, including BEFARe's predecessors, provided assistance from the beginningof the refugee crisis, but it took another decade before BEFARe's special non-formal educationprogramme was established as a separate and systematic professional activity. Over the years,

the NFE programme has been expanded in number of learners, the quality has improved as seenthrough better and longer teacher training courses, more and better teaching materials have

been provided, and the scope of activities has been expanded. The NFE programme stands outas a well organized activity in BEFARe under the firm and committed leadership of Waheeda

Farouk, the current NFE Head of the programme.1

The NFE programme includes a wide range of activities, such as functional literacy, civicseducation, mother and child health care (MCH), home schools for girls and boys, vocationaland skills training, teacher training courses and community development activities for adoles-

cents and adults. More recently special attention has been given to psychosocial aspects, humanrights, peace education and conflict resolution. There seems to be gender parity in the numberof participants in most of the NFE activities, although there are also many non-formal educa-

tion activities that target girls and women.

Often, NFE activities are given lower priority by donors and implementing organizations thanformal schooling, and this has also been true of BEFARe's programme. At the end of 2005, theNFE Programme has again been reduced to a side-activity with a small budget and number of

learners. There aren't always clear barriers between NFE and FE activities. All education activi-ties are part of the daily life and activities in a refugee community. At the end of the chapter,

we draw attention to this through an interview with an illiterate woman who is theChairwoman of a School Management Committee (SMC) of an FE school.

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1. Non-formal education forms animportant element of refugee educa-tion. It is essential as an earlyresponse to a refugee crisis andother emergency situations and it isessential for children who cannotattend ordinary schools when theybecome refugees for many years,such as the Afghan refugees inPakistan.

2. For adolescents and adults non-formal education is particularlyessential including functional litera-cy training, life-skills training, voca-tional, technical and skills training.For young girls and women motherand child health care (MCH) andrelated fields, notably health, nutri-tion, hygiene and so on are impor-tant. Special education, early child-hood development and educationfor vulnerable groups are alsoimportant elements in non-formaleducation activities.

3. More emphasis is today beinggiven to psychosocial issues and val-ues education including peace andhuman rights education. Trainingcourses and discussions about politi-cal elections and democratic devel-opment of societies are important.Consideration of gender issues isessential in non-formal and formaleducation and in training andemployment of teachers and man-agers. Environmental education isyet another relatively new fieldwhich is still not given enoughattention. All these fields can beincluded in the standard field orsubject known as 'civics education'.Aside from using common materialsit is useful to develop content/curric-ula and materials which are specificfor each refugee and post-conflictsituation.

4. The general reference documentfor all practical refugee education isthe UNHCR Education FieldGuidelines from February 2003.UNESCO's policy, planning andstrategy documents related toEducation for All (EFA) from 2000are important as background docu-ments. The new concept 'inclusiveeducation', which mainly refers tohandicapped, minorities and particu-larly underprivileged persons andgroups is useful when analyzing,planning and implementing refugeeeducation. Community developmentactivities are closely linked to non-formal education activities.

5. In this chapter we draw attentionto some broader aspects related tonon-formal education in Pakistanand in other countries and on othercontinents. Refugee education ingeneral and especially non-formaleducation often lacks a theoreticalfoundation. In this chapter weemphasize the importance of formaland non-formal education workingcloser together. In BEFARe this hasbeen more clearly realized in recentyears. Today, ideas and experiencesfrom non-formal education arebeing used in the formal educationprpgramme, whereas it in the pastwas always the other way around.Community development activitiesare closely linked to non-formaleducation activities, including estab-lishing and running school manage-ment committees (SMCs) or parents-teachers associations (PTAs). Suchcommittees are important in trainingfor further development of demo-cratic institutions.

6. BEFARe's success in the field ofnon-formal education has beenachieved through deliberate, system-atic and patient work over morethan twenty years. The leader ofBEFARe's Non-formal educationdepartment is given special creditfor the achievements as we alsoacknowledge the efforts of all thestaff and managers, especially themaster/lead trainers. Many of thefinest ones are women!

7. Lack of funding for non-formaleducation has remained a problemthroughout the project's history. Inthe future, funding is likely toremain limited unless the field is rec-ognized as important for instance incondensed 'second-chance education'(although admittedly it may some-times also be 'second-class' educa-tion) Primary education is not onlyfor refugees and people in refugee-hosting areas, but for poor people ingeneral in the host-country.

8. Home schools for girls and boystoo have a model function for ruraland urban areas in Pakistan andAfghanistan. BEFARe will in thefuture be able to act as adviser inplanning, monitoring and evaluatingnon-formal education programmesin Pakistan, or it can shoulder fullprogramme implementation.

9. The statistics show that morethan 70,000 men and women havecompleted BEFARe's literacy trainingcourses, comprising 3 courses over18 months, usually with parallel life-skills and practical vocational skillstraining. The literacy curricula andthe teaching materials, with books,charts, audio cassettes, trainer'sguides, etc., have been recognized byeducators in other international andlocal organizations. The MCH cours-es are equally highly regarded. Sincethe programme started in 1996,almost 43,000 pupils have graduatedfrom the home schools with close togender parity in participation (about45% women). The six-month voca-tional and technical training courses,which were run under a sub-projectearlier, known as PGTTP, trained32,000 beneficiaries from 1982 to1996, with about half of the partici-pants being Pakistanis and halfAfghans. Only a few thousand couldbenefit from the UNHCR-fundedfollow-up programme later, knownas VET, due to lack of donor fund-ing, which was regretted by theUNHCR office in Pakistan. Fundinghas otherwise mainly been providedby UNHCR but others have alsocontributed, such as BMZ/Germany,CIDA/Canada, DFID/UK, The WorldBank, and others.

10. A large number of adult educa-tion teachers have been trained:About 3,500 teacher were givenbasic training for literacy teachers.More than 2,000 teachers receivedshort basic training to become teach-ers in the home schools. Only about1/3 of these teachers were women.In the MCH training programme,however, 100% of the about 2,800trained teachers and instructorswere women. Several hundredteachers were given training tobecome teachers and instructors inthe practical training courses. Manyof the teachers who received train-ing have left BEFARe for variousreasons and are now living andworking elsewhere in Pakistan orAfghanistan. Hence they are benefit-ing new groups of learners and col-leagues.

Box 6.1 Some Facts and Figures about Non - Formal Education

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We shall begin this chapter with a section pre-senting broader data providing the reader with abetter understanding of the cultural, social andeconomic background and lives of the refugees.Reference is also made to various publications inhistory, social and human sciences, especially incultural anthropology.2

It should be emphasized that when we workwith refugees, especially in a field like education,we are there to serve the refugees on their terms.We are not there to change them, even in a fieldlike education, unless traditions and attitudes aredirectly in violation of the international humanrights and related standards, for example asregards gender issues. However, new knowledgeoften leads to change and broadening of people'shorizons. This we shall see below in BEFARe'snon-formal education (NFE) programmes.3

We should bear in mind that the refugeeshave been forced into exile, and that they werenot invited to come to Pakistan, althoughPakistan has always been a generous host coun-try. The refugees want to keep as much as possi-ble of their traditions and culture, and ways ofsorting out everyday problems. When refugeesarrive in a camp, in a foreign country, even if thecountry is close and the people are of the same orsimilar ethnicity, language and traditions, theywish to believe the time in refuge will be tempo-rary. Data from UNHCR shows that in develop-ing countries the average time of a person beinga refugee is as long as ten years.4 When peoplearrive in exile, they all have plans for themselvesat home, in the villages, towns and cities whichthey had to leave. They hope to return home assoon as possible and they find it degrading and

undignified to have to receive handouts in arefugee camp. In community services and educa-tion we should be particularly mindeful of theseaspects.

We want the reader to bear this in mind - ingeneral when dealing with refugees and in partic-ular when dealing with educational issues. Weneed to be especially sensitive when dealing withadolescents and adults. Thus, we want a kindattitude to be instilled in all of us, as a yardstickby which to measure our activities when we dis-cuss issues related to non-formal education andcommunity development for adolescents andadults, and elderly people. These are basic prin-ciples in all humanitarian, human rights, peaceand aid work, and they need to be particularlyvisible when dealing with refugees, who are atthe bottom of the ladder of all needy people.

Section IBACKGROUND TO THE FIELD OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

What does the future hold for this Afghan girl?

CULTURAL BACKGROUND

Following the introduction, we shall discuss andattempt to define non-formal education as dis-tinct and different from formal education. Weshall do so in a context related to the ThirdWorld in general, and then in a refugee contextin those countries. Naturally, we shall includeour local context of Afghan refugees in Pakistan,mainly in the camps and in the BEFARe targetareas.

Non-formal education always has importantactivities for girls and women. So also in the cur-rent NFE programme in BEFARe. As a back-ground, it is important to note that the pro-gramme caters for refugees who come from, andlive in particularly conservative communities,where traditional interpretations of culture andreligion are observed. For example, men andwomen, boys and girls, can hardly ever attendeducational activities in the same classroom. Inadult education, the curriculum or learning con-tent often vary for the different genders and agegroups. Sometimes, though, some unexpectedliberal changes can also be observed, especially inthe more recent years and usually in or near thebig cities and towns. This can in general be seenas a result of the refugees' exposure to new waysand other traditions in the host country ofPakistan, and the direct effects of the education-al activities in non-formal as well as formal edu-cation. Most of these changes should be seen asenlightenment and not as moral degradationalthough some people may disagree. After all, therefugee camps and villages where the BEFAReschools are located and the non-formal educa-tion activities are implemented are in Pakistan'sNorth-West Frontier Province (NWFP), which isnot known for being very liberal and open tochange. Ethnically, the majority of the refugees inNWFP are Pashtun, as are also most of the resi-dents in the host country in this area.

For sake of comparison, it can be mentionedthat the refugees in the camps in Balochistan,which are situated farther from the capital cityQuetta close to the Afghan border are considered

to be particularly conservative, traditional andsometimes backward. Earlier the Taliban move-ment, or perhaps we should rather say, someorthodox sects of Islam had strongholds in theAfghan areas near these settlements. Therefugees come from and continue to live in con-servative settings.

In Balochistan, most of the men have to seektemporary employment in the city of Quetta orelsewhere in fruit orchards in the area or a daysbus drive away in Karachi, Pakistan's largest city.Often, they can only afford to come home a fewtimes in a year. The camps are run by older men,sometimes well educated, unable or unwilling tobecome labourers, and by women who have tostay with the children. Young adolescent menalso reside in the villages, and they are often rest-less and idle. The camps have little to offer themin the way of secondary, vocational or skillstraining, and they have difficulties finding jobs,which are usually very badly paid.

In both of these two major refugee-hostingareas, there are variations in cultures and tradi-tions, and also in the degree of conservatism.Especially in the two cities, there are pockets ofmore liberal and open-minded groups, as therecan also be pockets of more conservative groups,especially in the camps. We should rememberthat there were until recently more than 200refugee camps in Pakistan. About 80% of thecamp refugees live in NWFP and the rest inBalochistan, and a separate, small settlement inMianwali. In Jalozai Camp in NWFP, which isabout one and a half hours' drive from Peshawar,the conservative traditions are particularly strict-ly observed so it is not always that it is the mostremote areas that are most conservative. It isforeseen that Jalozai will soon be de-registered asrefugee camp.

These cultural and religious aspects, and anumber of other unique and diverse characteris-tics of the Afghan refugees in Pakistan, should beseen as an important backdrop to BEFARe's edu-cation activities in general, not least in the fieldof non-formal education. Children can beshaped, but adolescents and adults are usually set

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in their ways. This is particularly so for ruralpeople and most Afghans and Afghan refugees,come from remote and rural communities wherethe pace of change is slow. Contact with the out-side world has been limited, and the educationalattainment very low, especially for girls. Life hasbeen harsh for many as nature has rarely provid-ed a 'Garden of Eden' with abundance of naturalresources and well-organized rural, village andcity life.

Yet, human life and communities are neverstatic. There are always developments andchange - sometimes people become more ortho-dox and conservative, as happened with theTaliban in Afghanistan. At other times, in othercountries and on other continents, history has anabundance of examples of groups developing inopposition to the predominant paradigms andruling groups and classes. For example, inEurope and America in the 1960s and 1970s,major radical and alternative groups, questioningmost accepted truths, developed - and then thependulum turned in some fields.

Education forms an integral part of any soci-ety. Its role is to socialize the young people intothe ruling culture with its religious and moralnorms. Yet, it must also help the young posequestions and be prepared for improvements andprogress. True educationists pose questions cau-tiously and they also help the children and theadolescents to socialize in their culture at thesame time as they point at possible alternatives.

When working in adult education, we mustnot underestimate the more philosophical, reli-gious, existential and everyday questions. Adulteducation is very practical and very impracticalat the same time. Even practical training has asuperstructure.

Non-formal education has multifacetedfunctions of helping adolescents and adults intheir everyday and future lives, so that they canlead more meaningful lives, intellectually, psy-chologically, socially, physically or practically.Much of the learning is of a practical, survivalnature. It gives adolescents and adults access toknowledge, insight and skills which can enhance

the individual's sense of value and personaldevelopment and widen his or her scope forindependent action and for cooperation at work,at home and in the community.

The breadth of non-formal education makesit a particularly fascinating field of refugee edu-cation. Below, we shall have a chance to see someof these issues in practice in refugee education atBEFARe and in other programmes.

DEFINING NON-FORMALEDUCATION

Let us now discuss and define non-formal educa-tion and its role, function and potential inrefugee situations in general and in Afghanrefugee education in Pakistan, particularly inBEFARe. In doing so, we will also present somerelevant information about adult education else-where in the Third World.

The term non-formal education is frequent-ly used in connection with refugee education.One of BEFARe's two main education pro-grammes is the Non-Formal Education (NFE)programme. The term is mainly used in connec-tion with educational activities outside ordinaryschools, not leading to recognized certificatesand exams. Non-formal education is mostly foradolescents and adults, who have attended verylittle ordinary school, or who did not have achance to go to school at all. Sometimes it is alsofor out-of-school children. They are usuallyolder children who have dropped out, or neverjoined the formal school system. These adoles-cents are then given a "second chance", or "anoth-er chance", in non-formal education pro-grammes. Some of the children may be able touse the non-formal education as a springboardover to the formal system.

The term non-fformal education became par-ticularly popular in the 1960s and 1970s whenmany developing countries gained independenceand there was not - and still is not - school placesfor many of the children who are in school-goingage, i.e., children from 6-7 to 13-14 years, some-times younger, from as low as 5 up to 10-11

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years (the latter mostly in Asia). Afghanistan issuch a country, which never had universal pri-mary education, not even for half of their chil-dren, although the major cities did relatively wellin the 1960s and 1970s, and in adult educationwhen the Soviet Union had some success in their(often unpopular) literacy and other adult educa-tion programmes.5

When non-formal education is organized forchildren, it is done because the children in ques-tion for some reason or other cannot attend ordi-nary full-time school. Non-formal education isan alternative form of condensed primary school,which includes the most important parts of themain ordinary school subjects, notably the "3Rs",reading, writing and arithmetic, with some gen-eral knowledge and civics education. The latter isoften termed life-skills. In addition, some practi-

cal or vocational skills are usually taught, with aview to salaried employment or self-/group-employment later, or even alongside the training.

On average, less than 5% of refugee chil-dren/youth in developing countries can continuebeyond primary school. As for Afghan refugeechildren in Pakistan, primary school is only sixyears, slightly longer than the five years of pri-mary school in government schools in the hostcountry. It does not include what is consideredupper primary school in most countries, which inPakistan is termed middle school. Except for theselect few who can attend regular secondary,technical and tertiary education, the standardform of systematic learning for older youth andadults is non-formal education.

Normally the post-primary learning that isorganized in a somewhat systematic way can betermed non-formal education in addition toinformal education, which is not systematicallyorganized learning, but can nevertheless be veryvaluable. The term informal education is used forlearning on the job, from colleagues, friends andfamily, and in various situations in one's sparetime, and learning from life in general. All of ustake advantage of this kind of life-long learning,although situations and circumstances may notbe conducive to learning and what we learn isfairly haphazard.

Many adolescents and adults in developingcountries are illiterate; among Afghan refugees inPakistan the majority are illiterate, and manymore women than men are illiterate.6 Literacytraining forms an essential part of non-formaleducation in developing countries and forrefugees, including in BEFARe. It is usuallyargued that literacy training should be function-al literacy training, i.e., it should include aspectsrelated to civics education, life-skills training,and vocational, technical and skills training. Suchtraining is important for refugees as literacy andother adult education should be related to whatthe adolescent and adult learner finds useful inhis or her life. This is one of the areas BEFARe'sNFE programme has given attention to since it

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Afghanistan is a country of mountains and valleys.Photo: Fiona Torrens-Spence. 2003.

started in 1989, and from 1992 more systemati-cally.

There are major differences in child andadult education psychology and pedagogy. Hencethe teaching methods and curricula (learningcontent) for children and adults are different:Adults and older children are in a position to rea-son about the utility of what they learn. Theywill find it difficult to set aside time and energyon issues that they do not consider useful. It iseasier for a teacher to "get away" with generalexplanations to children about why subjects andcertain "boring" or difficult topics are important.Even children will ask why they have to learnthings that seem of little relevance to them, but achild will accept even without understanding,perhaps hoping to understand more fully in thefuture.

The adult learner may not want to wastetime on any content. On the other hand, adultsmay have been longing for knowledge in manyfields, for example in literacy and a variety ofcivics education or general knowledge areas.Women will feel lack of knowledge about chil-dren's issues, nutrition, health, and other domes-tic areas or, may lack knowledge about societalissues. We can here women say: "My husbandnever tells me anything about things outside thefour walls of our home." The men, althoughmore discreet about what knowledge they admitthey lack, will feel embarrassed if a young boy orgirl or their own wife knows how to read andthey don't. Seemingly self-confident and level-headed adult men may be conservative and old-fashioned, but they do not want to be backwardand live with outdated ideas.

Adolescents and adults can also form partic-ularly eager groups of learners and be particular-ly pleasant to work with for adult educationteachers or instructors - as long as they under-stand each other, and the teachers have trainingin their field of work, and the teachers have openeyes to the learners' needs and interests. Refugeesare again particular sub-groups of adult learners,and good teachers can be most important foradolescent boys and girls. Unlike the older

adults, the adolescents may not need to struggletoo much with learning the details of reading andwriting skills. Even if the older ones may notalways be able to learn all details in reading andwriting, especially not in writing, they will beable to learn the "atmosphere" and thus be keyadvocates in the refugee communities for theirage-mates and for the young men and women,girls and boys, to take non-formal classes.

In BEFARe's NFE programme, the aboveprinciples have been taken into account from thetime the activities started as parallel activities tothe Formal Education programme (FE). Bothprogramme activities are also known asCommunity Oriented Primary Education(COPE), building on the concept of "communityeducation", which is the foundation of all refugeeeducation programmes, stipulated in theEducation Field Guidelines of the UnitedNations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR), which, to a major degree, direct alleducation activities for refugees, especially in therefugees camps.7

As mentioned above, non-formal educationwas part and parcel of the refugee educationactivities from the early stages of the Afghanrefugee crisis, i.e. since 1979/80, and at eachinterval of the influx of Afghan refugees toPakistan. (See figures in Table 3.1 and Map 3.1)The last major influx of Afghan refugees toPakistan was after "9/11", at the end of 2001 andin early 2002, when an estimated 300,000 peo-ple fled the American lead bombing and waragainst the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Thosewho fled were given temporary refuge inPakistan, mainly in the tribal border areas nearAfghanistan, such as Kurram Agency, NWFP,some five hours' drive from Peshawar, and nearChaman town, Balochistan, on the border withAfghanistan.

Education was a non-formal activity, espe-cially since it was agreed among the parties(Afghanistan, Pakistan and UNHCR) that therefugees would return home as soon as condi-tions allowed, i.e. not more than a few years. Inshort-term refugee situations, it is acceptable that

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education services for children are non-formal,but the duration should then be short, and usual-ly not more than 6 months. However, in the cur-rent case, the implementing partners, like theNorwegian Refugee Council (NRC) in Kurramalso provided formal education to the children.8

NRC, BEFARe and others provided various spe-cial training courses for adolescents and adults,such as peace education and teacher trainingcourses. BEFARe, running such large educationprogrammes over a large geographic area inNWFP, could also enroll participants in its ordi-nary programmes. By the end of 2004, all the"new camps" had been closed and the refugeeshad returned home, some had moved to "oldcamps", or they had trickled into the Pakistanisociety as non-camp/urban refugees. In 2005, allcamps in the tribal areas will have been closed,and later, it is expected that many other "oldcamps" will also be closed.

The initial stage of any refugee or other emer-gency situation, which can last for a few monthsto half a year, always includes aspects of non-for-mal and informal education. This is so because ittakes time to organize a refugee camp or settle-ment. It takes time to identify, recruit and trainteachers, and to give orientation to parents andchildren, and to integrate the whole communityin education and other community developmentactivities.9

It should be remembered that before we canbegin talking about formal education in a refugeesituation, the overall situation must be assessed.Other basic needs must be satisfied before educa-tion can be given major attention, or, if possible,education can be included as part of and parallelwith other activities. This requires good manage-ment skills on the part of the donors, implement-ing partners and the refugees themselves.

At the early stages of a crisis, when makeshiftcamps are being established, various types ofnon-formal and informal education activities andsocial activities, sports, plays, games and so on,should be organized. Some of these activities arekey to trauma healing, or simply to allow peo-ple's minds to be preoccupied with something

pleasant, keep the refugee situation under con-trol and begin developing daily routines andstructures, and develop some kind of "normalcy".The activities may be organized in amateurishways but are no less important and usefulbecause of that.

When people are uprooted and have had toflee from their homes and their country theyoften have terrible memories and experiences intheir "luggage", and they need time to talk tosomebody about these things in order to begincoming to grips with their past. Ideally, expertswould help refugees with counseling so that theycan have a better chance of healing trauma andsolving issues in the past, but experts are oftennot available so the refugees have to rely on eachother and on trained people, such as teachers,nurses and community workers. Well, providedthere are some with full training in such fields, orat least some semi-trained ones. Organizationssuch as BEFARe give training at early stages, assoon as funds and equipment become available.

The broad psychosocial, cultural, religious,and other related issues are never given the atten-tion they deserve, although more attention isnow given to these issues than before. Everyrefugee crisis has a huge need for psychosocialattention, trauma healing and various other spe-cial education activities. Physically handicappeddo indeed also need treatment, both physicallyand psychologically.10

Conflict situations and new refugee situa-tions, before systems and structures have beenestablished, are also breading grounds for abuseof various types, including sexual abuse. Theseare not new problems. They were the main caus-es for the pioneering work of Eglantyne Jebb andthe establishment of Save the Children. It is sadthat leaders, including aid workers, may beinvolved in abuse; their stronger situation givingthem an opportunity to take advantage of theweak, especially women, girls and young boys.Chaotic and difficult situations for everyone maylead to more abuse than in stable and transparentsituations.11

More attention is being given to these issues

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today in projects like BEFARe, not least in itsNFE programme, community developmentactivities and teacher training. UNHCR is nowemphasizing that education should play a moreprominent role in connection with protectionwork. It is expected that these issues will becomekey areas of non-formal as well as formal educa-tion programmes in the future.

We should add that although the more seri-ous abuse cases get more attention when discov-ered, there are also more subtle forms of abusethat must be tackled which are sometimes intrin-sic in cultures or sub-cultures. We need to watchout for such forms of abuse and get rid of them.That means that teachers and community work-ers should attend relevant training in issues relat-ed to the rights of the child, peace and humanrights education, and other humanitarian norms,rules and regulations.12 One particular case inpoint is institutionalized corporal punishment inschools, police stations and prisons, which wemust work proactively against, because it is crueland degrading, and because it creates violence inthe minds of people.13

We get a glimpse of the seriousness of the

psychosocial problems among Afghan refugeesand Afghans who have lived at home throughoutthe long war and conflict years from the follow-ing figures: The UNDP Afghanistan HumanDevelopment Report 2004 estimates that about1/3 of the population in Afghanistan, includingreturnees, have some form of serious mentalproblems or psychological scars. Sample surveysamong women in Kabul (in 2004) show thatmore than 95% of women have symptoms offorms of posttraumatic stress disorder.14

BEFARe and other organizations providingformal and non-formal education for refugeeshave over the years taken up psychosocial issues.However, it is only during recent years that theseissues have been given more systematic and pro-fessional attention. Priority has been given totaking them up in teacher training and communi-ty development courses. The InternationalRescue Committee (IRC) and BEFARe havegiven special attention to these aspects in somestudies, training courses and teaching materials.Dr. Ekanayake has often in publications andpapers at BEFARe used terms like 'teaching andlearning under stress' and 'stress-bbased manage-ment'. Also, in his writings we seem to trace adevelopment over the years, where he pays moreattention to these issues in recent works.15

At the end of this section, we will drawattention to a recent study by Margaret Sinclair,who has completed a book entitled "Learning tolive together"16, where she takes up the broadspheres of non-formal and formal education,community development and learning to buildattitudes and values supportive of peace, respectfor human rights, active citizenship, and healthyrelationships and behaviours, includingHIV/AIDS prevention.

At the beginning of BEFARe's NFE pro-gramme Margaret Sinclair was in charge of edu-cation and community services in UNHCR inPeshawar, and afterwards, she was the UNHCRHeadquarters chief officer in the same fields.Her recent book shows that these NFE issues arestill being debated and that we have not yet

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From an NRC school in Kurram Agency, NWFP. BEFARe andNRC cooperated on training of teachers in peace education.Photo: Tove Fischer/NRC. 2004

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Waheeda Farouk, Head of Non-Formal Education, with some of the learners in the important and successful NFE pro-gramme in BEFARe. The proramme is currently facing funding difficulties at a time when NFE activities are more neededthan before to equip the refugees to return home with training in literacy, general knowledge and employable skills. AlsoPakistanis in refugee host communities need to be included.

Waheeda Farouk

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reached standard curricula or content and teach-ing-learning methods.

About the objective of the book, MargaretSinclair writes: "It focuses on the skills, values,attitudes and concepts needed for learning to livetogether rather than on 'knowledge' objectives.The aim of the study is to discover 'what works'

in terms of helping students to learn to becomepolitely assertive rather than violent, to under-stand conflict and its prevention, to becomemediators - as local, national and global citizens,to have balanced relationships with others andneither to coerce others nor to be coerced, espe-cially into risky healthy behaviours."17

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We shall begin this section by drawing a parallelto adult education in Africa. To some readers itmay not seem quite relevant, but we do this inorder to draw attention to one of the great adulteducators, who lived in one of the world's poor-est countries, Tanzania, where they reached closeto universal literacy in the 1970s. Many coun-tries and groups are still far away from universalliteracy, and in Tanzania many newly-literatesrelapsed back into illiteracy since there was noproper follow-up and very few reading materialsin the rural areas at that time.

The second reason for drawing attention toan African country is that we consider that com-parative education in general and comparativerefugee education deserve greater attention.Currently, there are important parallels and les-sons to be learned as regards preparation forreturn and actual repatriation of Afghans andSouth Sudanese refugees and other categories ofpeople from neighbouring countries.Comparative studies should go beyond suchrequired for the practical needs of UNHCR andthe concerned governments to include academicand further professional issues.18

Let us first draw attention to the UnitedNations Literacy Decade (UNLD), 2003 - 2012,which aim at close to universal literacy. Literacyis also part of the Education for All (EFA) move-ment. Here, it should be noted that refugees andother marginalized groups, including handi-capped, should be included in the UNLD and theEFA work. A new term has seen the light of day,notably "inclusive education".

In BEFARe's NFE work, these internationalinstruments tie the practical project work to a

wider, international framework, which givesWaheeda Farouk, BEFARe's Non-FormalEducation Head, a feeling of having support andnot being alone, in spite of her daily struggle in afield of education, which is not always given thesupport it deserves. In the following pages, weshall rely on Waheeda's experience and success inher work in non-formal education for the Afghanrefugees since the early 1990s. Waheeda herselfmoved to NFE only some years ago. Much morecould and should have been done. Waheeda willbe the first to admit that. Since 2005, there hasbeen serious cuts in donor funding and difficul-ties in keeping up activities in the education sec-tor in general, including in non-formal educa-tion.

It has been said that if we want to be success-ful in teaching an adult something, we should"teach him/her as if we teach him/her not" and weshould "propose new things as if they are thingsforgot".

The wisdom in these words originate fromthe famous "Mwalimu" Julius Nyerere, Tanzania'sfirst President after Independence of that countryin 1962 and a great adult educator, henceforthhis nickname "mwalimu" (in Swahili languagemeaning teacher, originating from Arabic).Nyerere managed to implement major function-al literacy campaigns in his country in the 1970s,in a country, which was listed as one of theworld's poorest and least developed, with veryfew educated people. (Figures show that only alittle over 1,000 had secondary school or highereducation.) In 2005, Afghanistan is listed by theUnited Nations Development Programme

Section IIBEFARe's WORK AND ACHIEVEMENTS IN NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

(UNDP), as one of the world's poorest countries,even when the informal sector economy (mainlythe illegal drugs trade) is included, accountingfor more than 50% of the economy.19

It was Nyerere's leadership in adult educa-tion, in primary education and in the social andpolitical spheres, which gave dignity and opti-mism to his people. He used to say over 30 yearsago that the educated people should serve theirfellow villagers and rural brothers and sisterswith the book in the same way as a farmer usesthe hoe to till the land. And he told youths thatif their poor parents have struggled and managedto give them education and schooling, and theygo away for further education, but they don'tcome home to their village and land again, thenthey are to be likened to a man who has beensent from a starving village to collect food, butinstead of bringing the food back, he eats it him-self, and he gets a wife and lives well where hehas found wealth. Nyerere also said that we needadult education to rid our people of ignorance,superstition and lack of skills, and since we don'thave time to wait until children have been edu-cated and can take over, we need adult education- also so that they can know how to help theirchildren to get education.20

Non - formal education, and even formalbasic education, can be summed up in four keywords:

Dignity General Knowledge Literacy Practical Skills

Waheeda Farouk, BEFARe's Non-formalEducation Head, has studied the African educa-tor and statesman Nyerere and other major edu-cators in formal as well as non-formal education.Before joining BEFARe Waheeda was a teacherand principle at Beacon House School inPeshawar. Now, she is one of the veterans inBEFARe.

She says that some people may wonder whatwe in South and Central Asia have in commonwith East Africa and the teachings of "Mwalimu"Nyerere. "But it is a fact that we have a lot incommon with Tanzania, which is, like Pakistan,

one of the world's main host countries forrefugees. In Tanzania they came from Rwanda,Burundi, and from other countries, includingSouth Africa and Zimbabwe (South Rhodesia)during the apartheid era and the white minorityrule and sometimes even today. Repatriationexercises have been implemented. Furthermore,Tanzania was and still is, one of the world's poor-est countries. There are many parallels and les-sons to exchange between Tanzania and Pakistan,and perhaps in particular, lessons to learn forAfghanistan. Yet, there are of course also manydifferences."

Furthermore, Waheeda emphasizes thatmuch in education, when dealing with childrenand adults as educators, is not only based onbookish knowledge. She knows that the "art ofteaching", and its related administration andmanagement, has to do with attitudes and values:how we look at ourselves and other people.

"We should try to help people to learn evenif they don't know that we help them", Waheedasays. "This is especially important when dealingwith adolescents and adults. Refugees includegroups of adolescents and older people whomwe should treat with special sensitivity so as toallow them to keep and enhance their dignity,self-esteem and value - in the midst of difficultand often miserable circumstances in a foreigncountry."21

When talking with Waheeda, we soon learnthat she is that kind of person who has a "passionfor her flock". She is one of the longest servingstaff members in BEFARe, with 18 years of serv-ice. When she started, the project and sub-proj-ects had different names, but the work was muchthe same although NEF was less recognized.

"It has been a constant struggle", Waheedasays, "because adult education and literacy train-ing are the fields that have throughout beengiven lowest priority when it comes to fundingand other resources. Now we call it non-formaleducation, and I am Head of a Department inthat field in BEFARe, but it is still considered lessimportant than the formal education pro-gramme. As late as the beginning of 2005, we

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were not sure if we would receive funds from thedonors for the term that had actually started. Wedidn't know if we could continue the adult edu-cation activities that we had begun, and takesome new learners. In this latest case, it was agrant from The World Bank that helped us out.At the end of 2005 we were again without adonor for NFE but managed to receive somefunds, which also included 2006.”

"Let me add that it is probably natural thatthe NFE programme is 'a bit less important' thanthe FE programme because the formal educationprogramme is much larger. They have recentlyhad about 100,000 pupils now down to 80,000,and I have had about 20,000."

"Non-formal education is often considered afield for women. That automatically gives itlower status. I don't say this to be negative, and Ihave excellent male colleagues and friends atwork. But I just want that fact to be noted."

"It should also be remembered that there arecertain fields of importance particularly towomen when dealing with non-formal educationas there are also some other fields that are of par-ticular importance to men. In all our eagerness tobe gender-sensitive, we must not become gender-blind."

"We can easily agree that adult literacy pro-grammes should be offered both to men andwomen, but not necessarily in the same groups.Sometimes, it is not good to mix young and oldeither. Actually, men are more sensitive to someof these 'status aspects' than women; they feelthey lose face in front of women and can feelembarrassed. That is never a good situationwhen attempting to create a good learning envi-ronment. As literacy teachers and adult educa-tors, we must understand this and cater for thelearners, not for what is easiest for us as teachersor administrators", Waheeda says.22

When we first met Waheeda Farouk somefive years ago, we couldn't help wondering whatthis fine and elegant lady was doing in refugeeeducation and how she would fit into work inthe refugee camps - places and situations which

are far from luxurious and fashionable. Well, wemust admit, we didn't quite think of ourselves,being European and often clad in tie and suit andprobably looking more out of place than she didas a Pakistani of Pashtun origin, and thus ethni-cally at least one of the majority of the refugees.Clothes, jewelry, ornaments, books, and othersymbols may remind ourselves of who we are,and show the others, refugees or non-refugees,who we are, or want to be.

In any case, if you work in adult education,which is Waheeda's special field, then the firstthing to remember is to be yourself, to be adult,to be inclusive and to show respect.

"Teaching adults to read, impart new knowl-edge in a foreign country, give simple tips abouthygiene, nutrition, health, family planning, toler-ance and understanding for other people's cultur-al ways and religious beliefs, peace, human rightsissues, conflict resolution, and so on, demands alot of sensitivity about the unwritten and unsaid.It demands what the Germans call'Fingerspitzgefuhl', but that is only gainedthrough experience, based on education andskills in psychology, pedagogy, cultural studies,religion and so on. Perhaps I should add, too,that commonsense is also important, simply thatwe try to be human and attempt to put ourselvesin the situation of the refugees", Waheeda says. Source: Interviews with Waheeda Farouk, BEFARe, Peshawar,21.12.04 and 14.05.05

EDUCATION FOR WOMENMother and Child Health Care

In our context of Afghan refugees women havehad less access to knowledge outside the home. Ifwe are blunt, we may say that most women areless knowledgeable and more ignorant than men.However, women have other knowledge basedon other experiences than men, such as aboutnutrition, hygiene, food preservation, child rar-ing, and so on. In many families the administra-tors of the household are women, especiallyolder women, who teach the unmarried girls andthe young wives about their duties. The young

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boys are also mainly taught by women and byelder siblings, and less by their fathers and othermen, until they grow older. "My mother was myfirst teacher", most of us can say, not only inAfghanistan but all over the world.

The fact that women are often secluded inthe home does not give them much opportunityto gain alternative knowledge and opposite view-points. This situation shouldn't be seen as shame-ful (to women and men), but at the same time itshould also be acknowledged and the situationshould be tried to be modified and corrected inour time.23

For example, many women do not have therequired knowledge about "mother and childhealth" (MCH). Henceforth, this was one of thefirst course programmes that BEFARe introduced

over 15 years ago. If the mothers, or young andadult women, could not come to course centers,courses were organized in their homes or at theMCH clinics when mothers brought their youngchildren for vaccination, or when they brought asick child. Such courses can be termed 'awarenesstraining' and since they started in 1989, over80,000 women have gone through these courses.

The courses include topics like the followingones: • mother and child health; • children'spre-natal health; • prevention and child mortal-ity; • child growth and nutrition;• environment and hygiene; • vaccination andfollow-up; • family health and HIV-AIDS; • gender issues; • mine awareness.

Over the years, simple materials have beendeveloped for teaching these issues. Today,

Refugee men in Africa attending a school class witha female teacher. A man making the roof for hishouse. Top right, Afghans drying building blocks in the sunto get shelter a step better than a refugee tent. Africa and Asia are different continents, with manydifferent countries and cultures. Yet there are alsoparallels in the lives of all people and indeed poorrefugees in all developing countries. Refugees are resourceful people trying to rebuild orat least make bearable their lives and temporaryhomes and in recognizing the importance of educa-tion.

Photo: UNHCR Magazine "Refugees", Vol. 1, No. 134, 2004.

BEFARe has no less than 21 separate courses, orcourse units. Pictorial charts and other materialsare used to explain issues more clearly.

"We have become modern, too, and havedeveloped some audio cassettes that make teach-ing more entertaining and the content easier toremember", Waheeda says. "Naturally, this train-ing is in the local languages, Pashtu and Dari,sometimes mixed with some Urdu since theAfghans have picked up the language of the hostcountry, or sometimes because the health educa-tor prefers to use Urdu expressions, which is use-ful in the local Pakistani community where thepeople live."

The most recent development in BEFARe isa six-month NFE course, which integrates moth-er and child health care issues with the first levelof the female adult literacy programme.Referring to the definition above, this can betermed 'functional literacy'. In other words, thelearner gets subject-matter knowledge and litera-cy at the same time, which makes the literacywork more interesting and relevant to the learn-er.

Adults don't readily accept to learn thingsjust because the teacher says that they are impor-tant, as we mentioned above. When we teachchildren, we get away with that; we tell the chil-dren that this or that will be something they need

when they become adults, or when they reachsecondary school. Adults won't accept suchexplanations. They use their own intellect andjudgment to decide what they think is useful.Literacy may be good and well, but they wouldlike to learn something 'real' at the same timesince they have little time to waste. "This is oneof the cornerstones in our functional literacyprogrammes; this particular one directed towomen, while others are directed to men",Waheeda explains.24

HOME SCHOOLSBEFARe's Home Schools Programme, which hasbeen in operation since 1996, is intended forthose boys and girls who for a variety of reasonscannot go to ordinary schools. It should be notedthat in the BEFARe home schools there is almostgender parity in participation. Of the almost43,000 pupils that had completed the homeschools programme by the end of 2004, about19,000 were girls. In the peak year 2002, nearly5,500 girls completed the home schools.25

Other organizations usually run homeschools only for girls, such as Save the Children- United States (SC/US), which started a coupleof years before BEFARe.26 SC/US uses the term'home-based schools', while BEFARe calls them'home schools'. SC/US runs its home-basedschools for girls in the refugee camps inBalochistan, some hours' drive from Quetta cityin South-Western Pakistan near the more conser-vative Southern Afghanistan. Recently, enrol-ment in SC/US's ordinary schools has been about15-16,000 pupils, and about 4,000 in the home-based schools. A major reason for organizinghome-based schools has been to make sure thatgirls are allowed to complete the full primaryschool cycle of 6 years, not being withdrawnwhen they approach puberty. UNHCR'sEvaluation of BEFARe in 2002 shows that thedropout rate for girls was much lower in thehome schools than in ordinary schools.27

SC/US has also used home-based schools forgirls to recruit teachers for the younger girls. The

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Experienced Master/Lead Trainers in the NFE Programmeat a meeting in the BEFARe Head Office in Peshawar.

best girls would be recruited into middle schoolsand some few would have an opportunity to con-tinue with complete secondary education eitherfull time or parallel with teaching of youngergirls. It is interesting that reports from SC/US'shome-based schools in Balochistan show thatgirls in these schools often do better at examsthan boys do, in spite of the fact that boys arehaving teachers with better education and morecontact hours. There are many reasons for this,one is that the class size in a home school issmaller than in an ordinary school; another rea-son is that the pupils are monitored more close-ly and the learning environment is more pleas-ant.28

It should also be noted that girls do as well,or better than boys at school in general. All thoseold men, and sometimes even old women, whoare prejudiced against educating girls, shouldtake note of such facts!

There are many reasons for the need forhome schools: If there is no school at all in anarea, or if the school is too far from the children'splace of residence, which in particular hindersthe girls from attending school, establishing ahome school can be the solution. The schoolwould then normally be at the teacher's home, orin another large house or room on the com-pound.

We should not forget that it is not only girlsthat need to be protected on the way to school oreven at school. We all know that the Islamic cul-ture is particularly concerned about their younggirls, especially when they approach puberty.However, boys also need to be protected at thatage: the boys should not get into bad companyand they should not be exposed to adult habitslike smoking cigarettes or using drugs, and so on.Sometimes, there may be fanatics who try toinfluence the boys. Earlier, there were storiesabout Afghan boys being persuaded or forced tojoin various guerilla groups or other antisocialgroups. Naturally, any father or mother wouldprotect their children from such incidents.Recently, some pockets of these antisocial groupsare said to have resurfaced. Young boys may

sometimes need to be protected from sexualabuse, or kidnapping and taken into forcedlabour, as servants or helpers for older men,gangs or families.29

As educators we would like our children andyouth to develop positive attitudes and values.We would like them to grow up in joy and hap-piness and to learn to live rich and normal livesas youths and adults. Moral education, oftenconnected to moderate religious education, isessential.

Important general knowledge is included inthe courses, such as: • peace, conflict resolutionand human rights; • environmental protection;• cultural heritage; • health and hygiene; and • Islamic values.

The home schools have a condensed primaryschool programme, which goes over 30 months(or 3 years), covering the full primary schoolwhich would normally take five or six years. Theschool day is just a few hours. Sometimes, thehome schools are bridges to the ordinary formalschools.

In addition to teaching ordinary school sub-jects, health issues, ethics and moral education,the home schools have a unique contact with thecommunity and the home to which it belongs.Both the parents and children are engaged ineducation issues, leading both parties to gainhigher motivation for education. The school dayis organized flexibly depending on convenienceof the parents and children. The school day isshorter than an ordinary school day to allow thechildren to help with housework, looking afteryounger brothers and sisters, or helping withincome-generating activities. In many ways, the'good practice' of the home schools has led tochanges in the ordinary schools.

Home schools can be non-formal or theycan be formal schools. If they are intended to beordinary primary schools, it is essential that thecurriculum and exams are the same as in the for-mal system. Pupils in home schools should not beshortchanged with lesser knowledge and lowercertificates than other pupils, if it is the intentionto give a full primary education in the home

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school. Sometimes, though, the home school isnot intended to be a full primary school, but analternative, which is a "second-best" solution. Thehome school can also be used as a bridge over toordinary primary, or secondary education, whichis particularly important if it doesn't give a com-plete primary school education, or is a dead endas for further education.

The experiences from the home schools runby BEFARe, SC/US and other refugee educationorganizations in Pakistan can bring valuable'good practice' to help shape the future of theeducation system in Afghanistan.30

As we have shown, BEFARe has includedboth boys and girls in its home schools. In itsordinary formal education programme, BEFARehas not been successful in reaching gender parityin pupil population, or gender equality amongthe teachers, head teachers and managers.However, efforts have been made in recent yearsto correct some of these shortcomings, to avoidBEFARe being termed mainly as a men's project.Sometimes that is being said, and in someinstances, there is some truth to it, but much lessnow than five or ten years ago. The UNHCREvaluation Report (2002) has some criticalremarks as for the low number of women inleadership positions in BEFARe. However, in asummary statements concerning genderissues/girls' education it says: "Taking the amountof restrictions regarding girls' education intoaccount (…), BEFARe has done a good job."31

In June 2005 we visited several non-formalschools, including home schools, in Peshawarand a few hours' drive outside the city. In LandiSarak in Peshawar city we visited a co-education-al home school. Landi Sarak is a non-camp urbanneigbourhood near Khazana Camp and the resi-dents are working class Pakistanis and Afghans.The residents live in slightly segregated parts ofthe neigbourhood but attend the same mosqueand share other public facilities.

The home school that we visited had onlyAfghan pupils, 23 boys and 6 girls from 10 to 12-13 years for the boys, with some of the girls

being 13-14 years. Usually there is a majority ofgirls in co-educational schools, but that was notthe case in this school. Since there is a shortageof female teachers many of the teachers are male.In the Landi Sarak home school the teacher wasan experienced teacher from a formal BEFAReschool. When we visited the formal schools werehaving their summer holiday so the teacher wasfree to teach the non-formal class in the morningbut would otherwise teach them in the late after-noon. A non-formal teacher is paid one thousandRupees per month while a teacher in a formalschool earns four thousand two hundred. Theschool day is just a few hours in a non-formalschool but still the pay is considered very low.

The children in home schools and othernon-formal schools come from poor families.The better off urban refugee children enroll inprivate Pakistani schools but then they have topay school fees. Outside school hours the boys inLandi Sarak said that they were helping theirparents with some work in the fields and alsoplaying sports. Some few were helping with car-pet weaving. We got the impression that therewere not enough positive spare-time activitiesfor the boys. Some of the girls mentioned that inaddition to helping with housework they listenedto the radio and read newspapers. Some of theolder girls mentioned that they sometimes wouldwatch TV at a neigbour's house.

The children were all Pashtun mostly com-ing from Kunar province and areas nearJalalabad in Afghanistan. The parents had come

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Home schools for girls and boys in NWFP.

to Pakistan when the Soviet war started. Aboutten of the children's fathers had gone home toAfghanistan for work. One of the boys said thathis father was a teacher in Afghanistan, but oth-erwise it was manual work. The children werenot optimistic about returning home. Most chil-dren had visited Afghanistan, but they mentionedthat they had no houses and no fields for agricul-ture; one pupil mentioned that there were peo-ple other than Muslims in Afghanistan now, andthat it was dangerous in many places.

The visit to the school and the session ofclassroom observation and conversation with thepupils and teacher was a positive experience. Theteacher activated the pupils, using locally madeteaching aids and taking pupils up to the black-board frequently and asking others questions.

The pupils seemed interested in learning and allof them had textbooks and notebooks. Some ofthe children expressed interest in continuingtheir education, and there seemed to be severalgifted boys and girls. Some said they wanted tobecome teachers and some mentioned that theywould like to become engineers and a couple ofthe girls dreamed about becoming doctors.However, social mobility is slow in refugee andreturnee communities and the children are likelyto remain at the bottom of the social laddereither they stay in Pakistan or they move to

Afghanistan. The BEFARe staff member who escorted us

to the school, Fakhar Zaman, Deputy NFEHead, said that he felt proud of being able tohelp running a school for the needy people in theLandi Sarak. He said BEFARe was able to run theschool we visited thanks to assistance from TheWorld Bank's Post-Conflict Fund. However, wewere told that the funding was coming to an endand that it was uncertain if the school could con-tinue.32

We also visited two home schools for girls inBadaber Camp about one and half hours' drivefrom Peshawar towards Kohat in NWFP. Bothschools had young female teachers, one only 17years old and the other one 20 years. One of theteachers had had to drop out of secondary edu-cation because the girls' school had been closedin her neighbourhood. She had wanted tobecome a doctor but now that dream was unlike-ly to come true, she told us. But as far as wecould see she was already a very confidentteacher, at the age of 17, teaching biology for 19girls in Grade 4 when we visited. The teacher inthe other school some kilometers away had beentaken out of secondary school because her fami-ly, notably her father, did not allow her to con-tinue beyond Grade 8.

Both schools were neatly kept, with someadults moving around outside the open class-room to give some cool air in the summer heat,and some young boys who were hanging aroundduring their school's summer holiday and eves-dropping if they could, or helping with carpetweaving next door. Some of the boys seemed tohave made a sport out of getting refining theirweaving techniques and getting the job donequickly! We don't think this should be termed'child labour' if it takes place in the family homefor a few hours a day. It is similar to helping withhousework, collecting water or weeding in thevegetable garden - rather than distracting thegirls in their home school. Carpet weavingbecomes child labour if it is employment outsidethe home for long hours and it leads to keepingthe children away from school, homework and

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Helping with carpet weaving.

normal interaction with family and friends,including time for sports and games. Such childlabour is then harmful.

In both home schools we visited, escorted bysome of BEFARe's master/lead trainers, it wasimpressive to see how well organized the schoolswere and how positive the atmosphere and learn-ing environment was. Based on the visits andother data and discussions we felt that we couldsafely draw the conclusion that BEFARe's train-ing courses for the teachers and the master/leadtrainers must have been very good. The supervi-sion and guidance was seen as another essentialcomponent for the success. In an evaluationstudy of The World Bank Post-Conflict FundProgramme, which we contributed to in June2005, we concluded that one 'good practice' wasBEFARe's excellent monitoring, control andadvisory system of the schools.33

FUNDING

As we have explained above it has always beendifficult to receive sufficient funds for education

in the refugee camps and even more difficult forurban schools. One problem to the NGO is thatdonor-funded projects cover certain areas andcertain periods but it makes long-term planningdifficult for the implementing partner. For exam-ple, a donor may provide funds for teacher train-ing courses but not for textbooks, teachers'salaries or other expenses. As we have empha-sized above, non-formal education activities andhome schools are usually lowest on the donors'priority lists.

The reasons for lack of donor-interest maybe difficult to understand since the same donorswould in words but not always in deeds expresstheir concern for pupils in areas such as LandiSarak. Donors and specialists agree that educa-tion does make a difference for poor people, andit is a long-term investment with positive effectson the families' health, nutrition, women's rightsand economic development. Education is partic-ularly important for refugees. Therefore, it isimportant that organizations like BEFARe keepup their advocacy work, even now when thetrend in the donor community is to reduce budg-ets. In the future, non-camp urban or ruralschools, with mixed Pakistani and Afghan popu-lations, would probably stand a better chance ofreceiving funding.34

Vocational, technical and skills training andeducation is essential for young men and womento become able to make a living in Afghanistan inthe future. The non-formal education coursesinclude both practical training, for example bicy-cle repair, and theoretical training. Basic literacytraining, MCH courses and so on are given.Condensed primary school training is also givenso that older children who have dropped out ofthe formal school system, or never had a chanceto get enrolled can receive primary education.They only attend school for a few hours per daybecause these children usually have to attend toincome generating activities or housework. Someof the particularly successful pupils continue inthe FE system and may be able to complete sec-ondary school. In several areas the "good prac-tices" from the NFE system has led to changes in

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Non-formal skills and literacy training for men andwomen.

the mainstream schools.The women at the bottom of the photo seem

to discuss important issues: Have they perhapsfound new income-generation systems, whichtake into consideration that most women inAfghanistan will have to work from the home,that they may need micro-finance, that market-ing is often a problem, that the banking system isvery underdeveloped, and so on? But theAfghans are known for great creativity, whichthey will certainly need in reconstruction anddevelopment of their country in the years ahead.Refugees who return from Pakistan with skillsand ideas from BEFARe's NFE training will be agreat asset.35

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ANDSKILLS TRAINING

The current vocational and skills training pro-gramme is a small programme in BEFARe. It hasbenefited well over 3,000 participants, fromamong the most underprivileged of the refugees,so that they could gain skills for sustainablelivelihoods.

Most of the participants have been women,who have attended courses in fields like: • food preservation; • embroidery; • tailoring; • beadwork.

Men have attended courses in fields like: • tailoring; • carpentry; • bicycle repair. Thecurrent programme is called IntegratedVocational Education and Skills TrainingProgramme. This name is used to underline thatit is a broad programme with a many-facetedcontent.

In earlier years, i.e. from November 1982 toMarch 1996, and before BEFARe was formed amore ambitious practical education training pro-gramme, run by the Pak-German TechnicalTraining Programme (PGTTP), gave training toover 32,000 beneficiaries; about 50% Afghansand 50% Pakistanis. It gave four months practi-cal training and literacy training. Upon comple-tion, the trainees were given a toolkit in order tobe able to start work as carpenters, shoemakers,

tinsmiths, etc. About 2/3 of the trainees foundwork soon after completion of the training,either in self-employment or in jobs.36

For the sake of orderliness, it should be men-tioned that from 1984 to 1995, the mainGerman assistance to refugees in Pakistan wasnamed Pak-German Basic Education Project,PAK BAS-ED, which then from 1 January 1996became GTZ-BEFARe, and part of it was movedto Afghanistan and became a registered NGOand known as AG BAS-ED, which still is anactive and growing organization. Some of thechanges began gradually from 1990.

Vocational and technical training, includingapprenticeship, is a field in which Germany isknown for special competence and experience athome and in other parts of the world. Therefore,it was unfortunate that the larger project was dis-continued when BEFARe was created in 1996.

However, for a few years, a follow-up project,known as the Vocational Education and Training(VET), was implemented, notably from 1999 tothe end of 2000. UNHCR allocated a budget ofRupees 11 million to that project. However, dueto UNHCR's budget cuts, vocational training wascut, including almost all the funds for training ofhandicapped and vulnerable refugees. It should

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Eng. Hamish Khan, BEST, with a handicapped trainee whowent on to become a trainer herself.

be said that this was, at least partly in accordancewith UNHCR's Education Filed Guidelines,which give priority to primary education for chil-dren and adolescents. However, the Guidelinesalso say that priority shall be given to vulnerableand handicapped, and UNHCR only partlyadhered to its own guidelines.37

The UNHCR Education Field Guidelinesthat were followed were those from 1995; thosehave since been updated in 2003, but as regardsthis particular aspect, the 1995 Guidelines didgive UNHCR an opportunity to continue itsimportant work of VET, but it chose not to doso. We also know that the UNHCRRepresentative in Pakistan at that time was keento seeing the activity continue, but the head ofthe Programme Section in UNHCR had lessunderstanding of education and other socialrefugee issues. UNHCR also had very limitedprofessional education expertise in Pakistan.

Furthermore, we would also have to pass onsome of our critical remarks to the GermanFederal Ministry of Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (BMZ), which did not take overthis activity, or advocate strongly for its continu-ation, in annual consultation and negotiationmeetings with the Government of Pakistan. Asfar as we can see, it would also have been inGermany's own interest to have given higher pri-ority to one of its "flagships" notably vocationaland technical training.

We point out these aspects because webelieve that vocational, skills and technical train-ing and education are of particular importance torefugees.

Hamish Khan, who worked at the GTZvocational and technical training projects from1982 to 1996 is full of praise for the work thatwas done. "We should only have done so muchmore", he says. "We gave special attention to par-ticipation of women, which was not really aheadof its time in general, but was early as regardsAfghan women. Furthermore, we emphasizeddevelopment of empathy and respect for manuallabour", Hamish says. He says that these attitudi-

nal educational aspects should be part of all basiceducation activities.38

After his important work related to GTZ,Hamish Khan, has managed to establish a newNGO named Basic Education and EmployableSkills Training (BEST), with offices in Peshawar,serving the urban and camp refugee communi-ties in the area. BEST has activities in variousfields, such as education, logistics, food distribu-tion, and other fields related to refugees.

Engineer Khan was educated in Germanyand speaks fluent German. The reputation of hiswork made BEST the first local NGO, in addi-tion to a few international ones, to be acceptedas an implementing partner for UNHCR after"9/11", in January 2002. There was controversyabout including local NGOs since it had been arule that all UNHCR's implementing partnersfrom 1996 should be international organiza-tions..39

Skills and vocational training were givengreater attention at certain periods earlier inBEFARe's activities. However, such training stillforms a part of the NFE programme, and the lit-eracy training is today giving greater emphasis tofunctional literacy. Hence practical issues andcontent of more immediate utility is givengreater emphasis than before, but the duration ofthe training is often shorter than during theabove-described projects.

When we in June 2005 held discussionmeetings with NFE master/lead trainers andteachers at BEFARe, we also invited some of theparticipants who had completed training to findout how they had benefited from the non-formaltraining they had received.

Jan Mohammad, an 18 years old tailoringapprentice, explained that he had completedBEFARe's NFE training programme in literacytraining, which included Pashtun, Mathematicsand Islamic Studies, and in a vocational field,which in his case was a six months tailoringcourse. Jan told us that he had made himself theexcellent shalvar kamis he was wearing. Heexplained that he had gained employment as anapprentice with his teacher and was earning

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twelve hundred Rupees per month, almost thesame as his father who was selling second-handclothes. Jan hoped to move home to Afghanistanand continue his trade there, but he could not goyet because the family owned no house or landthere. His family had lived in exile for over twen-ty years, and property and land prices had goneup tremendously in most places in Afghanistan,including in Jalalabad where his relatives live, wewere told.40

LITERACY TRAINING ANDCOMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

The Adult Literacy Programme has been themajor NFE programme under BEFARe and itspredecessor since 1992. More than 70,000 menand women have benefited from the courses. Thecomplete cycle of training courses is 18 months,divided into three six-month courses, which inaddition to reading, writing and simple calcula-tions includes other general knowledge, civicseducation and development of information andskills related to family and community life.

Most of the training courses are separate formen and women partly out of tradition and cul-ture and partly because the life-skills and practi-cal skills will vary for men and women. There isa division of labour between the genders, whichis reflected in the training courses. For example,the mother and child health care (MCH) coursesare provided only for women participants, whileother practical courses are for men alone. Themain book (the Reader) that is followed at thethird level of literacy training, i.e. during the lastsix months, is separate for men and women.

Over the years, BEFARe's NFE programmehas developed more relevant teaching materialsand teaching-learning methods, which are "tai-lored to measure" the participants. The trainingof teachers, instructors and community leadershas improved over the years. In the early years,pedagogy and methods related to literacy andadult education were often seen as easier andsimpler, needing less training than for the "prop-er teachers" dealing with formal education.

These attitudes have changed due to deliberateefforts by the NFE programme leaders andteachers. Often, it is more difficult to teach ado-lescents and adults than children.

BEFARE's NFE teacher training courses havedeliberately recruited religious leaders in order tomake them aware of the detailed content of thecourses provided to the teachers and the learn-ers. In the past the mullahs and other communi-ty members would sometimes complain aboutcertain messages in the courses being un-Islamic.After explaining the content to the various com-munity leaders, and enrolling religious leaders inthe course, such complaints would vanish.

When we in June 2005 participated in theevaluation of assistance to BEFARe's NFE pro-gramme from The World Bank Post-conflictFund (2002-2005), we found that to include thebetter trained religious leaders in further trainingto become NFE teachers led to greater sustain-ability of the programmes. Well trained andequipped with the relevant teaching aids,BEFARe learned that a number of the religiousteachers are ready to teach other subjects thanreligion, notably NFE subjects, languages, maths,science, etc. Even girls who are not allowed toattend FE schools due to the age limit when theyreach puberty are able to continue their trainingin classes conducted by the religious leaders. Itshould be noted that the religious leaders areparticularly respected members of their commu-nities. This is an achievement of BEFARe's care-ful and patient efforts over many years.41

As we discussed in general in this chapter,literacy training, civics education, and variousother skills and practical topics go together.Along with other activities, the literacy and otherNFE training form the basis for the people'scommunal participation in their local communi-ty, the refugee camp or a sub-section of it. Ifdone well, these activities lead to coordinatedand planned community development. Religionforms part of community life but religious train-ing is not the only training that should be givento create development and betterment of dailylife.

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SCHOOL MANAGEMENT COMMIT-TEES (SMCs)

The school management committees (SMCs)have become corner stones in the communitydevelopment activities. Naturally, most of themembers of the SMCs are literate, or semi-liter-ate, but there are also some illiterate members.

The chairperson is always a respected personin the community, and he or she is usually bettereducated than the others. However, there arecases when the chairperson, too, is illiterate. Thisis more common for girls' schools, which onlyhave women members on the committee, asthere are few literate women among the olderrefugees.

We have discussed community developmentwith a large number of refugees, teachers, mem-bers of SMCs, and other parents and refugeecamp residents.42 It is evident that the work thatBEFARe has undertaken over the last more thanfive years to establish a SMC in every school andcamp is a major achievement. UNHCR, as themajor donor agency, helped in implementing thiswork, not only in BEFARe, but in all implement-ing partners, through allocation of some fundsfor staff, notably community workers and fieldassistants. In NWFP, assistance was also receivedfrom Swedish Save the Children, which for sev-eral years seconded senior community servicestaff to UNHCR's Peshawar office. Anne SiriRustad saw the completion of the major SMCefforts in 2002/3. Other short-term staff was alsoseconded from other organizations. The sum ofthese efforts, which have been given specialattention over more recent years, is that BEFARecan now pride itself on having a SMC in everyschool and camp. Waheeda in the non-formaleducation programme, and her colleagues in theformal education and community developmentprogrammes have given the school managementcommittees and other community developmentwork major attention over the last years anddaily life in the camps has changed markedlybecause of this work.

Naturally, the SMC is important for the run-

ning of the ordinary primary school. However, itis also important for various non-formal educa-tion activities. More importantly the SMC is abridge between the school, the home and thewider community. The committee also hasimportant model functions and training func-tions for the future development of civil societyin the camp and in the home country upon repa-triation. The SMC is a forerunner for establish-ment of and participation in various organiza-tions and interest groups in the home countrywhen that time comes.43

In our interview with Gullakhta Palvasha,SMC Chair, some of the specific tasks related tothe school management committees have beentaken up, and in particular the SMC she chairs.It should be noted that although Gullakhta hasnot herself learned how to read and write, all herchildren have gone to school. Her arguments foreducation and the tasks of the SMC are quitesimilar to those of educated women and men,such as the medical doctor, who is chairman ofthe SMC at the boys' school next door. In boththose cases, it is evident that the schools haveexcellent head teachers and good teaching staff,who have attended various courses organized byBEFARe.44

The establishment of a system of SMCs is anexample of the outcome of good cooperation,over time, among different partners, includingBEFARe's. Such achievements cannot be appreci-ated unless a historical perspective is appliedbecause spot checks cannot illuminate changes.We would like to give UNHCR credit for havinginsisted on every school having a SMC, or PTA(parents-teachers association) as it is called inSC/US schools.

Such committees lead to people discussingissues, and leads to change in attitudes, and lessorthodox opinions. One example of this mayonly partly be due to the work of the SMC. Wediscussed the single-sex schools with one of theyounger Afghan teachers. To our surprise, he wasquite open-minded about the future in that field.He said he did not really see it being a big dealthat education was not sex segregated. "In the

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schools near Peshawar, I think that parents andteachers can accept coeducation, at least for thelower grades of primary school, and in many sit-uations in adult education, too, and also whenholding community meetings."45

Again we would like to commend the delib-erate step-by-step work implemented over oneand a half decade by Waheeda and her colleaguesin BEFARe's NFE programme and its otherdepartments, especially Azad Khan Khattak inCP&D. We would also like to draw attention tothe Afghan refugees themselves. Often we fail toacknowledge that change can only take place ifthose who are affected by the change, accept andinternalize it, probably little by little. For exam-ple, the co-educational classes, which we men-tioned above, would only be accepted very slow-ly and carefully.

Margaret Sinclair has studied social changein refugee contexts, including in our context inPakistan. In her book "Learning to live together"she focuses on values and attitudes and not onlyknowledge objectives. In other words, the out-come and impact of education shall be immedi-ate and also long-term; it shall improve theeveryday environment in the camps and helplead to peaceful living in the future. Educationand its related activities in the community shallcontribute to preserving the past as well as creat-ing learners whose minds are open to change andalternatives.46

TEACHER TRAINING AND CUR-RICULUM DEVELOPMENT INADULT EDUCATION

We have in various sections in this Chapter takenup aspects related to teacher training and cur-riculum, or content, in adult education.However, since we will discuss issues related toteacher training and professional development inrefugee education in a separate chapter in thisbook we will only draw attention to the impor-tance of teachers as related to non-formal educa-tion here.

We have to mention again that BEFARe, aswell as other refugee education organizations,has over the years given less attention to trainingteachers for NFE than for FE. This has beenmainly because donors have provided less fund-

ing for this sector as compared to the much larg-er formal education sector, which has also generally been seen as more important.However, over recent years, BEFARe has regular-ly organized general training courses and refresh-er courses for its different groups of NFE teach-ers, notably master/lead trainers, field educationsupervisors and, probably the most importantones, the classroom teachers. Over the years,since BEFARe started training courses for NFE, ithas provided courses of some sort (from one toseveral weeks' duration) for over 1,000 maleteachers and well over 400 female teachers.Some teachers/instructors have attended severalcourses. Over the years, a number of the teachershave left their jobs for various reasons. Somehave also returned home to Afghanistan.

Waheeda Farouk draws particular attentionto two important activities.47

She mentions the importance of the MobileLibraries, which are collections of books andteaching materials, made available to teachersduring training courses. As the name suggests,these libraries are moved around, new materialsadded and changed, as the courses are held in

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various locations, on changing topics and fornew groups of participants. Sometimes the teach-ers will provide materials they have made them-selves, which can then be studied by other teach-ers and give ideas for how to make materials orexamples.

The other activity that Waheeda drawsattention to is the three-year long teacher trainingproject (2002-2005) made possible through assis-tance from the Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency (CIDA). The project,which is know as Afghan Refugee EducationProject (CIDA-AREP) provides up-grading forteachers in the formal and non-formal educationprogramme, and gives special attention to genderissues and the long-term effects of assistance, i.e.the project aims at assisting repatriation of teach-ers and their future work in Afghanistan. Theproject includes two other implementing organi-zations, notably the International RescueCommittee (IRC) and Ockenden International(OI). The United Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is alsoincluded as one of the partners in order to pro-vide professional coordination and advice.48

"However, we must not forget the assistance wereceived a few years ago from The World Bank,under its Post-Conflict Fund, which made crucialimpact in up-grading of our teachers", Waheedasays.49

BETWEEN NON-FORMAL, FORMALAND INFORMAL EDUCATION

Illiterate woman plays key role in localcommunity as leader of the SchoolManagement Committee (SMC)

This interview pays tribute to the excellent com-munity work done by an illiterate woman,Gullakhta Palvasha, an Afghan refugee inPakistan. Her life story shows that bookish edu-cation is not always needed to do a good job,even in the education sector in a community witha mixture of people with and without formalschooling. Yet, we should not forget that literacy

and basic education remain cornerstones inupbringing and socialization of our children.Gullakhta knows that as she has ascertained thatall her children have gone to school.

Gullakhta Palvasha lives in Kacha GarhiRefugee Camp outside Peshawar. She is theChairwoman of the School ManagementCommittee (SCM) in one of the best schools runby BEFARe. She says that this year, she has heardthat BEFARe is struggling with its funding sinceUNHCR has reduced budgets and they expectmore refugees to return home to Afghanistan.

Gullakhta is the mother of seven children,four girls and three boys. All of them have goneto school, including the eldest daughter of 30,who is now married. One boy is currently ingrade 12 and will sit for his secondary schoolexamination soon.

"I take great pride in seeing all my childreneducated, although most of them could only doprimary school. We are poor people; my hus-band works in a little shop and I am a helper ata clinic", Gullakhta says.

"In the SMC we are five women in BEFARe'sSchool No. 099 in Kacha Garhi. I am the oldestmember, now 45, which is an advantage and itwas probably a main reason I was elected asChairwoman. You need some experience in yourown family, life and community to take on a tasklike this", she says. "One of the most importanttasks is to encourage parents to send their chil-dren to school. In the first place it is importantthat the parents enroll their children in schooland, secondly, they must make sure that the chil-dren attend school every day, and they must letthe girls and boys complete all the six years ofthe primary school in the camp. We also hopethat some can find places in secondary schools. Itis wrong to take out a girl when she is ten oreleven years and marry her off, or promise her tosomebody. It is also wrong to take the boys outof school and send them to earn money in town.Childhood and early adolescence are times forlearning. I have to remind the parents that it is asimportant for their daughters as for their sons."

"When you talk to parents about these

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issues, as I do as Chairwoman of the SMC, I haveto visit their homes and take time to talk to themin confidence. You need to explain why educa-tion is important, and you need to be both firmand strict otherwise many parents may not listen,although people are getting a better understand-ing of the need for education in today's world.Often education is the only way out of povertyfor a refugee", Gullakhta says smiling, yet withsome seriousness and authority about her.

"I also tell parents that I made sure that allmy children went to school. People listen to whatyou say, but even more important is that they seethat you live as you preach. So I keep tellingthem about my own children, even if they havealready heard about them before. I think it helpsthem, because they will then think that if shecould educate all her children, then they can doit as well - being equally poor."

"I would also like to emphasize that in orderfor parents to send their children to school, it isimportant that the quality of the school is good,and that parents soon find out or hear what peo-ple say. We are lucky in our school to have BalgisRangg as our Head Teacher, and we have a goodteam of teachers. BEFARe has given them extratraining courses and advice. Thus, the parentsknow that the children are taught the rightthings. That includes Islamic studies, moralissues, reading, writing, arithmetic and all theother subjects."

"It is also the SMC's task to make sure thatthe school compound is kept clean, with latrines,proper sewage and clean water for the pupils towash their hands and maintain general cleanli-ness in the school. It is essential that repair worksbe done whenever needed, which means that wehave to collect some money from the parents,usually five Rupees per child per month. Someparents with several children cannot afford topay even such as small amount. This gives anindication of how poor people are, and how lit-tle they have for their daily requirements, likefood, medicines and so on. Sometimes, I am sur-prised that they do send their children to school

at all, that they do actually find some money topay the SMC contribution, pay for school uni-forms and other school related expenses."50

We ask Gullaktkta why she is still illiterate."There is no literacy class in the area where Ilive", she explains, and she says that she doesn'thave much time to think about her own educa-tion. "It is almost 25 years since my husband andI, with two small children came to Pakistan asrefugees. We have had to struggle hard to makeends meet, get food on the table and educate ourchildren. In our home the children have alwayscome first."

But couldn't any of your children help her tolearn to read and write, even now, we wonder.She says that she would like her daughter of 15to help her, not any of her sons.

As thanks for our discussion, we feel weought to offer Gullakhta a little gift, but we werenot prepared for that, so the only suitable thingwe have with us is a textile document folder withembroideries, which was made by a refugeewomen's group run by an NGO called OckendenInternational. We jokingly say that the folder isfor her literacy papers and books, and that sheshould talk to Waheeda in BEFARe's NFE pro-gramme to get some help, maybe a literacy classin her camp. We promise to come back after ayear's time when we expect Gullakhta to be liter-ate!

Driving back to Peshawar, we reflect about

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BEFARe Teachers, Head Teachers, Managers andSupervisors at a Training Course in Peshawar. Spring2005.

Gullakhta's situation and achievements.BEFARE's Senior Manager for the formal educa-tion programme, who has accompanied us,Mujadidi Aga Shah, says that there are many suchexcellent women and men in the refugee commu-nities, and among ordinary Pakistanis.

"Many poor people make the best out oftheir lives with little. They struggle and workhard and with luck and the grace of Allah theycan achieve amazing things even to the envy ofbetter off and better educated refugees. Theymay be uneducated, but they can still be wise andknowledgeable", Mujadidi underlines.

"Naturally, education helps in making peopleaware of things. They get rid of misunderstand-ings and ignorance, old-fashioned ways andextreme ideas. It gives people a feeling of free-dom and being at the same level with others,empowerment, we call it nowadays. Literacy isindeed basic in our modern times. But literacymust always go together with general knowledgeand also skills training. It must be functional lit-eracy training. That goes for children as well asadults."

Mujadidi says that Gullakhta is a uniquewoman. "Unfortunately she never had the oppor-tunity to learn to read and write, or take othertraining, but because she is intelligent and haslearned through experience and hard work ininformal ways, she is ahead of many others. Therefugee life, with all its difficulties and hardship,also makes people see and learn things theywould never have learned if they had stayed inthe home village all their lives."

"Under other circumstances, Gullakhtamight well have become a teacher or headteacher herself. But when she grew up inAfghanistan, very few girls in the rural areaswould go to school, if there were a school at all,even for boys. She and her husband have man-aged to make the best out of their lives asrefugees. They have educated their seven chil-dren. I am proud to call Gullakhta my sister, andher husband my brother", Mujadidi says. "Theirchildren and grandchildren will have to realize

the dreams that Gullakhta and her husbandcould not realize for themselves. But I still thinkthey are being rewarded, by their children andthe community, who show a lot of quiet respectfor people like them."

"When you meet people like Gullakhta, itgives you an opportunity to reflect about formaleducation, schooling in the modern way, aboutnon-fformal education in classes and courses, andabout the life-llong learning in informal ways,which we all take part in. Sometimes I wonder ifwe put too much emphasis on the importance ofWestern schooling for people who live in ruralsettings like 80% of the Afghans do. Perhaps ifwe could give them basic literacy and generalknowledge, they could organize local meetingsand educational sessions, and a lot of the teach-ing-learning they would do in even more infor-mal and 'invisible' every-day ways. Well, as ateacher, I should perhaps not think like this",Mujadidi says, "but I must admit I from time totime do question modernity. Yet, we cannot turnthe clock back either. Even Afghans in the moun-tainous villages will have to get used to modernschooling - and it is mostly good and to theiradvantage."51 (See also the FE Chapter.)

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The cumulative data presented show thatBEFARe's non-formal education activities havegrown in magnitude over the years. (Until thecritical budgetary situation at the end of 2005).The qualitative development is probably evenmore significant. The history of the NFE activi-ties shows that the deliberate and patient work ofthe BEFARe staff in NFE and CP&D has bornfruits. NFE and CP&D have become separatedepartments within BEFARe with recognizedresults and importance.

It should be noted that NFE is always animportant element of refugee and other emer-gency education. BEFARe's work has also takencognizance of that in the long-term (chronic) cri-sis it has been involved in for so long. Currently,

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at the time of the on-going large repatriation ofrefugees and rebuilding of Afghanistan non-for-mal education again plays a significant role onboth sides of the border. In Pakistan, its impor-tance in urban and rural refugee hosting areaswill grow in the years to come. After the earth-quake in Pakistan on 8 October 2005 a numberof NGOs provide non - formal education as animmediate response to the affected children andadults.

Sometimes NFE is seen as an educationactivity mainly for women. It is true that someaspects concern women, such as mother andchild health care. However, NFE is not awomen's activity. It also includes adolescent andadult men. Functional literacy courses are tai-lored to measure the needs of the various groupsof learners.

BEFARe has in its work shown the impor-tance of including the local refugee communitiesin its work. Religious leaders have also beeninvited to participate in training courses forteachers so that they can know the content/cur-ricula used and so that they can include secularcontent or separate courses in their work.However, it should be appreciated that mullahsshould mainly teach religion and moral educa-tion but it is important that they give support tosecular education in non-formal and formal pro-grammes. The importance of expanded coopera-tion is essential.

A major part of the NFE activities is literacytraining, with related civics and life-skill training.BEFARe has developed materials and trainedteachers based on its experience over the years.Functional literacy has clearly become the peda-gogical foundation of all NFE activities.

Vocational and skills training were earliersometimes organized as separate projects or sub-projects, not merely as components of otheractivities. Due to limited funding the specialcourses have become less common. However,BEFARe still has several such shorter courses (inmodules), which are often connected to literacyand other basic non-formal education.

Donors and educators everywhere praise thework done in non-formal education.Nevertheless, and in spite of the unit cost beinglow, the funding is often limited to such trainingfor adolescents and adults, and even for olderchildren who need condensed 'second chance'primary education.

It is recommended that BEFARe's NFE workbe subject to research and more in-depth study sothat further improvements can be made and sothat other refugee education organizations candraw lessons from their achievements.Furthermore, it is also hoped that the formaleducation system can learn from non-formaleducation activities to benefit emergency andregular education programmes in developingcountries.52

Not withstanding the need for increased importance being placed on girls’ education more attention is needed to improveboys’ education especially related to relevant curriculum for older boys. Further work is needed regarding co-education.

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1 Special thanks for providing information and datafor this chapter go to Waheeda Farouk, Head of the Non-formal Education Department in BEFARe. We are alsograteful for the practical help she provided so that we couldvisit schools and non-formal education centers and inter-view teachers and participants. Although Waheeda Farouk’sname appears many times in the text, we have had full inde-pendence to make our own judgments and evaluation of thevarious aspects of the NFE activities in BEFARe, which westill consider no less than impressive. Hence the Head andstaff of such work deserve credit. Waheeda herself moved toNFE some years ago. The responsibility for strengths andshortcomings of the chapter rests with the author of thebook.

2 (a) See the Notes to Chapter 2, “HistoricalBackground” . (b) See other publications in social andhuman sciences, particularly in cultural anthropology. (c) Animportant introductory book is, Reardon, Betty A.:Tolerance – the threshold of peace. The Teacher’s Library,Primary-school Resource Unit, UNESCO, Paris, 1997. (d)See UNHRC’s main periodic magazine, Refugees, Vol. 1,No. 126, 2002. Theme: “Women: Seeking a Better Deal.”UNHCR, Geneva, 2002.

3 (a) Universal Declaration on Human Rights. Adoptedand proclaimed by the General Assembly of the UnitedNations on 10 December 1948. (a) A wealth of relevant lit-erature on gender issues and other aspects of basic andsocial, human and economic rights have been publishedover recent decades. (i) Since we believe in comparativestudies we will make reference to an anthology aboutAfrican efforts in achieving greater gender equity: ChangingTimes. Changing Attitudes. Alternative Portrayals of menand women. Sample products of the DANIDA-UNESCOworkshops for the production of gender sensitive radio pro-grammes – For use in non-formal education programmes.UNESCO, Paris, 2001. (ii) A basic booklet prepared byUNESCO as part of its efforts as the lead monitor of imple-mentation of EFA: Gender Equality in Basic Education.UNESCO, Paris, 2002.

4 See UNHCR’s period (annual) booklet, Refugees byNumbers, and for update of global, regional and countryfigures the agency’s main periodic magazine, Refugees.UNHCR, Geneva.

5 See Ekanayake, S.B.: Afghan Tragedy. Education inthe Doldrums. Al-Noor Publishers & Printers, Islamabad,

2000 and 2004.6 (a) See annual reports, seminar reports and other

documents from the major NGOs in refugee education inPakistan, such as Save the Children (US), OckendenInternational (UK), GTZ-BEFARe, International RescueCommittee (IRC), Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) andothers. (b) See also UNHCR’s booklets: VoluntaryRepatriation to Afghanistan 2003, 2004 and 2005.UNHCR, Islamabad. (c) Searching for Solutions. 25 Years ofUNHCR-Pakistan cooperation on Afghan Refugees. UNHCR,Islamabad, June 2005.

7 UNHCR: Education Field Guidelines. UNHCR,Geneva, February, 2003.

8 Fischer, Tove and Fran Qureshi: Pakistan EducationProject. Ashgaro Refugee Camp in Kurram Agency – NWFP.Final Report. (October 2001 - September 2004.) NorwegianRefugee Council (NRC), Peshawar, December 2004.

9 See the above-mentioned UNHCR Education FieldGuidelines. UNHCR, Geneva, February, 2003.

10 See (a) Ekanayake, S.B.: Mega Trends andChallenges in Refugee Education. GTZ-BEFARe, Peshawar,March 2003. (b) Sinclair, Margaret: Planning education inand after emergencies. International Institute forEducational Planning (IIEP), UNESCO, 2002. (c) Sinclair,Margaret: Learning to Live Together: Building skills and val-ues for the twenty-first century. International Bureau ofEducation (IBE), UNESCO, Geneva, 2004. (d) IRC: Variousstudies on psychosocial issues. International RescueCommittee (IRC), Peshawar, 2001-2004.

11 Abuse issues have been taken up in a number ofreports and investigations in recent years. Since UNHCRstaff members have been identified as abusers in some sexu-al abuse cases of women and children, the agency has givenspecial emphasis to these serious issues, which are alwaysharmful to the victims. Abuse cases are damaging to theagency concerned and studied carefully by United NationsHeadquarters, especially in cases where staff members mayhave been involved. For a summary of some relevant abuseaspects, see (a) UNHCR’s main periodic magazine, Refugees,Vol. 1, No. 126, 2002. Theme: “Women Seeking a BetterDeal”, p. 7. UNHCR, Geneva, 2002. (b) For the situationamong Afghan refugees in Pakistan, reference is made to,Refugees, Vol. 2, No. 132, 2003, where the following articleby Jack Redden (including interview with the Head ofUNHCR’s sub-office in Peshawar, Masti Notz) takes uprelated issues: “Kerosene shortages, property disputes, rape,

Notes

lost children. It’s all in a days work for a UNHCR protec-tion officer in Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province.”UNHCR, Geneva, 2002. (c) For detailed information, thespecialized NGOs and UNHCR’s implementing partners,SHARP and SAVERA, Islamabad, should be contacted. Savethe Children Alliance, ICRC, UNICEF and others also workin these fields. (d) The Women’s Commission for RefugeeWomen and Children, New York, undertook a study relatedto Afghan refugees in Pakistan in 2002 and monitors devel-opments globally.

12 (a) ARC: Various materials under the projectAction for the Rights of the Child (ARC). UNHCR, Geneva,2000 – 2003. (b) Machel, G.: The Impact of armed conflicton children. United Nations, New York, 1996. (c) Machel,G.: The impact of war on children: a review of progress sincethe 1996 UN report on the Impact of Armed Conflict onChildren. Hurst, London, 2001.

13 In its schools in Kurram Agency, NorwegianRefugee Council (NRC) took up the issue of corporal pun-ishment from it started its project in 2002. It practiced ano-tolerance policy in this field, i.e. if a teacher was usingany form of corporal punishment he or she would be fired.Other NGOs have similar policies but since the organiza-tions are larger it may not always be possible to discoverthem and take appropriate action.

14 UNDP: Afghanistan National Human DevelopmentReport 2004. UNDP, Kabul, 2004.

15 Ekanayake, S.B.: See, for example, Mega Trendsand Challenges in Refugee Education. Guide Book forTrainers. GTZ-BEFARe, Peshawar, 2003.

16 Sinclair, Margaret: Learning to live together.International Bureau of Education (IBE), UNESCO, Geneva,2004.

17 Sinclair, Margaret: Op.cit., Introduction.18 (a) Data concerning Tanzania’s functional literacy

campaigns in the 1970s can be obtained from the maindonors to the campaigns, notably Swedish InternationalDevelopment Authority (Sida) and Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency (CIDA). The author of this book haspublished reports and books which are available at thelibrary/information center of the Norwegian Agency forInternational Cooperation (Norad), Oslo, and the library ofthe University of Oslo. The library of the ScandinavianInstitute of African Studies, Uppsala, Sweden, is also recom-mended, and the Africana Section, Maktaba, University ofDar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. (b) Data concerning the currentrefugee situations of Afghans (in the main host-countriesPakistan and Iran) and South Sudanese (in the main host-countries of Kenya and Uganda) can be obtained from theUNHCR offices in those countries. In Nairobi, Kenya,UNHCR has a regional service center with a “Sudan hub”.(c) Furthermore, attention should be drawn to comparativeeducation (and other comparative studies) as academic disci-plines. It is important that the basic theories and methods ofcomparative education are understood before researchers goon to undertaking comparative studies in sub-disciplines likerefugee education. In Germany ‘Auslandspedagogik’ has

long traditions; other industrialized countries have alsogiven attention to systematic studies of ‘cultural borrowing’and comparative education for very long. Usually, the com-parative studies take place between advanced countries. Theborrowing takes place between presumably more developedto presumably less developed countries. Hence the field ofcomparative and international education is not least essen-tial in developing countries, although not always givenenough attention. The field has a renewed importance inour time when globalization is high on the internationalagenda.

19 UNDP: Afghanistan National Human DevelopmentReport 2004. UNDP, Kabul 2004.

20 For access to Mwalimu Nyerere’s numerous books,speeches and articles, including the ‘South Commission’, werecommend that the following libraries be contacted:Africana Section, Maktaba, University of Dar-es-Salaam;Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, Sweden.

21 Interviews with Waheeda Farouk, BEFARe,Peshawar, 21.12.04 and 14.05.05

22 See reference 21.23 See various references to this chapter concerning

the situation of women in Afghanistan, such as the 2004UNDP Report for Afghanistan and other literature concern-ing gender equality.

24 See reference 21.25 GTZ-BEFARe: Annual Report 2002. GTZ-BEFARe,

Peshawar, 2003.26 (a) UNHCR: Education Mission Report to Pakistan

1996. UNHCR, Geneva, 1996, p. 10. (b) For detailed infor-mation about SC/US’s refugee education work inBalochistan, especially as regard girls’ education, homeschools for girls, training of female teachers, middle andsecondary education for girls (and boys), curriculum devel-opment (incl. basic competencies of learning), etc., refer-ence is made to various reports available from SC/US’soffices in Quetta and Islamabad. Special reference is madeto: (i) Bhimani, Mobina: Primary Education ProgramImpact Evaluation. SC/US, Quetta, 1998. (ii) Rugh, Andrea B.: Home-Based Girls’ Schools inBallochistan Refugee Villages. A Strategy Study. SC/US,Quetta, July 2000.

27 Johannessen, Eva, S.B. Ekanayake and Udo Bude:Evaluation of GTZ/Basic Education for Afghan Refugees(BEFARe) in Pakistan. Fnal Version. UNHCR, Geneva,2002, p. 31.

28 This has been documented in various reports fromSC/US, Quetta.

29 (a) Johannessen, Eva et al: Op.cit., Section 5.5. (b) Coleridge, Angela: Our Future and our Rights. A book forAfghan children and young people. Save the Children Sweden,Peshawar, 2003.

30 Dr. Ekanayake has taken up this area in several ofhis papers and books, including in materials concerningteacher training. See, for example, Mega Trends andChallenges in Refugee Education. Guide Book for Trainers.GTZ-BEFARe, Peshawar, 2003.

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31 Johannessen, Eva et al: Op.cit., p. 26. See also p.108.

32 School visit to Landi Sarak urban (non-camp)school, Peshawar, 09.06.05.

33 School visits to two schools outside Peshawar,08.06.05. Interview-meeting with master/lead trainers atBEFARe, Peshawar, 10.06.05.

34 Host countries may reduce services to refugees as apush factor to encourage them to return home. In our con-text, this was the case after the Soviet withdrawal fromAfghanistan and in the mid-90s, when Pakistan hoped thatrefugees could continue returning to Afghanistan. Thedonors’ interest for keeping up the assistance level alsodiminished. Currently, Pakistan and Afghanistan, as well asthe donors hope that the refugees will continue returninghome. Whether it is a vice policy to use reduction in fund-ing of sectors like education before the refugees leave isquestionable. From a professional point of view it has beenargued that funding should be increased substantially for afew years to general education, vocational, technical andskills training in the host country for the refugees and in thehome country when the returnees arrive there. The argu-ment is that refugees must be made able to return home andeducation is essential in that connection. They must also behelped into employment at home, possibly subsidizedemployment for some time. The counterargument to thisprofessional argument is that if education is provided in thehost country the refugees are not going to return. Webelieve it is the professional (educational) argument that iscorrect, not the latter (the political one). We believe thateducation, skills training and “bridging assistance” areessential factors to encourage return. Hence acceleratingreturn and reintegration at home, not the opposite as seemsto be feared by politicians/governments. Recent researchproves the professional argument. Actually, education is atool to accelerate sustainable repatriation.

35 Ekanayake, S.B. and Atle Hetland: Op.cit., p. 40and 69-75.

36 Interview with Hamish Khan, BEST, Peshawar,21.12.04.

37 UNHCR: Education Field Guidelines. UNHCR,Geneva, February 2003. See Policy Statement 1: Educationfor All, Item 1.4, which includes special education and edu-cation for vulnerable groups.

38 As Note 36.39 Following the 9/11 world events and the following

invasion of Afghanistan in late October 2001, UNHCRinvited to a number of meetings with NGOs and partners inIslamabad, Peshawar and Quetta, which included discus-sions about inviting additional implementing partners toparticipate in education activities. Since 1996 only interna-tional implementing partners had received funds fromUNHCR, with some minor exceptions, notably in specialeducation and skills training. Naturally, there were manyand difficult discussions about why new implementing part-ners would be needed, and if so, what criteria one shoulduse for selection. One difficult issue was whether additional

partners should be local and/or international. In principal,there was interest for including local organizations, but thencame the issue of funding since international organizationsusually add own funds on top of what donors like UNHCRallocate. We believe that the Norwegian Refugee Council(NRC) was included as a new implementing partner in edu-cation because of its anticipated access to funds from theGovernment of Norway, and the organization’s ownsources, and possibly for other political/strategic reasons. Itshould be added that we are in no way questioning NRC’sprofessionalism. Yet, we do not know if the selection of newpartners was done on a level playing field. At the same time,NRC and BEST, the two major new partners, have provento perform very well, as far as we are informed.

40 Interview with Jan Mohammad, BEFARe,Peshawar, 10.06.05.

41 Ekanayake, S.B. and Atle Hetland: Provision ofTeacher Training for Afghan Refugees in Non-formalEducation, including vocational and skills training, and mid-dle and secondary education, in North-West FrontierProvince (NWFP), Pakistan, January 2002 – June 2005. TheWorld Bank Post-Conflict Fund assistance to GTZ-BEFARe.Evaluation Report. Peshawar, June 2005, p. 37.

42 During 2000 – 2005, the author of this book hasundertaken numerous visits to refugee camps/villages, urbanrefugee schools, refugee coordinating bodies, and variousorganizations dealing with refugees in Pakistan as a consult-ant to UNHCR, UNESCO and other organizations. In the1990s, we gained experience from visits to camps, non-camp rural settlements and urban settlements in Tanzaniaand Kenya. We also carried out various coordination, advo-cacy and planning work related to refugee issues, withemphasis on education, in bilateral, multilateral, NGO, andlocal government contexts.

43 (a) For some further discussion of aspects related tocommunity participation, see, Johannessen et al: Op.cit., p.69 ff. (b) See also other chapters in this book where furtherissues related to the particularly important field of commu-nity development are discussed. Reference is also made toInternal Working Notes entitled “BEFARe CommunityParticipation and Development”, prepared by Azad KhanKhattak, BEFARe, Peshawar, 15.07.05

44 Interviews with Gullakhta Palvasha and MujadidiShah in Kacha Garhi Refugee Camp, Peshawar, 15.10.04. (Adifferent version of the article has been used as a newspaperarticle entitled “A woman who leads from the front” pub-lished in the “Education Expo 2005 supplement” to TheDawn, Islamabad, 26.02.05.)

45 Interview with BEFARe refugee teacher inPeshawar, 20.12.04.

46 See, (a) Sinclair, Margaret: Learning to LiveTogether. International Bureau of Education (IBE),UNESCO, Geneva, 2004. (b) Ekanayake, S.B.: OperationalParameters of Education for Refugees in Emergencies (work-ing title), Peshawar/Islamabad, Forthcoming.

47 Internal Working Notes by Waheeda Farouk, “BriefHistory and Achievements of Non-Formal Education

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Department in BEFARe”, Peshawar, September 2004.Related interviews and discussions in September andDecember 2004, and in April and June 2005.

48 See CIDA-AREP reports available from the partici-pating organizations and the CIDA-AREP ProjectMonitoring Unit, c/o IRC, Peshawar, and CIDA-PSU,Islamabad.

49 See, Ekanayake, S.B. and Atle Hetland: Op.cit. Seein particular Ch. 4 and 5 on good practices and projectimpact.

50 Ekanayake, S.B. and Atle Hetland: Working Notesfor the current book, where it is shown that in 2002, theSMCs in BEFARe schools collected PKR 3.4 million. Thecommittees used these funds to improve the standard of theschool environments and the education quality for thousandsof girls and boys, adults in literacy classes, MCH centers and

other non-formal education activities. Peshawar/Islamabad,10.11.04.

51 Interviews with Gullakhta Palvasha and MujadidiShah, Kacha Garhi Refugee Camp, Peshawar, 15.10.04.

52 (a) Reference is made to UNESCO main policy andbackground document on emergency education prepared inconnection with the EFA meeting in Dakar, Senegal.Education in Situations of Emergency and Crisis: Challengesfor the New Century. UNESCO, Paris, 2001. (b) Referenceis also made to INEE’s publication entitled MinimumStandards for Education in Emergencies, Chronic Crises andEarly Reconstruction. Inter-Agency Network for Educationin Emergencies (INEE), c/o UNESCO, Paris, 2004. (c) Itshould be noted that BEFARe is a member of the interna-tional INEE expert group on further development of mini-mum standards in emergency education.

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Teachers, Teacher Training and Professional Developmentin BEFARe

7Chapter

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Teachers, Teacher Training and

Professional Developmentin BEFARe

This chapter summarizes issues related to the work and thoughts of teachers in general and inparticular in refugee education. We discuss teacher training, training of trainers (ToT) and pro-fessional development issues. BEFARe’s extensive work with development and production ofteaching materials is examined. As a leading organization in refugee education in Pakistan

BEFARe’s special role and responsibility in coordination and cooperation with other organiza-tions is also reviewed.

When discussing professional development issues, some critical aspects are raised regarding whythe results in refugee education and in teacher training were not even better than they actuallywere. This is not withstanding the good work that was done but it is trying to draw lessons forthe future and for current refugee situations elsewhere. It may be fair to ask more critical ques-tions of BEFARe than other implementing partners. Perhaps we have a right to expect particu-

larly high professional standards from BEFARe, the world’s largest refugee educationproject/organization, with sizeable resources from donors?

We draw attention to the asset that BEFARe represents for future work for refugees/returneesand additional target groups in Pakistan due to its breadth of experience and high level of com-petence. In this chapter we focus on BEFARe’s foundation being built on its professional expert-ise in teacher training, implementation of educational programmes for children and adults, andthe related administrative and organization expertise. Building on the past and exploring newavenues through systematic R&D work, we believe that BEFARe has the potential to attract

funding and play a major role in education and other development fields in the years to come.

In order to give the reader a feeling of closeness to the issues discussed and “get to know” someof the actors, we present several interviews with teachers who have been trained in BEFARe’sschools and have become teachers in the organization. We also cite older experts working as

teachers, head teachers and trainers of trainers.1

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1. Education for refugees andordinary situations is to a greatextent similar, especially when therefugee situation no longer is ashort-term emergency situationbut becomes a medium or long-term/permanent situation, wheremany pupils attend all their schoolyears in refugee schools. In case ofAfghan refugees in Pakistan,including those living in therefugee camps/villages in NorthWest Frontier Province (NWFP),this is the case for the majority.This means that most of the pupilsin the BEFARe schools know noother schools. A number of theteachers have also lived inPakistan all their lives and do notknow first-hand any other lifethan that of being refugees.

2. Although there are manysimilarities in a medium and long-term refugee situation to an ordi-nary life, there are also major dif-ferences; psychologically, econom-ically, socially, etc. To be a refugeepupil and a refugee teacher hasmany different aspects from beinga pupil or teacher in an ordinarysituation. The refugee situation ismuch more demanding for pupilsand teachers.

3. We emphasize both similari-ties and differences in the intro-duction to the chapter aboutrefugee teachers. We also discussit elsewhere in the chapter, espe-cially as related to psychosocial,issues. It should be born in mindthat refugee pupils and their fami-lies may have psychological scarsand experience trauma that canhardly heal. The majority of therefugee teachers share the samebackgrounds as those of the pupilsand their families.

4. Up to forty percent of theteachers can be Pakistanis as per

agreements between Pakistan andAfghanistan, in understandingwith the United Nations refugeeagency UNHCR in order to teachsubjects where it is (or was) diffi-cult to find Afghan teachers. Thepercentage has in recent yearsbeen lower in BEFARe's schools,about thirty percent. Since contactwith and some degree of integra-tion with the host-country is seenas important in any refugee situa-tion, it is always important that acertain percentage of the teacherscome from the host country.

5. As per universally acceptedrules, specified in UNHCR's FieldGuidelines (Geneva, 2003), theprimary school curriculum and themedium of instruction shall as arule follow that of the refugees'home country. Some adjustmentsare always good, especially whenthe refugee situation is long-term.For example, it should be realizedthat in Pakistan, Urdu languageand some cultural knowledge isimportant to any person who livesin the country for a long time.

6. In NWFP, the majority of therefugees are Pashtuns, thus theycome from similar ethnic back-grounds and speak the same lan-guage as the majority of the peo-ple in NWFP and Peshawar. Thereare some refugees whose mothertongue is Dari (Persian),Afghanistan's second largest lan-guage, and some others who comefrom minority ethnic and languagegroups.

7. Teachers in refugee situationshave to take all the above psycho-logical, cultural, ethnic, linguisticand other aspects into considera-tion in order to be good teachers.Henceforth, we pose the question:Refugee teacher, and impossibletask?

8. Refugee teachers need bettereducation, teaching materials andequipment than what ordinaryteachers need. In emergency situa-tions, which in theory are sup-posed to be short-term, the cir-cumstances are different. Refugeeteachers have to do with less thanordinary teachers. Even goodschools like those run by BEFARehave lower per pupil unit costthan what is advisable. Will thesituation change in future? That isour hope, simply that it willbecome unacceptable to give lessto those who have lost everythingand need more than those wholive in ordinary, peaceful andwell-organized situations.

9. We have given limited atten-tion to school buildings in thisbook. Nevertheless, good class-rooms and other facilities are con-sidered important to ascertain agood teaching-learning environ-ment benefiting teachers andpupils. BEFARe emphasizes thisand includes libraries and otherfacilities in the list of facilities;BEFARe's six sub-centers aretherefore also resource centers.

10. The responsibility for erect-ing school buildings falls outsideBEFARe's direct responsibility,which rests mainly with the com-munity (once the initial 'tent-school phase' is over). The schoolmanagement committees (SMCs),supported by the parents andteachers, have a major role inmaintenance issues and improvingphysical infrastructure, such asbuilding additional classrooms,leveling the playgrounds, buildinglatrines for girls, etc.

Box 7.1 Refugee Teachers - Background

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1. Eight out of ten refugeeteachers come to the job by coin-cidence. They have no previousteacher training and they had noplans to become teachers untilthey are thrown into exile asrefugees. However, refugee teach-ers usually have secondary educa-tion, not always completed due towar and other circumstances.

2. Very few refugee teachershave completed teacher trainingcollege or university degrees ineducation. Some havetechnical/college or higher educa-tion in other subjects than educa-tion. Refugees with teacher train-ing and teaching experience aregreat resources for refugee com-munities and will usually beemployed as head teachers, man-agers and trainers.

3. In the Afghan refugee com-munities, female teachers on aver-age have shorter schooling thantheir male counterparts but theyare often as good or even better intheir work than their male col-leagues as measured by theirpupils' performance (examresults). Female teachers are oftenparticularly academically gifted

young women who are barredfrom continuing their educationfor traditional cultural reasons.

4. In order to cater for girlswho for traditional cultural rea-sons, or for example because theschool is too far away, BEFAReruns home schools for girls.

5. Unlike other organizations,BEFARe also runs home schoolsfor boys who may have droppedout of ordinary schools or forother reasons can only attendhome schools, usually because theschool day in the home school isonly about half that of a regularschool day, which gives the pupilstime to earn money the rest of theday.

6. Sometimes, BEFARe's homeschools are for boys and girls, andthe teacher can be a man or awoman. Also other organizationsrun such schools for girls only,with female teachers. The relative-ly small classes and closely moni-tored learning environment arereasons for good performance inhome schools.

7. About ¼ - 1/3 of the teach-ers in BEFARe's schools arewomen. Relatively few of themanagers have been women butdue to deliberate efforts thesehave led to clear increase inrecent years. There are morewomen in the non-formal educa-tion programme than in the for-mal education programme.

8. Refugee teachers are paid anincentive but not a full salary.This distinction is important tothe main donor, UNHCR, as itunderlines that the responsibilityfor education in the camps/vil-lages rests with the community.Currently, the monthly incentiveis Rs. 4,200 for a teacher and Rs.4,500 for a head teacher. Ateacher/instructor in the non-for-mal education programme is paidRs. 1,000 per month. Providedthat the parents can afford it, theyare expected to top up the teach-ers' salaries. In addition, they areexpected to establish a SchoolManagement Committee (SMC)and pay contributions to mainte-nance, etc.

Box 4.2 Who become Refugee Teachers?

Imran Zeb Khan Ingeborg Breines Jurgen Wintermeier

Partners in DevelopmentIn addition to the teachers and head teacher, BEFARe works with a number of other partners.

These photos include a small selection.

UNCHR UNESCO ACBAR/ARICGovt. of Pakistan

Hasim Utkan Nancy Hatch Dupree

GTZ

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GOOD TEACHERS EQUAL GOODSCHOOLS

What makes some schools become good schoolswhile others remain average or poor?Researchers have given this question greaterattention in recent years and have isolated differ-ent factors in order to answer this question. Theyhave concluded that the most important factor inmaking schools good schools is the human ele-ment. It is good teachers and head teachers thatmake schools into good schools. Maybe parentsand educationists have always known howimportant teachers are and researchers have onlydocumented it through systematic studies andgiven it an official stamp?

Parents everywhere know how importantteachers are. They play key roles in developingchildren’s liking (or the opposite) for variousschool subjects and their general development ofvalues and interests.2 Aside from the teach-ers, parents, sisters and brothers, other familymembers or extended family and close friendsplay key roles in the children’s formative years.Writing on the topic of childrearing, the formerAmerican First Lady Hillary Rodham Clintonused the phrase “It takes a village” as title of oneof her books.3

The second most important factor in makinggood schools is that the teachers are generallywell regarded in the community.

The third factor is also essential, notably therelevancy of the curriculum and the availabilityand quality of teaching materials, i.e., textbooks,teachers’ guides and supplementary materials.

The fourth factor is the physical facilities ofthe school, which influences the teaching and

learning of subject-matters, and includes aspectssuch as that the classroom is not overcrowdedand that there are some special rooms and facili-ties for chemistry, physics, sports, etc. Thisincludes such aspects as a well-kept and cleanschool yard, for example, with some flowers andbushes, playgrounds and sports fields, and otherthings which create a pleasant environment anddevelops the child’s attitudes to maintaining andlooking after the environment around him or herand develops aesthetic values. Washrooms mustbe available.4

In this Chapter we shall focus on refugeeteachers. Before doing so, let us pay tribute toteachers everywhere. To be a teacher is one ofthe most difficult, important and demandingprofessions a person can chose. In the case of arefugee teacher, it is often not really by choice,but rather by chance. It is perhaps a bit similar toan arranged marriage, which is common inAfghanistan, Pakistan and elsewhere in theregion. After “the marriage”, i.e. after the teach-ers have started their work, they usually begin tolike their new situation. Many teachers that wehave spoken to in the BEFARe schools and inother refugee schools run by various NGOs andself-help refugee groups, often speak passionate-ly about their work as teachers.

CURRENT AND FUTURE NUMBEROF TEACHERS IN BEFARESCHOOLS

In BEFARe’s schools today, about one third ofthe head teachers are women and a slightly lowerpercentage of the classroom teachers. Well over

Section IREFUGEE TEACHER – AN IMPOSSIBLE JOB?

one third of the pupils are girls and the percent-age has been increasing.5 These are majorachievements during the recent years and resultof deliberate efforts.

BEFARe has had over 2,500 teachers in all,but since 2005 it has begun reducing the numberof teachers in accordance with reduced fundingfrom UNHCR, which is the major donor. In2005, BEFARe has had to lay off a large numberof its teachers, about 800.

UNHCR sees the reduced funding in thelight of the ongoing repatriation of refugees. Inpractice, relatively few refugees from the campshave returned to Afghanistan.6 During 2005reduced number of teachers often led to verylarge class sizes in some of BEFARe’s schools.There were sometimes as many as 100 pupils perclass, although the average class size was 40-50pupils. Large class sizes led to difficult workingconditions for teachers and pupils, and parentsbecame worried about pupils wanting to dropout of school as they felt they were not learningmuch, or the classes were disorganized. Parentsdo not know how to occupy their children andfear they may get involved in antisocial orextremist activities.7

Difficult working conditions will worsen inthe future, as BEFARe and the other implement-ing partners have to lay off teachers in the nextfew years. It is assumed that the refugees willreturn home to Afghanistan. Reduction of servic-es in the camps is seen as a ‘mild push factor’ toencourage the refugees to return home. It isuncertain how soon the repatriation will takeplace, or if many refugees, instead of returninghome, will find it better to stay in Pakistan’surban areas.

Many factors influence refugees’ decisions asregards repatriation, and we should rememberthat such decisions are difficult to make, espe-cially for the head of the household and thebreadwinner/s.

Availability of education, especially at pri-mary and secondary levels, at home inAfghanistan, is one factor that will influence howfast the refugees will return home. Other factors

are also important, such as housing and access toarable land (free of landmines), other employ-ment, security, health services, and modern facil-ities such as electricity and transport. It should benoted that refugees in the camps who have beenable to send their children to primary schoolshave enjoyed a life at a higher development levelthan what they will find in Afghanistan now, orbe able to experience for themselves and theirchildren in the foreseeable future. Can we blameresponsible parents for delaying their returnhome?8

As for the refugee teachers from Pakistan,especially those from good schools like those runby BEFARe and other implementing partnersreceiving funding from UNHCR, it is hoped thatthey can gain employment in the education sec-tor in Afghanistan. Teachers from some of thegood self-help schools may also stand a chance ofbeing employed as teachers in Afghanistan.

THE DATABASE OF AFGHANREFUGEE TEACHERS INPAKISTAN

In 2002-2003 BEFARe coordinated the develop-ment of a database of Afghan Refugee Teachersin Pakistan. The database includes nearly 5,000refugee teachers in Pakistan, the majority workfor BEFARe and the remaining ones come fromeleven other organizations implementing refugeeeducation projects in Pakistan. Urban refugeeteachers were not included in the databasebecause of capacity and cost limitations.

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Teachers also need to be pupils. This photo is from aTraining Seminar for female teachers in Peshawar. 2005.

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At the handing over ceremony in Kabul, thefollowing organizations were present in additionto BEFARe: GTZ, the Embassy of Germany,UNHCR and UNESCO. Afghanistan’s AssistantMinister of Education at the time, Professor M.Moeen Marastial, officiated at the occasion.

BEFARe and the other partners, includingUNESCO, which was providing advice on thework, hoped that the Afghan education authori-ties would make immediate use of the database asthe country was and still is in dire need of trainedand experienced teachers. In May 2003,Professor Marastial suggested that the countryneeded 100 -150,000 teachers and that over90% of the existing teachers working in thecountry’s schools lacked up-to-date training. Therefugee teachers from Pakistan were seen as aresource from the point of view of the Afghaneducation authorities considering the greatshortage of experienced teachers in the country.Many of the refugee teachers in the databasehave ten years or more experience but rarelyhold a complete teacher’s diploma.9

Professor Marastial said that he was particu-larly glad of the database, which his Ministry hadalso taken part in developing, including approv-ing the questionnaire used for data collection.

For various reasons, however, including lackof a budget to employ additional teachers andlack of proactive, common approaches by theUnited Nations and non-governmental organiza-

tions in Afghanistan, the database has not beenused properly. BEFARe’s leaders and otherrefugee education experts find that the databaseshould be considered a “good practice” and canform a model for what should be done in otherrefugee situations when the time of repatriationcomes.10

Some of UNESCO’s policy and strategy documents in emer-gency education, named an “EFA Flagship”.

Some of the reports from the Teachers Database project,coordinated by GTZ-BEFARe, supported by UNESCO,UNICEF and UNHCR.

Holgar Munsch handing over the Database to Hon. Prof.Marastial in Kabul, May 2003.

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Below, we shall present excerpts from interviewswith a handful of Afghan teachers in BEFAReschools and hear in their own words somethingof their life stories and their thoughts – abouttheir past, their current situation and theirfuture. The brief excerpts can only give usglimpses of the teachers’ experiences and whatthey have been through in their professional andprivate lives.

Let us be reminded that there are manyteachers with similar life stories to those that wepresent here. The specific situations will vary, butmany aspects are often very similar. Whether it isright to say that we can generalize on the basis ofa limited number of interviews may be to go a bitfar. We should also remember that each refugee -and each refugee teacher and pupil - is unique,with his or her own life story. Recall also thatthere are about 25 million people in Afghanistan;the wars have lasted for more than 25 years;some 8-9 million people fled the country tobecome refugees; millions have been, or are,internally displaced persons (IDPs) because ofwars and drought.

Each person, each teacher, has been affectedand has his or her story to tell. Most stories arenegative; people have scars and have been trau-matized, but there are also positive experiencesin the midst of tragedy. The teachers tell aboutthemselves and they tell about their pupils.11

TWO REFUGEE TEACHERS WHOCAME TO PAKISTAN AFTER11 SEPTEMBER 2001

“We are glad to help in this miserablesituation”

Since the 11 September 2001 events in New Yorkand Washington were so unique in the world’shistory, and soon affected the countries ofAfghanistan and Pakistan, we shall dwell on thestories of two Afghan refugee teachers who cameto Pakistan after the “9/11” events and the inva-sion of Afghanistan.

Later, we shall present some other refugeeteachers, who have been in Pakistan longer, hav-ing received education away from home and arenow teaching in BEFARe schools. First, excerptsfrom interviews with the two who came after“9/11”.12

The first two teachers we have chosen cameto Pakistan as refugees after the tragic events inthe United States on “9/11”, and the subsequentAmerican led invasion of Afghanistan, whichincluded severe bombardments of the Talibanstronghold areas in Eastern Afghanistan near thePakistani border, to oust the Taliban regime,eliminate its sympathizers, destroy the Al Qaedaterrorist network and apprehend Osama binLaden.

Yet again Afghans had to flee their homecountry due to war. About 300,000 peoplesought refuge in Balochistan Province and theNorth-West Frontier Province (NWFP) inPakistan. Some pupils and teachers attendedBEFARe schools, but most refugees were givenprotection, shelter, food, health services and edu-cation in temporary camps near the border in theso called tribal areas in Pakistan which have tra-ditionally had porous borders with Afghanistanas a result of semi-nomadic lifestyles and liveli-hoods.

The schools that were opened, termed non-formal schools, were run by organizations like

Section IIPROFILES OF AFGHAN REFUGEE TEACHERS

Save the Children (US) in Balochistan andNorwegian Refugee Council (NRC) in KurramAgency in NWFP. Later, some of the pupils andteachers joined BEFARe schools for some time,but most of them have now returned home toAfghanistan, or they have settled in “old camps”or in urban areas. The makeshift camps, whichwere established after “9/11”, were closed in theautumn of 2004, in accordance with agreementsbetween the governments of Pakistan andAfghanistan, in understanding with UNHCR.

There is no doubt that the “9/11” eventschanged the world, and they certainly changedthe situation of Afghan refugees in Pakistan andelsewhere, and the situation in Afghanistan itself.The American led invasion of Afghanistan sup-ported by NATO and other forces, began on18/19 October 2001. It started as a severe warsituation, with major bombardments, and therewas widespread fear of a prolonged war.UNHCR and its implementing partners in educa-tion, including BEFARe, held a number of emer-gency planning meetings and developed contin-gency plans for receiving and providing educa-tion for large numbers of refugees. The highestnumber used in the contingency planning was apossible influx of up to 1.5 million refugees.13

The author of this book coordinated the educa-tion planning in the UNHCR country office inIslamabad.

Pakistan originally wanted the requiredcamps to be established inside Afghanistan, butgave in to allowing temporary camps to be estab-lished across the border in Pakistan. Since theTaliban resistance turned out to be less thanexpected, and in military terms it could only beminimal against the world’s largest and most mod-ern military powers, the direct, major war activi-ties only lasted for a few weeks. However, spotbombings have continued until the present date inan effort to “wipe out” pockets of Taliban resist-ance. The search for Osama bin Laden and MullahOmar goes on. As mentioned above, the numberof post “9/11” refugees who came to Pakistan wasabout 300,000, which in the quarter centuryAfghan refugee crisis was seen as a small number!

AAllaamm GGuull is in his late twenties. InNovember 2001, he came to Balochistan,Pakistan, across the border from SouthernAfghanistan, after the tragic “9/11” event and theAmerican invasion and bombing in Afghanistan.Alam had done his Middle School, Grade 8, inZabool in Afghanistan, and had become arefugee in a temporary refugee camp nearChaman town in Pakistan.

“Life is unpredictable”, Alam, says. “I neverwanted to be a teacher; I always wanted to befree from restrictions in jobs. My family used tolive a peaceful and free life back home as we arenomadic pastoralists rearing livestock. When Igot married, I had to pay ninety sheep and tenmillion Afghanis, our currency in Afghanistan.My brother, who still lives inside Afghanistan,looks after around one hundred sheep that westill have left. If I had not got married, I wouldhave had to do the same as our animals are ourlivelihoods and security.” “Soon after Iarrived in the refugee camp, the NGOs startedrecruiting teachers. I took the test and was cho-sen, but it is a very responsible position to be ateacher, and I feel I have a lot to do. You knowthese children have already been through a lot ofhardship and they need a lot of guidance andhelp, and they need to focus on education anduse their energy in positive ways.”

“I am now glad to be in Pakistan and I ambusy in my job and I would rather stay in thiscountry than in Afghanistan as long as there is

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Alam Gul

war and insecurity at home. Still, one day, I hopethat my family and all these children can gohome and live among their own people in theirown land.”

After we spoke to Alam the situation inAfghanistan has improved and the camps inPakistan have been closed. His wish for theschool children to return has come true.14

AAbbdduull SSaammaadd, who was in his late thirtiescame to Balochistan following the “9/11” eventsand the American invasion and he became arefugee teacher. “Wars are devastating”, Abdulsays. “I lost my father and my nineteen year oldbrother in the Soviet war. I have seen many peo-ple I loved taken from me in the blink of an eye.I have seen places I cherished turn into dust infront of my eyes. My children are displaced andwe live at the mercy of others, and I and so manyother Afghans have had to bear this due to nofault of our own.”

“I have seen better days”, Abdul says. ”I hada medical clinic that was burnt down during thecivil war. During the Taliban time, I was workingas a school teacher and also running a pharmacyshop, but during the Taliban time, I left myteaching job and only ran the pharmacy shop.You almost had to hide a university education atthat time otherwise the Talibans might comeafter you. They only believed in religious teach-ing in the madrassas, not ordinary schools.”

“As a refugee in Pakistan, I am glad to beable to help out with school work in the refugeecamp and it is a relief for me to keep my mind off

many sad things, and it is very important that thechildren do the same. Our children need to learnabout other things apart from wars, conflicts anddestruction. I think the school has brought posi-tive change to the general atmosphere in thecamp. I have eighty children in my school; twen-ty-four girls have enrolled, and I am teachingthem together with the boys.”

“Although I have had more than my fairshare of sad experiences in my life, I still look tothe future with optimism. I know that Afghanswill be able to return home one day and live inpeace in their own homeland. I know my ownson will grow up and see a different Afghanistan.Otherwise God would be unjust to us, and that Icannot believe.”15

OLD PUPILS – YOUNG TEACHERS

In the autumn of 2004, at one of BEFARe’s manyrefresher courses for teachers, we had the oppor-tunity to gather a group of five former pupils,who have now become teachers in BEFAReschools.16 We wanted to learn from them some-thing about refugee education in the BEFAReschools in the past and present - and also getsome opinions about the future. In addition, wewanted to know something about the teachers’backgrounds, current situations and plans.

First, we spoke with the teachers as a group,and as one would assume, the men were moretalkative than the women! That would be expect-ed in an Afghan context when men and womenattend the same meeting. It would simply nothave been polite of the women if they had spo-ken more than the men or outshone the men.Our group of teachers was young, but the menwere on average older and had longer teachingexperience than the women. That also con-tributed to the women listening more thanexpressing their own opinions. It should beadded, though, that in other situations when wehave discussed issues with Afghan women theyare not short of opinions and knowledge, andthey are usually not shy of expressing their views.

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Abdul Samad

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Old Pupils - Young Teachers

In addition to the group interview and dis-cussion, we held separate interviews with each ofthe teachers later, and visited some of theschools. We also talked to a number of otherteachers during training courses and visits totheir schools. We attended some lessons in theirclassrooms and got an impression of the teachingmethods they followed, the pupil-teacher rela-tionships and the general school atmosphere.

In connection with the work on this bookand our earlier work in refugee education inPakistan, we have spoken to tens, maybe hun-dreds of Afghan refugee teachers. The sample offive teachers whom we held in-depth interviewswith, and spoke with on many occasions, can beseen as typical examples of the young Afghanrefugee teachers in Pakistan and specifically inBEFARe schools.

Although not a scientific sample we still seethe teachers we have spoken to as representingthe broader group of Afghan refugee teachers inPakistan. We will present excerpts from the inter-views with the five teachers, and some otherolder teachers, in this chapter. Naturally, otherdata from other sources will also be includedwhen relevant.

Our group of five teachers is interesting inmany ways, in particular since these teachers are“old pupils” who have now become “youngteachers”. They have all had to grow up in exile,in a foreign country, although just a neighbour-ing country with people of the same, or quiteclosely related ethnic backgrounds. They allcome from homes which have appreciated edu-cation. They were particularly academically gift-ed and hard working when they were pupils.They have been supported in their endeavors,and have themselves contributed to shaping theircurrent situation as is often the case in unpre-dictable refugee situations.

The support of parents and immediate fami-lies of the five “old pupils – young teachers”should be particularly emphasized. Furthermore,the importance of the aid organizations andimplementing partners in education in theNorth-West Frontier Province (NWFP) should

also be mentioned. BEFARe is the major organi-zation for primary education but there are alsoother important organizations, such as theInternational Rescue Committee (IRC) and thePakistan Government’s Commissionerate forAfghan Refugees (CAR). We mention those inparticular since they have been involved in therunning of secondary schools for boys and girls.IRC has a special focus on girls’ through itsFemale Education Programme (FEP).17

In mid-2005 the CAR secondary schools andmany of the IRC secondary schools had to beclosed due to lack of donor funding, notablyfrom the main donor UNHCR.

Let us remind the reader that for a youngrefugee boy or girl, especially a girl, to have hadthe opportunity to attend secondary education,makes him or her one of the “select few” sinceless than 5% of refugee children have the oppor-tunity to continue with education after primarylevel. This is the case among Afghan refugees inPakistan, as it is among refugees in other devel-oping countries in Asia and Africa.18

The opportunity for a young refugee boy orgirl to continue with secondary education isbased on several factors. Good academic per-formance at completion of primary school is thebasic requirement. Then the parent’s interest insending the son or daughter to secondary schoolis essential. The head teacher and other teachers,sometimes with members of the school manage-ment committee, often play a major role in dis-cussing with the parents why the young childshould continue with schooling rather than beginearning some money, and, especially for theyoung girls, getting ready for marriage. The par-ent’s economic situation also plays a role, as thepoorest of the poor cannot afford the extra costof sending a child to secondary school.Sometimes they may just allow one of the boys inthe family to get secondary education.

Our group of five “old pupils – young teach-ers” belong to a sizeable group of young Afghansin Pakistan who have had a good upbringing,done well at school, and have persistently madeuse of the education opportunities given to them

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by the host country, Pakistan, and the variousimplementing partners providing primary andsecondary education. In addition, many of themhave attended English language courses andcomputer courses provided by private schools inPeshawar city or in some of the larger and moremodern refugee camps.19

TWO YOUNG FEMALE TEACHERSAbida Sharifa and Nazifa

AAbbiiddaa and NNaazziiffaa are approaching 20 yearsof age.20 They have been teaching sine theautumn of 2003 in BEFARE School No. 27 inJalozai Camp, about one and half hours’ drivefrom Peshawar. Jalozai is one of the largerrefugee camps and it is also considered one of themore conservative ones. Our young teachers aredressed accordingly, with a dupatta headscarf, tocover their hair and most of the face. When wemet them at a course in Peshawar they were bothin beautiful white cotton scarves over the shalvarcamise wide trouser dress which is standardclothing in Pakistan and in Afghanistan. In thecamp, they both wore black dupattas and shalvarcamises. Interestingly enough, the black head-scarves were slightly more transparent than thewhite ones and we had no problems noticing thebeautiful and smiling women behind the scarves.

“I want to study medicine at JalalabadUniversity in Afghanistan”, Abida says. “And I

want to study engineering at the same universi-ty”, Nazifa says.

Abida’s father is a medical doctor, so per-haps the choice of profession wasn’t so difficultfor her. Nazifa does not come from a middle-class family. Her father was a labourer evenbefore they became refugees and he is now run-ning a shop in the refugee camp in Pakistan.Nazifa’s mother has two brothers in exile inEurope, one in England and one in Russia. Bothyoung women come from relatively large fami-lies with many brothers and sisters, and as isquite typical, their brothers have been givenmore education than their sisters, and the youngwomen’s mothers are illiterate. As would beexpected, both young women have done extraor-dinarily well at exams. Nazifa got first class in allsubjects at secondary school.

Abida and Nazifa have clear informationabout their planned studies in Afghanistan. Theywill first have to sit for entrance exams and ifthey succeed, they will take up their plannedstudies. Young unmarried women can only staywith their parents or other close relatives.Hence, Abida and Nazifa have made arrange-ments with suitable male relatives in Jalalabadwith whom they can stay during their studies.

“One of the reasons why I want to studyengineering is that I would like to earn well”,Nazifa says. “Then I can help the rest of my fam-ily”, she says.

Neither Abida nor Nazifa have any plans toget married soon. They can only hope that theirfamilies are not in a hurry to get them marriedoff either, because that would end any dreamsabout further education. We discuss back andforth about such future issues with the youngwomen, and they have no problems reflecting onthem, even with two middle-aged men, oneAfghan and one European.

We make a few jokes about possible candi-dates, like a female doctor could marry a maledoctor, and they could establish a medical prac-tice together, and treat both male and femalepatients. Abida would like to know what advicewe would give. “Is it good for a husband and

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Abida Sharifa Nazifa

wife to have the same professions?” she asks. As with most things in real life, we say that

there are no easy answers, and our advice is thatthe issues must be thought about and discussedwith the future husband, if the question shouldarise. “And what if the wife is more successful inher career than the husband? Will men inAfghanistan – or in Europe – be able to acceptthat?” we ask.

We also suggest that Nazifa should considerwhat kind of engineer she wants to be. “There iscertainly need for construction work and build-ing engineers”, she says, and she wants to help inreconstruction of her war torn country. We sug-gest that maybe it is easier for a woman to takechemical engineering and go into food process-ing, for example, than the typically male domi-nated fields, or maybe she wants to go into teach-ing and research.

Neither the visitors nor the young womenwho are currently refugee teachers, can answerthese questions, as their answers only lie in thefuture.

The discussion goes on for a good while, andit strikes us that this kind of discussion couldhave been held anywhere in the world, not onlyin the head teacher’s office in a poor, conserva-tive Afghan refugee camp in Pakistan. It wouldnot have been very different if we had been in aschool in the country’s modern capital city ofIslamabad, or Lahore or Karachi, or perhapseven in Europe.

It strikes us that Afghanistan will changewhen young, educated and competent refugeeslike Abida and Nazifa return home toAfghanistan from Pakistan. They have obtained abroad and reflective world outlook from goodtraining and work experience in BEFARe’sschools in Pakistan, and from exposure to mod-ern and traditional ideas in the refugee camps,the city of Peshawar, Pakistani mass media andliterature.

The women appear traditional. Yet, they arealso modern Afghan Muslim refugee women. Wehope that they can keep their combination ofmodern and traditional identity.

“I am not yet attending any computer train-ing course, because I am still attending anEnglish language course in Peshawar. It is a longway to travel after school and I can only manageone course at a time”, Nazifa says.

“To be a teacher is demanding and difficult”,the young women agree. “In some classes we canhave a large number of pupils, sometimes asmany as 50, while in other classes, we have only15 or 20 pupils.”

They also agree that today people under-stand that education is important. “When wewent to school here in the refugee camp therewere very few women teachers, and very fewschools for girls. Now there are lots”, they say. “Ihad one teacher who was very nice”, Nazifaadds. “When I teach I try to remind myself ofhow she was doing things. I think it is veryimportant that teachers are good role models fortheir pupils.”

THREE YOUNG MALE TEACHERSDinar Gul, Syed Javed Ahmad Murad and GulRahman

The three young male teachers all teach inBEFARe schools in Kacha Garhi Camp, nearPeshawar.21

DDiinnaarr is the youngest of the three, justover 21, but already a seasoned teacher, and hehas even been a head teacher in a self-help schoolbefore he joined BEFARe. He is an early starter

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Dinar Gul Syed Javed A. Murad Gul Rahman

in other ways too, having got married severalyears ago. He is now a father of two children.Dinar was born in Pakistan after his family cameto Pakistan soon after the Soviet Union invadedAfghanistan. His father worked as a labourer inthe oil wells in Saudi Arabia for 14 years.

GGuull is 28 years old. Like Dinar, he hasgrown up and been educated in Pakistan as hisfamily became refugees in the early 1980s. He,too, had teaching experience from a private self-help school before he joined BEFARe as ateacher. He has attended several teacher trainingcourses at BEFARe. “But my intention was tobecome a doctor”, Gul says. “I studied at theAfghan University in Peshawar for more thantwo years but then the university was closed after“9/11” and most of the students moved home toAfghanistan. I was already working, in additionto studying, since I had married. Now I am thefather of three children. I can not move toAfghanistan yet”, he says, “because I don’t haveany job there.”

”My first priority is to support my family. Iam still dreaming of becoming a doctor, ormaybe a secondary school teacher. But teachingis not well paid, so even now I have to work inthe afternoons in a private company, which dealswith the transport business”, he explains andadds that there is no time even for part-timestudies.

JJaavveedd is the only bachelor among thethree. This has given him better opportunities forhigher education. He is 26 years old and is theonly one who holds a university degree, a BA inPashto. He has also taken English languagecourses, a series of advanced computer trainingcourses and several of BEFARe’s teacher trainingcourses. His father is a head teacher in one of thebest BEFARe schools in Kacha Garhi Camp. Wefind that teaching was probably an obvious jobchoice for a young, modern Afghan refugee likeJaved, but maybe not forever?

Although he has grown up and been educat-ed in Pakistan, Javed says that he is determinedto return home to Afghanistan in the future. Hehas visited his home area near Jalalabad city, a

few hours drive from the Pakistan border, manytimes especially after the fall of the Talibanregime. His father tried to return home someyears ago, but had to give it up after somemonths and returned to Pakistan again.

“Still, I believe it is just a matter of timebefore we can return. Security is important, espe-cially for older people, women and children. Iam also concerned about security, but to me agood job, affordable housing, and visibleimprovements in the social sectors are moreimportant. I must be able to see that the countryis moving in the right direction before I decideon returning home. As returnees we must feelwelcome to help in rebuilding our country,together with the majority who lived at homethroughout the war years”, Javed says:

“Security is important, but you can not waituntil the country is totally safe and secure. Weare recovering from decades of wars and a lot ofweapons are in circulation, and there is a wholeculture of using the weapons. Then there is thehuge problem with poppy opium production,illegal sale and connected crime. In spite of allthese problems, I think that most Afghans wouldlike to return home when it becomes possible todo so”, Javed says.

“I would also like to say that there are agood number of young Afghans like me, whohave grown up in good homes, have been able toget good education and develop healthy inter-ests. I feel lucky, in many ways, in spite of thefact that my family has been quite poor. Manyrefugees and also Pakistanis have lived underpoorer conditions but somehow we have keptour self-respect. My thanks go to my parents, rel-atives and friends, to local and internationalrefugee organizations like BEFARe, to Pakistaniorganizations and the University of Peshawar. Iam grateful to many Pakistanis who have helpedus without expecting anything back. Even whenI return home to Afghanistan I will still feel veryclose to Pakistan and especially people in thePeshawar area.”

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SOME GENERALIZATIONS

Our “old pupils – young teachers” agree thatthere have been quite marked changes in teach-ing practices over the years. The young maleteachers mention the same aspects as the youngfemale teachers, notably that the child has beenput more in the center in recent years. Thatmeans that there is more interaction between theteacher and the pupil, and that pupils are encour-aged to ask questions and develop their creativeand critical mind. Today, young teachers are alsoencouraging group work, something which wasvery rare some years ago.

“Well, it is still not common because of thelarge class sizes, with up to 50-60 pupils in tinyclassrooms, where the pupils sit on mats on thefloor. Practically it is difficult to organize groupwork”, the teachers tell us.

“Sometimes we know better ways of teach-ing but we still follow old-fashioned methods,simply because that is an easier way out”, Dinarsays.

“However, I still feel younger teachers aredifferent from older teachers”, Dinar says. “Or,maybe I should say that most teachers today aredifferent from the teachers I had when I went toprimary school 10-15 years ago”, he correctshimself. “Teachers today are much more flexible,informal and democratic. When I went to schoolthe teachers often used the stick. They also did-n’t ask if the pupils had understood and learned.They didn’t give and correct homework veryoften. Some of the teachers would often comelate in the morning, too.”

Dinar goes on listing a row of negative atti-tudes and practices from his school days.

“Often it was because our teachers didn’tknow better, but sometimes it was also becausethey lacked textbooks and other teaching materi-als for the pupils. They also didn’t have teachers’guidebooks. All this made it difficult to be a goodteacher. The old teachers focused on controllingthe class.”

“I believe the teacher training courses haveplayed a major role in changing the teachers’ atti-

tudes. In addition, the parents take interest intheir children’s education in a different waytoday, unlike when I went to school”, Gul says.“The parents have realized that education isimportant, especially for the boys but also for thegirls, and they don’t just want the religious teach-ing of the Quran schools, the madrassahs.Parents have realized that their children needreligious and moral education, but they also needother secular subjects.”

“It is always important that the parents showtheir children that they are interested in what thechildren learn at school. It is also important thatthey keep in contact with the teachers”, Gulstresses.22

The young teachers we have spoken to werecritical of the old-fashioned and harsh ways thatmany old teachers used in the passed. We hopethat they have given a true picture of the realityin the schools today, and not just an ideal or the-oretical picture. We asked some of the BEFAResenior staff and head teachers about that. Mr.Mujadidi, who is one of the most senior andexperienced Afghan teachers and managers inthe BEFARe office says that he thinks the youngteachers point at a general trend, and he alsothinks that the young teachers are a product oftheir own time.

“They have new and more democratic atti-tudes, and above all”, Mujadidi emphasizes, “Ibelieve we see the results of the pedagogicaltraining we have given in numerous basic andrefresher courses. The master/lead trainer cours-es and materials, such as the teachers’ guides,form very important elements in the moderniza-tion process.”

“In general I agree with the young teachers,but I would also defend my own generation, atleast modify the impression somewhat”,Mujadidi says. “Those who were refugee teach-ers twenty years ago were from a different time.Secondly, many of them did not have a properbackground in teaching. They had very limitedteacher-training courses, and a good number ofthem had poor secondary education. But I thinkmost of the old generation has changed today.”23

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TEACHER TRAINING COURSES

BEFARe organizes a number of pre-service andin-service training courses for its teachers. The in-service courses are often referred to as “refresh-er courses”. Since the original pre-service train-ing courses are only of a few weeks’ duration,there is a great need and interest in the refreshercourses amongst teachers and managers. Themaster/lead trainers also need to update theirknowledge, skills and pedagogical orientationand more advanced courses have been organizedfor them, especially during recent years.24

The pre-sservice courses cover the basics ofhow to organise and manage a school class, relateto students and work with colleagues and par-ents. Assessment, examination and reportingprocedures are given attention. Orientationabout how to use teaching materials is a majorpart of the pre-service courses. General orienta-tion about teaching methods and pedagogicalissues is also given some attention. Child psy-chology and general introduction to “teachingunder stress”, and how best to work with trau-matized children and families, have become cen-tral topics in recent years as greater understand-ing of the broader psychosocial aspects ofrefugee education has developed. Peace educa-tion and conflict resolution, environmental

awareness and gender issues are yet other exam-ples of new topics that have been included. Ofthese cross-cutting subjects environmental aware-ness probably still lags behind.25

In general, it should be emphasized that alarge number of refugees suffer from variousdegrees of post-traumatic disorders. Prolongedtime spent in exile also leads to additional psy-chosocial problems. However, psychosocialissues, clinical and social psychology, special edu-cation and many related sub-disciplines are fieldslacking specialists. Staff with more general andbroad knowledge are also lacking. As we havepointed out elsewhere in this book, these compe-tencies cannot be taught in a matter of days orweeks as they are highly specialized subjectsrequiring longer training, studies and practicalexperience. Life experience, common sense andwisdom gained through difficulties whichrefugees and poor people have more than a fairshare of are important elements but cannot sub-stitute for systematic educational studies.26

A couple of weeks’ of pre-service trainingcannot make justice to all the themes and topicsthat a refugee teacher needs to know. It shouldbe appreciated that teaching refugees is oftenmore demanding than teaching in ordinaryschools. Yet, the training that is being offeredremains limited even in BEFARe’s good formal

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Experienced refugee teachers in one of BEFARe’s boys’ schools in Jalozai Camp, NWFP, 2005. At the center is the HeadTeacher with Mujadidi Agha Shah (white beard and glasses) from the BEFARe Head office in Peshawar.

education programme, which has always givenattention to teacher training.27

Many improvements have been made overthe years but since the duration of the pre-serv-ice training courses remain short, there is a limitto the improvements that can be made. That hasbeen done for teachers in non-formal education,with good results, but then we need to bear inmind that they had very limited pre-service train-ing earlier.

It is hoped that in future, all refugee teach-ers, anywhere in the world, will receive morethan a few weeks’ of pre-service training, whichis usually based on secondary education (mostlyhigher secondary education but sometimes onlylower secondary education).

In a few cases, refugee teachers in BEFAReschools have attended ordinary teacher training,or other college or university education, prior tobecoming refugee teachers.28 To the extent suchcandidates are identified, and they are willing totake on teaching in refugee schools, they willsoon be allocated more responsible tasks, such ashead teachers, master/lead trainers and supervi-sors.

The pre-service training for refugee teachersremains limited in time and scope because thedonors have not been willing to allocate therequired funds for longer and better training. In-service training courses and classroom observa-tion and advice play major roles. In-service train-ing is positive in itself, even if the pre-servicetraining had been longer. BEFARe, and otherimplementing partners in the refugee camps,have managed to improve significantly the in-service training courses provided in recent years.Naturally, without donors allocating funds suchimprovements could not have been made. Still, itshould be remembered that the training is far fromadequate, especially the pre-service training.

As mentioned elsewhere in this book, animportant Canadian funded project has beenimplemented over recent years, focusing on pro-fessional development, gender issues and otherpedagogical fields. The project, known as theCIDA-AREP, involves three implementing part-

ners, of which BEFARe is the largest. The otherpartners are the International Rescue Committee(IRC) and Ockenden International (OI). TheUnited Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO) in Islamabadhas been included to provide professional adviceand assist in coordination. UNESCO andUNHCR were involved in initiating and plan-ning the project with CIDA’s ProgrammeSupport Unit (PSU), in Islamabad. The strengthof this project has been its emphasis on develop-ing understanding for professionalism in teachertraining and in the teaching profession, includinggender issues as integral elements. 29

The in-sservice training courses cover varioustopics and the teachers can enroll in courses theyfeel a special need to take, or the head teacher ora supervisor recommend the teachers take forspecific training. It should be mentioned thatalthough the systematic training courses areshort, and even if teachers keep taking coursesover several years, cumulatively they rarelyamount to more than a total of a couple ofmonths training. They cover various areas, butare not real “modules” that can be used forbuilding a complete, recognizable teacher train-ing diploma.30

In addition to these training courses, thehead teachers and supervisors give advice and tryto help the individual teachers in improving theirperformance. BEFARe also organizes trainingcourses for the head teachers, managers and mas-ter/lead trainers. A supervisor and head teacher ata school undertake classroom observation, andon that basis, specific comments and advice aregiven. Since teaching is in many ways a verypractical profession, which can only be learnedon-the-job, classroom observation is essential. Ateacher may keep doing certain things excellent-ly, while he or she may also keep repeating thesame mistakes in other fields. A teacher mayignore certain themes and topics which he or shefinds difficult to teach, or because he or she isignorant about the topic. Teachers, like otherpeople, may have good habits and bad habits, butas professional educators they must be made

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aware of their strengths and weaknesses andlearn how to curb weaknesses. If a colleague, ora teacher trainer, observes another teacher’sclassroom performance, valuable advice and sug-gestions may be given and the teacher’s perform-ance may improve.

Although it may sometimes be difficult todistinguish advice from criticism, professionalteachers will usually know not to interpret advicenegatively, and the one who gives advice must bea good practical psychologist. Young teachers, aswell as old and experienced ones, must always betreated with understanding in the same way thatthey must treat their pupils with understanding.

It should be mentioned that a teacher’s per-formance does not exist in a vacuum. His or herperformance has to do with how the headteacher runs the school; the teaching materialand other resources provided; the class size andso on. Sometimes a teacher can teach youngpupils very well, but not older ones – or viceversa. Some teachers may be good in teachingweaker pupils, or working with handicappedpupils, while others may do best when teachingthe academically gifted pupils.

A teacher in a large refugee class in aBEFARe school, often with 40-50-60 pupils,must always have an eye open for the hetero-geneity of his or her pupils. If possible even inlarge classes, each pupil must be given specialattention – because each pupil is different andunique. Naturally, this makes it almost impossi-ble to be a teacher and a refugee teacher! That isalso why we should pay tribute to the teachers,especially refugee teachers, who do excellentwork under very difficult circumstances.

“There is no doubt about that today’s teach-ers are much better equipped for their work thanthe earlier teachers were”, says one of our youngteachers, Syed Javed Ahmad (26). But he addsthat there are exceptions. One such is hisfather.31

“My father has been a teacher throughouthis working life and certainly for as long as I canremember. He has also been a head teacher formany years. I would like to say that he is a very

good teacher, and I have learned a lot from him,not only as his pupil but also when taking upteaching myself. I have borrowed many of hispedagogical insights, and especially his cheerfuland humorous ways of handling children. I don’tknow if I will ever be as good a teacher as myfather”, Javed says. Yet, he also underlines thattimes have changed.

“Certain attitudes towards children are dif-ferent today. We focus much more on activatingchildren, and not just making them listen to longteacher monologues. Sometimes old-fashionedteachers behave as if they know everything, or atleast they want the pupils to think so. It is moreimportant to help the pupils develop curiosityand interest in exploring issues themselves.”

“I think a younger teacher often does verygood work - and older teachers, too, if they havekept up with the times and followed develop-ments in the world. I also think that older teach-ers learn from discussions with younger teachers,attending refresher courses and so on. Perhapsyounger teachers are even better than the olderones, in spite of the older teachers having a lot ofexperience.”

“Teacher training for young teachers in ped-agogical fields and frequent refresher courses,discussion seminars and so on, are very impor-tant. But I would also like to emphasize theimportance of teachers having good subject-mmat-ter knowledge – either they are refugee teachersfrom Afghanistan or Pakistan. The young Afghanteachers often have better subject-matter knowl-edge than older teachers because they have goneto good primary and secondary schools, oftenrun by BEFARe, IRC and other organizations.The young teachers in our schools have attendedrefugee schools in Pakistan themselves, mostlyrun by BEFARe at primary level and by IRC andother organizations at secondary level, such as,for example, schools supported by Swiss andBelgian organizations, and the Government ofPakistan through the Commissionerate forAfghan Refugees Education Cell (CAR/EC).Many teachers have attended further trainingcourses at private schools or institutes, for exam-

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ple in English, computer science, and some haveeven attended some university training atPakistani universities, or at the Afghan Universityin Peshawar, which was more like an advancedNGO college. However it closed after “9/11”and most of the students and teachers movedback to Afghanistan.”

“In conclusion I would like to underline theimportance of good subject-matter knowledge,preferably tied to up-to-date general knowledgeabout current social development issues. It isimportant that we remember the importance ofthe subjects and the curricula at the same time aswe keep emphasizing pedagogy and teachingmethods.”32

Mr. Mujadidi, the senior teacher, managerand teacher trainer agrees with his young col-league. “Javed’s points about the importance ofthe continuous training courses are very impor-tant. Also his points about what I would describeas more democratic attitudes of younger people,and the focus on more child-centered learning.All of this is true”, Mujadidi says. “We who aregetting old know it too, but maybe we don’talways practice it.”

He says that in general Afghan teacherstoday are well qualified in most subjects and inpedagogy. “This is a result of careful selection ofteachers and the many training courses BEFAReand other implementing partners have estab-lished.”

“Afghan refugee teachers are not always welltrained in English and Urdu. Lack of Afghanswith skills in certain subjects was the main reasonfor recruiting Pakistani teachers ten or twentyyears ago, and even today”, Mujadidi says. Hegoes on explaining that there is an agreementincluding the Pakistani and Afghan authoritiesand UNHCR which allows up to 40% of theteachers in the refugee schools to be Pakistani cit-izens. “We have to accept Pakistani teachers, andmost of them are excellent teachers, workingboth in the formal and the non-formal trainingprogrammes in BEFARe”, Mujadidi says.

“The Pakistani teachers are included in ourin-service training programmes, and we do not

really distinguish between a Pakistani or Afghanteacher in BEFARe. A teacher is a teacher – anda good teacher is indeed a good teacher!Nationality doesn’t matter then.”

“Still, I would add that the majority of therefugee teachers should as a general rule be fromthe home country of the pupils. After all, we areworking towards preparing the refugees forreturning home. The fact that they learn aboutthe host country, from indigenous teachers fromthat country is a bonus. It gives valuable knowl-edge to take home to Afghanistan.”

“We should also be realistic enough to admitthat some of the pupils will also stay on in thehost country for a long time or even for good.And a few lucky ones will get a chance to takeordinary university education at Pakistani uni-versities”, Mujadidi says, bringing in aspects thatare not often talked about in refugee educationin developing countries. However, it is knownthat long-term refugee situations often lead to asizeable proportion of the refugees staying on inthe country of exile even when situations haveimproved in their home country.33

In recent years BEFARe has expanded itsteacher training markedly. It has reached a muchlarger number of teachers with training coursesand advisory sessions at school and classroomlevel. The figures show a steady increase in thenumber of teachers and supervisors reached withtraining from 1996 to 2003. The figures haveincreased steadily from four to five hundred peryear to two thousand in 2003, when it peaked.

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A mixture of teachers at work and teachers attendingtraining.

Such quantitative data gives a clear indication ofthe importance placed on teacher training by theorganization, and also by donors, since BEFAReis dependent on donor funding for its work.Significantly, additional funding has not comefrom BEFARe’s main funding organization,UNHCR, but from other new donors.

Until a few years ago the German FederalMinistry of Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (BMZ) provided up to 20% of thefunding to BEFARe, but rather than increasing itsfunding as it was considering before “9/11”,BMZ’s funding ceased.34 We would argue thatthis was premature, especially as regards teachertraining. Most of the refugees in the camps inPakistan remain there and it can be argued thatthey are in greater need of training now, in orderto feel equipped to return home and assist inrebuilding Afghanistan and the country’s educa-tion system. BMZ, however, must have consid-ered that it had funded BEFARe for a very longperiod, and that in future it would focus onassisting Afghanistan directly rather than therefugees in Pakistan.35

Aside from expanding its teacher trainingactivities in recent years BEFARe has placedgreater emphasis on a more holistic approach inits various teacher-training courses. Pedagogy,psychology and psychosocial issues are nowbeing taken up in some detail, unlike beforewhen the underlying behavioral and learningissues were not dealt with. Teaching under stresshas become a term commonly used. However,special education subjects are still not given theplace that they should in post-war situations,with many children and adults having great psy-chological and physical educational and medicalneeds.

Still, it should be remembered that theimprovements made in BEFARe’s teacher train-ing in recent years have been quite impressive.UNHCR’s Evaluation of BEFARe in 2002 partic-ularly praises the practical training offeredthrough classroom observation and related dis-cussions and other follow-up activities. TheReport recommends further expansion along the

same lines as part of the pre-service and in-serv-ice training.36

Earlier, the short pre-service training cours-es which were more orientation courses or brief-ings for teachers-to-be focused mainly on themore immediate needs of the teachers. Thesewere things like managing a large class of refugeechildren, organizing tests and examinations, cor-recting homework, and practical teaching meth-ods related to the available teaching materials.

Based on the major improvements made inBEFARe’s teacher training activities over the lastdecade, it is our optimistic judgment that we canexpect further improvements in the years tocome. We hope that lessons will be drawn fromBEFARe’s past experience concerning teachertraining for refugee teachers and that the organ-ization will be able to continue its work toinclude refugee-hosting areas in the future.

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Inter-AgencyNetwork forEducation inEmergencies, is anopen network fororganizations, insti-tutions and individ-uals. UN organiza-tions and interna-tional NGOs werefounders of INEEabout five yearsago. The currentsteering committeeincludes the founding members and some additionalorganizations, notably UNESCO, UNHCR, UNICEF, TheWorld Bank, Norwegian Refugee Council and Save theChildren Alliance. INEE has established a WorkingGroup on Minimum Standards, coordinated by theInternational Rescue Committee (IRC), with ad hoc orsub-groups on various issues, such as teacher training.BEFARe is a member of the INEE Working Group onMinimum Standards and Dr. S.B. Ekanayake has beenappointed as BEFARe's current member, considering hisbroad international experience and expertise in teachertraining, adult education, curriculum development,educational planning and other issues related torefugee and development education.Although, INEE represents a step in the right directionit can not substitute for deeper professional workwhich must be caried out at professional millieux. It ishoped that INEE can stimulate development of suchwork, without trying to become implementer itself. Thereal work can also be done at universities and similarinstitutions, linked to organizations like BEFARe.

BEFARe has appointed a member to attendINEE’s international working group to developminimum standards for teacher training foremergency situations.37

“OLD TEACHERS – NEW METH-ODS – AND OLD WISDOM”

Some Reflections and TentativeConclusions

Based on our discussions with a large number ofteachers, our school visits, in-depth interviewswith teachers and pupils, studies of reports andother literature, we can draw some conclusions.We are of the opinion that the young teachers wecited above, supported by older teachers, arepointing out general positive trends in teachinghabits. The training courses are valuable inputsbut they are not the final end-results. There isstill plenty of room for modernization of tradi-tional teaching methods. Many teachers stillspend far too much time lecturing and too littleon the child centred methods. This was alsopointed out in UNHCR’s Evaluation Report in2002. Other studies have also taken up keyaspects concerning educational improvementstrategies, with reference to BEFARe and otherrefugee schools. 38

There are excellent examples of older teach-ers who have “moved with the times”, throughexperience, in-service training, listening to theirpupils and younger colleagues, and so on.BEFARe as a large professional organization hasdeveloped practical implementation systems and,more importantly, professional standards for itswork in refugee education.39 This has been pos-sible due to a variety of reasons. Above weunderlined that “old pupils” have become“young teachers” and are adding value toBEFARe’s culture. In this section we are using theheading “Old teachers – new methods and oldwisdom”, underlining that old teachers are alsoadding value. Perhaps it is a bit unfair to focus on“new methods” only. We should remember thatit is not always true that new things are better.

Sometimes “old is gold”. That we know from agrandmother’s or a grandfather’s wisdom andways with grandchildren.

Still we would like young teachers to begiven credit for their work and efforts, theiractive pursuance of change, their idealism andsearch for solutions. After all the young will soonbe in responsible positions and carry the burdenof decision-making.

Yet, we also want to pay tribute to the olderteachers, or rather teachers of any age. Those ofus who have practical teaching experience knowhow difficult and challenging it can be to be ateacher and also how trying pupils can be, andhow frustrating it can be to have overcrowdedclasses, poor sanitary facilities, teaching materialsthat are outdated, or teaching materials thatcome late (or never) from the school administra-tor’s office, and not enough books for all the stu-dents.

It can also be frustrating if the communitydoes not support the school, if the SchoolManagement Committee (SMC) is not veryactive, as was the case in most BEFARe schoolsonly five or six years ago. It can be frustrating tosee that parents who have gifted children won’tallow their son or daughter to continue with heror his education. This is sometimes because theolder child needs to begin earning money, ormaybe a daughter according to culture and tradi-tion is expected to stay at home and prepare her-self for marriage. Sometimes there are domesticproblems in refugee homes, caused by trauma-tized parents or relatives, or just ordinary, humanfrustration. Some fathers, and even mothers, maybe addicted to alcohol or drugs. There may becases of child abuse in the home or the commu-nity. Sometimes, households may be incompletebecause of the war or for other reasons. We mayfind unaccompanied minors living on their own,too, without adult relatives in the community.

Questions arising from situations of thesekinds belong to the many difficult questions ateacher and head teacher is faced with, olderteachers more than younger teachers, becausethere are issues that only life can teach us to be

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prepared to solve, not university degrees,BEFARe’s refresher courses or modern attitudes.Yet young teachers have also grown up in diffi-cult circumstances as refugees, and carry manymemories and mental burdens, and they maygain maturity and wisdom earlier than the rest ofus. The difficult backgrounds may sometimes beof advantage when handling difficult situationsin the refugee camp schools and communities.We should remember that as a general rule, peo-ple in a refugee camp, or urban refugee settle-ment usually have more social and mental prob-lems than people in ordinary non-refugee settle-

ments. Trained staff, people with training in psy-chology and special education, would certainlybe useful to help solve some of these difficultproblems. BEFARe refresher courses and degreeswould be useful.

We take up these aspects here, as we intro-duce the reader to two particularly experiencedand successful teachers, who are now both headteachers, notably Balgis Rangg and Syed M. TahirMurad. We should remember that behind them,there are hundreds of other excellent teachers inBEFARe schools.

Balgis Rangg is head teacher of a girls’school in Kacha Garhi Camp outside Peshawar,and Syed M. Tahir Murad is head teacher of theboys’ school nearby.

HEAD TEACHERS ANDMASTER/LEAD TRAINERS

Gulakhta Sadazai is a Master Lead/Trainer inBEFARe. In the photo Gulakhta is together withBalgis Rangg, Head Teacher of BEFARe Girls’School No. 099 in Kacha Garhi Camp outsidePeshawar.40 Also present was the English teacherin the school, Husnia Amin, who sometimes hadto help us as an interpreter. Elsewhere in thebook, on pp.174-5, we have presented an inter-view with the Chair of the School ManagementCommittee in this school, Gullakhta Palvasha.

The Head Teacher, Balgis, is a qualifiedteacher from Kabul with about 20 years teachingexperience and since 1996 she has been a HeadTeacher. Her husband is also a teacher. She hastwo sons and four daughters. Balgis mentionswith pride that all her children have receivededucation, including further training to becometeachers, computer specialists and one is an engi-neer. All this suits a good teacher’s family.

In the introduction to this chapter, we men-tioned the importance of a good head teacher inmaking a good school and we find that Balgisexemplifies this: School No. 099 is one ofBEFARe’s best schools. Just from visiting theschool on a few occasions, we could tell that thiswas a good school from the good atmosphere

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Balgis Rangg, Head Teacher, Gullakhta Sadazi, Trainer,and Gullakhta Palvasha, Chair of the School ManagementCommittee (SMC), BEFARe School No. 099, Kacha GarhiCamp.

Dr. Iqbal and Syed Muza, Chair and Deputy Chair of theSchool Management Committee (SMC), BEFARe School No.160, Kacha Garhi Camp.

that prevailed. More tangible are the excellentexam results.

The head teacher and her other staff repre-sent a solid team leading and teaching the chil-dren in their school. Their tasks also includeteacher training and classroom observation.Guidance of younger teachers is an importanttask for the head teacher and the master/leadtrainer when she comes to the school.Furthermore, the master/lead trainer discussesintroduction of new teaching methods and mate-rials with the teachers, and is available for anyother advice and discussions.

Over the years, BEFARe has trained a groupof master/lead trainers, who already have goodteaching experience and theoretical and practicalpedagogical training. They become a team ofmobile inspectors and advisers assisting the headteachers and each teacher in all the BEFAReschools. Based on the recommendations in theUNHCR Evaluation Report of BEFARe (2002),further emphasis is given to classroom observa-tion and practical advice. The training coursescannot always fulfill the practical needs theteachers have for specific advice concerning theirwork in the classroom. Many issues can best beanalyzed, discussed and solved on the spot. Aswe have mentioned elsewhere in this chapterUNHCR’s Evaluation of BEFARe in 2002 alsoemphasizes the importance of the practical peda-gogical work and recommends expansion of class-room observation. 41

Balgis underlines the importance of advisingteachers on teaching methods, both generalmethods and such related to BEFARe’s teachingmaterials. Teachers in formal and non-formaleducation programmes are included in the ses-sions that the master/lead trainers organize in theschools. Balgis also mentions that greater empha-sis is now being placed on gender issues and childprotection, including both boys and girls.“Although gender issues are said to be importantand we talk quite a lot about such issues, I feelwe have still got a long way to go to reach realgender equality in our Afghan culture. But com-pared to understanding of gender issues in my

childhood and today, or even just five or tenyears ago, many changes have taken place”,Balgis says.

“Today, girls’ education is almost taken forgranted. If you had asked me when I started as ateacher if I thought we would have become as‘liberal’ as we now are I would never havebelieved it. I think the men begin to realize thatthey too will gain from having better educatedwomen around them, in the homes and in jobsoutside the home. On average, girls do better atschool than boys do, so then girls need opportu-nities to continue their education and get intojobs. We need to improve the opportunities forfurther education for girls and boys in therefugee camps and urban areas. In Afghanistanthere is great need for focusing on secondaryeducation. I think we who have been refugeeteachers and have been involved in girls educa-tion have valuable experience to take home toAfghanistan.”42

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Syed Tahir Murad

BEFARe School No. 160

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TRAINING OF TRAINERS

BEFARe has in recent years been using a growingnumber of Afghan and Pakistani experts in high-er positions and leadership roles in differentproject and sub-project fields, and in the organi-zation as a whole. In teacher training, includingin fields of training of trainers and further profes-sional development areas, this is clearly the case.In addition to the Afghans and Pakistanis, someinternational experts are still called in to helpwhen needed.

“Now we should be a bit cautious when say-ing that this has happened recently”, Mujadidiexplains. “BEFARe has always mainly relied onlocal personnel. But in higher administrativeposts we have had foreigners, mostly Germans.As an Afghan myself I am glad that more localsget into posts. Most of them are Pakistanis butsome are Afghans”, Mujadidi says.

“Our most senior external expert in teachertraining is a foreigner from the sub-region,notably Dr. S.B. Ekanayake from Sri Lanka. Heworked for UNESCO and UNHCR in Pakistan

for many years until he retired and became aconsultant with BEFARe and other organiza-tions. While with the United Nations in the1990s, he prepared a number of booklets andbooks on refugee issues and education inAfghanistan, in particular focusing on teachertraining and development of teachers’ guides andother materials. At home in Sri Lanka he hadbeen a Principal at a teacher training college andbeen Director of non-formal education in theMinistry of Education.”43

BEFARe has maintained professional contactwith relevant local and international organiza-tions, including United Nations organizations, inparticular UNESCO and UNHCR in addition tothe Inter-Agency Network for Education inEmergencies (INEE). BEFARe has also workedwith the refugee coordinating bodies, such as theAgency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief(ACBAR) in Peshawar, and the Commissioneratefor Afghan Refugees (CAR), including itsEducation Cell, in Peshawar, and the ChiefCommissionerate for Afghan Refugees (CCAR)in Islamabad. Furthermore, the relevantMinistry, SAFRON, has also been a partner andcontact has been maintained with educationauthorities in Afghanistan, directly or throughthe Consulate in Peshawar and the Embassy inIslamabad.

In this sub-section we shall draw attention tothe important field of training of trainers, which,admittedly, has not been given the attention itdeserves in refugee education in general. This isthe case all over the world, especially in ThirdWorld refugee hosting countries.

Above, we underlined the need for properpre-and in-service teacher training, with advisory

Section IIIPROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Dr. S.B. Ekanayake Mujadidi Agha Shah

services in the schools, including classroomobservation.44

Different forms and levels of teacher train-ing are important. Firstly, training of the generalclassroom teachers and head teachers is impor-tant, including training in pedagogy, teachingmethods, etc., and knowledge and skills of theactual subjects that the teachers will teach andthe skills and methods related to teaching of eachof the subjects. Secondly, the field of teachertraining, or as we often say, training of trainers(ToT), should in the future be given greaterattention than in the past. BEFARe has given thefield some attention in recent years, but notenough, mainly due to lack of additional fund-ing.

In order to improve the quality of basic edu-cation for refugees, more advanced training oftrainers is required. Furthermore, improvementat the level of trainers will lead to better teachersand an up-lift of the whole field of education,such as improved quality and increased enroll-ment at primary, secondary and higher educationlevels, and also in non-formal education and ineducation planning and research.

Since teachers and teacher trainers are cru-cial community members and leaders, and espe-cially influence the social sectors in the refugeecamps and communities, more advanced trainingand education of the teachers and teacher train-ers is even more essential. When the highlytrained and experienced trainers and otherteachers move home to Afghanistan their roleand importance will only increase both in theirprofessional capacity and as community mem-bers and leaders.

We find it necessary to mention that donorsand implementing partners in refugee educationhave failed to give ordinary and more advancedteacher training the required priority. This hasled to lack of development of leaders and advo-cates for the education sector and of otheraspects of the daily lives of refugees in long-termrefugee situations. We would argue that suchtraining is particularly important in medium andlong-term (chronic) refugee situations, such as

the one of Afghan refugees in Pakistan. Itbecame evident relatively early in the current sit-uation that it would be large and last for manyyears. The first major repatriation could onlytake place after over ten years in exile, and a fewyears later, new and large groups of refugeesstreamed across the border to Pakistan. Such alarge-scale refugee situation should have war-ranted systematic planning of repatriation andreconstruction, although nobody could predictwhen that would be possible. On the other hand,everybody could tell that it would occur, at somestage in the foreseeable future, if not, permanentsolutions as regards integration in the host coun-tries (mainly Pakistan and Iran) needed planning.

Furthermore, it should be noted that donororganizations do not have the professional expert-ise required for leadership in refugee education,not withstanding that UNHCR, UNESCO andother United Nations organizations do havesome expertise. UNHCR’s general expertise ismore geared towards short-term refugee crises,not long-term and chronic crises, where actionswill demand different analyses and be more relat-ed to ordinary development than emergencyassistance. Since refugee education is not a prior-itized sector in UNHCR or any of the other UNorganizations, or at a collective internationallevel, education probably suffers more than otherfields. Education is gaining attention but is notyet a top priority.

Several NGOs have a fair amount of expert-ise in refugee education. However, the NGOsdepend on funding from donors for most of theiractivities; notably the United Nations and thebilateral donors. The funding has not been gen-erous enough in refugee education in general,and particularly not in teacher training and moreadvanced educational fields. What if the Afghanrefugee crisis had been in Europe, would thefunding have been higher?

Instead of trying to answer that question weshall argue from another angle. We would sug-gest that in developing countries, including theAfghan refugee crisis in Pakistan, refugees shouldhave organized themselves in stronger profes-

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sional interest groups. The United Nations,NGOs and other organizations should havegiven more support to this than they did.Furthermore, local institutions, such as Pakistaniuniversities, teacher training colleges, researchinstitutes, etc., should have been included, notleast in the education sector. It is surprising tosee that such institutions have only played mar-ginal roles. Institutions in the other majorrefugee-hosting country, Iran, should also havebeen included, and institutions in Afghanistan. Infuture, institutional cooperation with the imme-diate neighbours will play a major role inAfghanistan’s development efforts.

Germany provides funding throughUNHCR for a higher education scholarship pro-gramme known as DAFI (Albert Einstein German

Academic Refugee Initiative).45 DAFI studentsand graduates could also proactively have beenintegrated in professional interest groups, withinstitutional linkages at Pakistani universities.They represent an important group of educatedhuman resources with potential to occupy seniorand leadership posts in the ‘new Afghanistan’.

Worldwide more than a thousand refugeestudents receive DAFI scholarships and inPakistan the number peaked in 2002 when therewere 170 Afghans studying at Pakistani universi-ties, 40% women and 60% men. It was the sec-ond largest DAFI programme in the world, onlysurpassed by the DAFI programme for Afghansin Iran. During recent years numbers have gonedown to less than fifty students. There are no sta-tistics available for how many of the almost nine

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"Albert Einstein was also a refugee", is the text on aUNHCR poster. In his honour and giving hope to needyand deserving refugees, a scholarship programme wasestablished in 1992, notably the Albert Einstein GermanAcademic Refugee Initiative, known as DAFI from itsGerman acronym. The DAFI scholarship programme,which is funded by Germany and administered byUNHCR, is the only major facility that exists worldwideto support refugees to take higher education in thecountry of refuge. Scholarships are awarded based onmerit and need. Worldwide, more than a thousand indi-viduals benefit at any time from the programme. Considering that there are millions of young refugees inthe world, this facility is very limited and the competi-

tion to receive a scholarship is extremely stiff. However,DAFI does give hope and dreams to young academical-ly gifted refugees that even they can succeed, even ifthey don't reach as far as Albert Einstein! In future, itis hoped that other scholarship programmes will beestablished for higher education and for secondary andtechnical levels.

It should be borne in mind that many refugee chil-dren never get a chance to go to primary school, andonly some five percent of those who complete primaryschool can continue to secondary level. Educationopportunities are always more limited for girls thanboys. About forty percent of the close to nine hundredDAFI scholarship recipients in Pakistan have beenwomen.

The Islamic Development Bank (IDB) provides studyloans (which may in practice be turned into scholar-ships) to Afghan refugees in Pakistan on similar termsas DAFI. Some bilateral donors, NGOs, wealthy Afghanrelatives living abroad and individual philanthropistsalso help some young Afghan men and women to takehigher education. However, only DAFI and IDB haveorganized programmes.

Those who receive DAFI scholarships and IDB loanspromise to return home to Afghanistan upon completionof their studies in Pakistan as soon as conditions allow.Statistics about how many of the candidates who haveactually returned is not available, but it is known thatthere are DAFI candidates among Afghans who occupytop posts in the civil service and as ministers. It givesus pleasure to take note of their success, and also recallthat some of them started their schooling in BEFARe'sprimary schools in Peshawar and elsewhere in NWFP,with teachers trained through German and UNHCRfunding, with supplementary teaching materials pre-pared by committed BEFARe staff, and at home, Afghanparents who gave their children the right moral andethical upbringing.

hundred DAFI graduates from Pakistani institu-tions have returned to Afghanistan, and if not, ifthey are working in Pakistan or if they are part ofthe brain drain to the West or the Middle-East.

It is part of the scholarship agreement thatthe candidates shall return home as soon as con-ditions permit. This is also a requirement of theother major facility that exists for Afghan stu-dents in Pakistan, the Education Loan Scheme ofthe Islamic Development Bank (IDB), which atits peak some years ago provided loans to overone hundred Afghans at Pakistani universities.

Some may delay the return until conditionsare good, as seen from a professional perspec-tive, or they may want to gain experience andspecialist training abroad before returning home,or they may want to save funds to buy a house orstart a private medical practice at home.46

Unfortunately, BEFARe was never directlyinvolved in implementation of the DAFI scholar-ship programme. There was also no commoncommittee for higher education for Afghans inPakistan. UNHCR discussed the possibility ofBEFARe implementing the DAFI scholarshipprogramme in 2002 but BEFARe felt it was out-side its mandate and capacity at the time, and theprogramme continued to be implemented byUNHCR. However, if BEFARe had handledDAFI, we believe it would have benefited theprogramme as well as BEFARe, for example inthe field of teacher training, training of trainers,non-formal education (especially MCH andother health sector fields since about 40% of theDAFI students studied medicine), etc. Therewould also have been good opportunities forestablishing institutional cooperation. In thefuture, it is possible that BEFARe will take onprofessional administration of higher educationtraining activities.47

BEFARe AS A LEADING ORGANI-ZATION IN REFUGEE EDUCATION

In refugee education in Pakistan, BEFARe hasbeen the leading organization, not withstandingessential work also being done by other major

implementing partners, such as OckendenInternational (OI), the International RescueCommittee (IRC), Save the Children (US), andothers. Teacher training has been an area of con-cern of all these organizations throughout theAfghan refugee era, especially in more recentyears, when training of trainers gained morefocused attention and additional donor funds.

The role of being the leading organization inrefugee education in Pakistan came to BEFARefor several reasons, the main one simply beingthat it was always the largest organization, aboutfive to six times larger than the next one, in num-ber of pupils, teachers, and budget. It has a largenumber of managers, leaders and specialists at itsmain office in Peshawar and the six sub-offices(resources centers) in NWFP province. BEFARehas managed to shoulder the leadership respon-sibility well, throughout the refugee era and notleast in recent years.

Let us mention that in the Balochistan campsoutside Quetta city, Save the Children (US) hashad a similar dominating role. For a long time itwas the only international implementing partnerreceiving major funding from UNHCR.However, whereas BEFARe has had over100,000 pupils, SC/US has never had much over20,000.

Again, let us mention that there are othereducation organizations in NWFP and inBalochistan – in education and other sectors. InPeshawar city self-help schools have provided formany non-camp refugees. In Quetta city theurban refugees make up the majority of the totalnumber of refugees in the province, and thenumber of school-going children. Thus, theurban schools are indeed important in Quetta,and they are important to many families andchildren in Peshawar and other cities in Pakistan.Unfortunately, they receive little funding frominternational donors. It is UNHCR’s general pol-icy to use its funds in the refugee camps/vil-lages.48

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DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULAAND SUPPLEMENTARY TEACHINGMATERIALS

BEFARe’s teaching materials have been usedextensively in the refugee schools in the camps inNWFP and Balochistan, and in urban refugeeschools. In the recent five-year period, SC/US hasdeveloped its own supplementary materials insome main subjects, following a concept knownas “basic competencies of learning” (BCL). Theseare excellent materials following the most mod-ern pedagogical methods.49

It should be underlined that BEFARe hasbeen the main developer of supplementary teach-ing materials, used by all organizations runningrefugee schools in Pakistan. More than one hun-dred textbook titles have been produced. Thework started early in BEFARe’s history and theachievement is impressive.

It is important to mention that all BEFARe’stextbooks are termed ‘supplementary teachingmaterials’, i.e. they come in addition to the mainAfghan textbooks. This is an important principlesince refugee schools are usually required to fol-low the curriculum of the home country towhich it is assumed that the refugees will return.

In the Afghan refugee case, which lasted fora very long time and is still not over, cooperationarrangements were established between theAfghan authorities and the University ofNebraska at Omaha in U.S.A. to updateAfghanistan’s often out-dated materials after theSoviet era. The curriculum and books wereknown as the UNO curriculum and UNO books.Most of the UNO books were printed in a donor-funded printing press, with a huge stock ofimported paper, and transported to Afghanistan.This support to education in Afghanistan wasalso provided during the Taliban regime.

BEFARe’s materials were developed as sup-plementary materials to the UNO materials. Inthe same way, SC/US developed its BCL materi-als in addition to but not in place of the UNOcurriculum and materials. From time to time,organizations running refugee schools in

Pakistan have been criticized for having changedthe Afghan curriculum. BEFARe has been criti-cized for this many times, probably due to itslarge production of materials. However, the crit-icism has been based on superficial knowledge.Instead of criticizing BEFARe for havingbranched off from the Afghan curriculum andold books, we should commend BEFARe for itsimpressive work in developing more relevantmaterials, without ignoring the old Afghan cur-riculum. SC/US and other NGOs who havedeveloped supplementary materials should alsobe commended for their efforts. We shouldremember that this work was done out of a needfor developing better and more relevant materi-als to benefit pupils and teachers.

The teachers’ guides should be mentionedespecially. They are separate advisory booklets,or introductions in the pupils’ books, explaininghow to teach the various sections and topics ofthe books. Such “recipes” are very helpful, espe-cially when teachers have limited formal trainingin pedagogy and teaching methods, and even insubject matters, which is the case for manyrefugee teachers in BEFARe and other refugeeschools.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTWORK AND COORDINATION

BEFARe’s interest in professional developmentled to the establishment of a special unit in 2000,named the Knowledge Centre, expanding thetasks of the ten-year old Production Section. Dr.S. B. Ekanayake, a former long-term UNESCOand UNHCR staff member in Pakistan, wasinstrumental in seeing the Knowledge Centretake off. He worked closely with other seniorBEFARe staff members, including the ChiefTechnical Adviser and Project Director at thattime, Holger Munsch, and many others.50

The Knowledge Centre, which in 2003 wasrenamed the Research and DevelopmentDepartment (R&D), is headed by Dr. MahmoodaRehman, who is Professor Emeritus, Universityof Peshawar.51 The new name re-emphasizes its

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importance, not only in the field of education ina narrow sense, but in BEFARe’s broader fieldsof operation. In 2004, for example, BEFAReincluded training of Pakistani local governmentcouncilors in its training activities. This is in linewith BEFARe’s wish to contribute to povertyreduction, empowerment and training of womenand men, livelihoods training, etc. Participants inBEFARe’s courses and programmes will berefugees and marginalized Pakistanis; or put dif-ferently, the participants will be needy peopleirrespective of nationality. In future, BEFARe willdraw upon its vast experience and competenceespecially as regards refugees, but also in othercontexts to benefit children, youth and adults ineducation and in other fields.

The R&D department is likely to play a keyrole and be a cornerstone in BEFARe’s futurework. It should, for the record, be mentionedthat previously BEFARe has hardly carried outany research at all. It has certainly developed animpressive number of textbooks, booklets,reports, training manuals and other materials.Some studies and surveys of the materials havebeen implemented. Deeper research studies areyet to be implemented, and they should possiblyonly be implemented in cooperation with estab-lished research institutions, such as theUniversity of Peshawar, which is BEFARe’ nearbyneighbour at Rahatabad in Peshawar.

To exemplify BEFARe’s expansion of activi-ties, a large project for the InternationalOrganization for Migration (IOM),Pakistan/Afghanistan Office, should be men-tioned. BEFARe handled logistics, etc., in con-nection with implementation of absentee votingin the refugee camps for the Afghan PresidentialElection, which took place in October 2004.Refugee schools and the School ManagementCommittees were key focal points in connectionwith implementation of the voting.52

Considering the historical significance of theelection, BEFARe was particularly honoured tohelp in the exercise, which was the first time everthat Afghans, at home and in exile, had had theopportunity to cast their vote to elect their coun-

try’s leader, and it was indeed a great time for therefugees in Peshawar.

We spoke to several of the voters soon afterthe election, including a few groups of femaleteachers and SMC members, who had all votedand they enjoyed speaking about it afterwards.We only came across voters who had voted forPresident Hamid Karzai. We asked the women ifthey had not voted for the female candidate, Dr.Masooda Jalal, but got only smiles and jokesback. Meanwhile she managed to secure somefive percent of the votes, ahead of many of themale presidential candidates. Maybe some of ourteachers and SMC members will vote for hernext time if she will run?53

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Dr. Mahmooda Rehman

ARIC/ACBAR Librian

As the largest refugee education organiza-tion in Pakistan, BEFARe has always workedclosely with ACBAR, including its Education Sub-committee and ARIC, the Afghan Resource andInformation Centre. The unique founder andcoordinator of ACBAR and ARIC, Dr. NancyHatch Dupree, is now also a member ofBEFARe’s Board of Trustees.54

In its professional development, BEFARe hasshared materials and has held numerous meet-ings and discussions with Nancy and her staff, inparticular staff members from Afghanistan, butalso from overseas and locally from Pakistan.ACBAR has offices in Peshawar and in Kabul.

All ARIC’s materials, including BEFARe’smaterials will be moved to Afghanistan, butNancy says that it is important that the materialswill be safe. Now this seems to be the case at theUniversity of Kabul. The books and reports con-stitute an essential resource, indeed a treasure,which will benefit current and future generationsof pupils, teachers, social scientists, historiansand others. The materials will be invaluable forAfghan and foreign students and researchers toshed light on and develop greater understandingof the Afghan refugee history in Pakistan – andthe country’s general history during the lastquarter of the twentieth century.

As we have mentioned above in this chapter,BEFARe played a key role in the development ofa Database of Afghan Refugee Teachers inAfghanistan, which was done in 2002-2003.Here we draw attention to some broader issuessince BEFARe’s R&D department is involved inmany broad issues.

We can draw a parallel to another long-termrefugee situation, notably that involving TheSudan, where peace seems to be coming aftertwo decades of severe civil war between theNorth and South, sending millions into exile.Repatriation from neighbouring countries hasbegun, similar to that in Afghanistan; SouthSudan is in need of teachers and other groups ofskilled personnel at middle and high levels. Inboth country cases, too few refugees were givensecondary, vocational and technical education.

On average, less than five percent of refugees indeveloping countries get a chance to continuebeyond primary level and many do not even getany primary education, or literacy and otheradult education for those who missed the child-hood education opportunity.55

Planning and developing databases of per-sonnel who wish to return home after long-termexile shed light on a number of issues. The workpoints at a pro-active approach to help refugeesto prepare to return home, or prepare for long-term employment abroad. For obvious reasonsBEFARe limited the exercise to teachers but thegeneral method is the same for other personnelcategories. Additional incentives and actions maybe needed to help the returnees find relevantwork at home.56 In cooperation with other rele-vant organizations, such as the InternationalOrganization for Migration (IOM), BEFARe canhelp other NGOs with developing databases andplanning repatriation.

Specific incentives and ‘bridging arrange-ments’ may be needed to help the returnees intorelevant work at home. IRC has reported that ofthe teachers they have laid off in 2005 betweentwo thirds and three quarters have foundemployment in primary and secondary schools inAfghanistan thanks to special actions planned byIRC.

Building on its broad experience, BEFARewill be able to play a pro-active role in variousfields of repatriation in the future. It will also beable to develop other fields of activities, forexample, related to development of the refugee-hosting areas in Pakistan. BEFARe’s R&Ddepartment is important in a variety of fields andnot only in the education sector.57

We have above in this chapter and elsewherein the book repeatedly underlined that we ques-tion whether partners did a good enough job inAfghan refugee education in Pakistan. The hon-our and burden for the results, and lack ofresults, rest on the numerous multi- and bilateralorganizations, the major NGOs, and the localinstitutions and organizations, including govern-ment authorities in Pakistan and Afghanistan.

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In this section about professional develop-ment and coordination, it is the right place toask: Did they give the education sector as awhole the attention it deserved, especially basiceducation (primary and non-formal education)and teacher training, for both female and maleparticipants?

The author of this book, as and educationist,will certainly conclude that not enough wasdone, either as regards quality or quantity andthat many important fields were given a tokensupport and some fields were ignored.

In the circumstances, it is puzzling that edu-cation was not given greater attention, consider-ing the presence of large and excellent organiza-tions like BEFARe.

Naturally, BEFARE had to focus on its targetareas in NWFP, as per the sub-agreement withUNHCR, its main donor, and other donors whenadditional funding was obtained. Thus, we canconclude that BEFARe did well in its target areas;it ran schools and non-formal education centersfor up to 120,000 children and adults, it mobi-lized the refugee communities in the camps/vil-lages to send their children to school, it ascer-tained that each school established a school man-agement committee (SMC), and so on. BEFARealso helped in coordination tasks and advice vis-à-vis other implementing partners and UNorganizations. If BEFARe had taken on a wideradvocacy role, it would have gone outside itssub-agreements with donors, but perhaps a largeorganization like BEFARe should have donethat? And it did have some bilateral BMZ funds.Nobody else was in a better position to take onsuch a role, especially in cooperation withACBAR and the various partners and authorities.Perhaps this is a shortcoming of BEFARe?

Furthermore, who else could have donemore as advocates for refugee issues and refugeeeducation than ACBAR together with BEFARe?

We have already mentioned UNHCR andother multi- and bilateral organizations and gov-ernment authorities in Pakistan. But what aboutthose numerous international organizations,diplomatic missions and international NGOs

that were evacuated from Afghanistan in the1990s and given temporary location to operatefrom Pakistan’s capital Islamabad? Some of themhad offices or were on frequent missions to themajor refugee hosting cities of Peshawar, Quetta,Karachi, and elsewhere. Were they all just sittingin Islamabad “waiting for peace in Afghanistan”?Some tried to provide assistance to refugeeswhile in Pakistan, such as UNICEF’s Afghanistanoffice and several others, in addition to followingdevelopments in Afghanistan and implementingassistance there. Was the assistance that wasgiven to refugees in Pakistan dependent on theorganization’s planned efforts or was it becauseof individual staff members’ efforts?

In this book we are not in a position toanswer these questions, but we find it our duty toask the questions, inter alia, because they also fallunder the questions that need to be posed toBEFARe.

Historical studies and research are requiredto establish why education was not given greaterattention than was the case. The needs wereobvious, the donors were there, excellent organ-izations like BEFARe was in full swing, but whatwent wrong? Were there too few real experts inthe organizations dealing with education? WouldBEFARe have acted differently if the R&DDepartment had been established earlier? Do westill accept that refugees in developing countriescan be short-changed with poorer education thanother people? Are we not yet including therefugees in our concept of Education for All?58

CONCLUDING REMARKS

BEFARe's involvement in teacher training andprofessional development activities related toAfghan refugees in Pakistan is one of the mostimpressive activities of the organization's work.In recent years training of trainers, R&D andother more advanced issues were also included inBEFARe's work.

The statistics presented show the large quan-tity of training provided. We have also discussedthe qualitative improvement that has taken place

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in pre- and in-service training courses, classroomobservation, etc. As part of the improvementsmade, we have mentioned that new topics havebeen included in the training, such as psychoso-cial issues and peace education. More and bettertraining for teachers/instructors in non-formaleducation has also been provided.

BEFARe's development of supplementaryteaching materials, teachers guides and otherbooks/booklets and reports is yet another field ofsuccess in the organization's work. The backlistof publications includes over one hundred andthirty-five titles.

BEFARe's professional competence and lead-ing role in refugee education and teacher train-ing, including coordination functions, is recog-nized and valued by partners and donors inPakistan. In future, BEFARe will build on itsbroad expertise in provision of formal and non-formal education, community development,teacher training, organizational and coordinationskills, and innovative approaches in educationand related fields. BEFARe aims at being a flexi-ble organization, open to many changes that arecoming in the near future. Many refugees willreturn to Afghanistan, and camps and schoolswill be closed. Some refugees will try to make aliving in Pakistan and stay-on in separate Afghansettlements, or in mixed settlements with amajority of Pakistanis, in urban or rural refugee-hosting areas.

It is hoped that Pakistan, and NWFP andPeshawar city in particular, will realize the valueof having an organization with BEFARe's experi-ence and competence ready to get involved inwork for the mentioned and additional targetgroups, and also in additional fields, in thefuture.

In this chapter we have sometimes pondered

questions like: What were the costs and benefitsof the Afghan refugee era? How much didPakistan gain or lose from it, and in what fieldswere there benefits or losses? We have taken upthese questions in this chapter since they have todo with professional issues and R&D. Studiesand analyses are needed to answer or shed somelight on such questions. It is hoped thatBEFARe's R&D department can contribute tostudies in these fields. We assume that one of thefindings will be that many Pakistanis, not onlyAfghans, have gained from refugee activities, andin our case, from activities in BEFARe. ManyPakistanis have paid major contributions asteachers and managers in BEFARe, and they havealso gained from their employment in BEFARe.They have attended training courses and workedin a highly professional organization.

However, the main beneficiaries ofBEFARe's work have always been the Afghanrefugees; pupils, teachers and their families.Many have already returned to Afghanistan. Wehope that many more will return to their home-land in the coming years and that they will man-age to settle in well, take part in reconstructionof their country and their own lives, and eventu-ally enjoy better lives than what comes torefugees in foreign lands. We hope that the edu-cation and experience BEFARe provided topupils and teachers will prove useful to them. Wealso hope that the BEFARe teachers will find rel-evant employment in Afghanistan, and thatpupils will be able to complete their primary edu-cation and receive further education. We alsohope that special education services will developsoon in Afghanistan because the needs are great.Gender equality, for pupils, teachers, and headteachers, we hope will be achieved and accepteduniversally - in Afghanistan and worldwide.

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1 Special thanks for providing information and data forthis chapter go to the managers and teacher training staff atBEFARe, including head teachers, teachers, instructors andmembers of school management committees at the schools.Thanks go also to the pupils who always were willing to bephotographed and make our school visits lively and joyful.Special thanks go to the teachers who volunteered to giveinterviews and tell about their work and life, and excerpts ofinterviews are presented in this chapter. Without the help ofShakir Ishaq, Mujadidi Agha Shah, Waheeda Farouk andother managers and teachers at BEFARe the work with thischapter would have been difficult. The unique help of oneteachers' family should be acknowledged, notably that ofSyed Tahir Murad and his son Javed Ahmad, head teacherand teacher, respectively, in Kacha Garhi Camp outsidePeshawar. Head teacher Balgis Rangg and her staff in thegirls' school also gave invaluable help. We are also grateful toleaders and staff of NGOs, United Nations organizations andindividual refugees for information and reports they provid-ed so that we could develop deeper insight.

2 See research reports and Fil. Dr. dissertations fromthe Institute of International and Comparative Education(IP), University of Stockholm. IP was very early to study'what was right not only what was wrong' in schools.

3 Clinton, Hilary Rodham: It Takes a Village. Simon &Schuster, New York, 1996.

4 School management committees have been estab-lished in every BEFARe school. The SMCs have specialresponsibility for collecting funds from parents for main-taining and improving the school compound and physicalfacilities, which includes building additional classrooms,planting trees and flowers, etc. It also includes ascertainingthat the school has drinking water and good toilets. This isparticularly important for girls' schools since lack of toiletsis one factor which can prevent parents from sending theirgirls to school.

5 See, (a) BEFARe Monthly Newsletter, Vol. 3, Issues 24and 25 (for May and July), 2005; (b) BEFARe's AnnualReports (recent years). BEFARe, Peshawar.

6 See UNHCR's booklets: Voluntary Repatriation toAfghanistan 2003, 2004 and 2005. UNHCR, Islamabad.

7 See BEFARe Monthly Newsletter mentioned in Note5.

8 In Pakistan's Census of Afghans living in the country,undertaken in February/March 2005, questions were asked

about why the Afghans (refugees and other categories) didnot intend to return home. The main reasons given were;lack of shelter, security and livelihoods. GoP/UNHCR:Census of Afghans in Pakistan. Population CensusOrganisation, Islamabad, and UNHCR, Islamabad, 2005.

9 See (a) the CD and reports from the Database ofAfghan refugee teachers in Pakistan, collected in 2002 -2003. Afghan Refugees Teachers' Profile Database, NWFPand Balochistan. BEFARe, Peshawar, April 2003. (b) EachNGO participating in the above Database and other NGOsdealing with refugee education have further and up-to-datedetails concerning their teachers' profiles, i.e., years of expe-rience, gender, age, ethnicity, etc. An aggregate updateddatabase has not been made.

10 Ibid. In connection with UNHCR assisted voluntaryrepatriation of teachers and other categories of trainedhuman resources from neighbouring countries to SouthSudan, the Database from Afghan refugee teachers inPakistan was consulted in July - September 2004. In futuremore systematic and detailed data should be prepared wellin advance of repatriation in order to provide requiredtraining, etc. Data must be made available in simple formsrelevant to the various users, i.e., refugees/returnees, send-ing and receiving organizations, local government authori-ties, etc. The Database made in Pakistan is the first largeand systematic database we are aware of and it forms a'good practice', but improvements can be made, especially asregards actual use once the material is collected and madeavailable to the authorities and organizations.

11 (a) See the Bibliography to the Chapter 2"Historical Background". (b) See also various issues ofUNHCR's main periodic magazine, Refugees. (Vol. 1,Number 126, 2002, discusses issues concerning refugeewomen, including Afghan women.) UNHCR, Geneva.

12 Teaching for the Future. Profiles of Afghan RefugeeTeachers. UNESCO, Islamabad, 2003. The book manuscriptwas prepared by Atle Hetland for UNESCO. Excerpts fromthe interviews with Alam Gul and Abdul Samad are repeat-ed in this book, with minor adjustments in the text.

13 (a) Working documents for contingency planning inUNHCR, Islamabad, 2001-2002, where the author of thisbook was a consultant that time. (b) See also two RingBinders, which were prepared by the author; EmergencyResponse in Refugee Education (2002); Summary Report ofIssues in Refugee Education (2003). UNHCR, Islamabad.

14 (a) See various reports about repatriation released

Notes

by UNHCR, Islamabad. (b) Frequent reports about the situ-ation of refugees in Pakistan and returnees to Afghanistanare being prepared by UNOCHA's "IRIN News Network",Islamabad. (c) Pakistani newspapers report daily/weekly onthe situation of refugees/returnees in Pakistan and to someextent also on the situation in Afghanistan. (A number ofmedia clippings are available with the author of this book.)

15 See Note 12 above. 16 Group interviews were held with the five young

teachers at BEFARe's office on 14 October 2004. One indi-vidual interview was held on 15 October 2004. MujadidiAgha Shah, Syed M. Tahir Murad, Syed Javed AhmadMurad and Waheeda Farouk answered additional questionson numerous occasions.

17 (a) The International Rescue Committee's FemaleEducation Programme (FEP) is renowned for high qualityeducation and has played a major role in providing educa-tion for female refugee pupils. See various IRC reports andbrochures. (b) The Commissionerate for Afghan RefugeesEducation Cell (CAR/EC), Government of Pakistan, withassistance from UNHCR, was in charge of implementationof secondary education for the refugees until mid-2005when the secondary schools were closed as the refugeeswere expected to return to Afghanistan.

18 This figure is commonly accepted among refugeeeducationists. See the background document for establish-ment the Refugee Education Trust for Post-primaryEducation (RET) by Vivien Stewart and Timothy Brown,with preface by Sadako Ogata, Geneva, 25 August 2000.

19 Interview with female teachers, Jalozai Camp,NWFP, 2 December 2004.

20 See Note 16 above. On 2 December 2004 we visit-ed Jalozai Camp, NWFP, and to hold further interviewswith the young female teachers in their schools. MujadidiAgha Shah escorted us during the visit and helped with lan-guage translations when required.

21 See Note 16 above. In addition to the earlier inter-views, we held further individual, in-depth interviews withthe young male teachers in Peshawar on 23 and 24 October2004.

22 From interview with Alam Gul on 24 October2004.

23 Interview with Mujadidi Aga Shah on 25 October2004.

24 See various course materials prepared by Dr. S.B.Ekanayake for courses at BEFARe for master/lead trainers,including his books; (i) Mega Trends and Challenges inRefugee Education, Guide Book for Trainers. BEFARe,Peshawar, 2003; (ii) Operational Parameters of Educationfor Refugees in Emergencies (working title).Peshawar/Islamabad. (Forthcoming.)

25 Environmental education seems to have been givenmore attention in earlier years than today. For example,UNESCO, Islamabad, prepared a set of booklets in the1990s, and cooperated with UNHCR on various projectissues. The major project taking up environmental issueswas included in a three-phase UNHCR project during 1984

- 1996, funded by The World Bank. For further details con-cerning this particular project, see; Pakistan ImpactEvaluation Report No. 15862-PAK. The World Bank,Washington D.C., June 28, 1996. In future, when consider-ing assistance to refugee-hosting areas in Pakistan, environ-mental issues as well as income generating activities shouldform central elements of any project.

26 Several NGOs providing education for refugees andteacher training are giving more attention to psycho-socialissues, such as BEFARe, IRC, Ockenden International andothers. However, there is still a long way to go before theseissues and the many sub-disciplines of special education aregiven the required attention. If there is shortage of teacherslocally, it ought to be possible to link up with local universi-ties and colleges in Pakistan, and institutions overseas. Inour time, it is also possible to access relevant informationand courses through Internet and distance education institu-tions.

27 The project leaders were from the beginning of theeducation projects for Afghan refugees in Pakistan aware ofthe need for good teacher training. However, in practice itwas not possible to meet ideal demands, mainly due to lackof sufficient funding. The general understanding was thatrefugees should return home in a short time and that longteacher training and their training in exile was therefore'emergency education', and one could accept lower stan-dards, incl. semi-trained teachers, for the anticipated rela-tively short time in exile. Today, this understanding is slowlybeginning to change. As for the Pak-German Bas-Ed andGTZ-BEFARe project leaders' concern about teacher train-ing and other professional issues at various project stages,see key planning documents, progress reports and otherdocuments, inter alia; (a) Case Study. The Situation in 24Pilot Schools in North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan.Peshawar, December 1985. (b) What did you learn in schooltoday? By Udo Bude and Habib-ur-Rahman. Peshawar,1987. (c) Management of Primary Schools Under Stress:Guide For Principals. Compiled by Askar Azam Ahibzada;Preface by Michael Hirth; Technical Advisor S.B.Ekanayake. Peshawar, October 1995. (d) BEFARe ProjectDescription. Serial No. XV. Peshawar, August 1996. (b)BEFARe Project Mirror. Serial No. VII. By MohammadNasim Qasimi. Peshawar, November 1996. (c) Case Study.The Situation in 24 Pilot Schools in North-West FrontierProvince, Pakistan. Peshawar, December 1985.

28 For accurate reference to the Database of Afghanrefugee teachers in Pakistan, see Note 9 above.

29 Reports from the CIDA-AREP project are availablefrom the project's different partners and from the ProjectMonitoring Unit, housed at IRC in Peshawar. Especiallyduring the planning period and the first project implemen-tation year, the author, on behalf of UNESCO, Islamabad,prepared a number of progress reports and other materialof professional value.

30 See BEFARe's course outlines for further details.The two chapters in this book about Formal Education (FE)and Non-formal Education (NFE) also include some infor-

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mation about teacher training. 31 Interviews with Syed Javed Ahmed Murad and Syed

M. Tahir Murad, Peshawar, 21 and 23 December 2004. 32 Interview with Syed Javed Ahmad Murad,

Peshawar, 23 December 2004.33 Interview with Mujadidi Aga Shah, Peshawar, 23

December 2004.34 Discussions between UNHCR and GTZ/Embassy of

Germany in 2001and 2002. The author of this book was aconsultant at UNHCR, Islamabad, at that time and therewas considerable interest from the German side in increas-ing funding to UNHCR. UNHCR's Representative thattime, Hasim Utkan, was particularly interested in receivingadditional funding to general primary education and otherfields, such as vocational education, special education andliteracy training. After "9/11" the German focus shiftedquickly to provision of assistance directly to Afghanistan.However, education was not a prioritized area for Germanyin Afghanistan and is only beginning to be given attentiontoday. As for BEFARe and refugee education in general inPakistan, we have elsewhere in this book regretted that theGerman funding to refugee education dwindled at the timeit did, when it should rather have been increased, which weconsider would have been in Germany's interests and cer-tainly in that of UNHCR and the refugees/returnees.

35 (a) See Note 34 above. (b) See also, Ekanayake, S.B.and Atle Hetland: Working Notes for the current book, p.10. Peshawar/Islamabad, 10.11.04.

36 Johannessen, Eva, S.B. Ekanayake and Udo Bude:Evaluation of GTZ/Basic Education for Afghan Refugees(BEFARe) in Pakistan. Final Version. UNHCR, Geneva,2002.

37 BEFARe has taken several initiatives related toimprovements in teacher training and R&D. BEFARe hasnominated Dr. S.B. Ekanayake to be its representative onthe INEE minimum standards committee from 2005. INEE,Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergency, is anopen network with a small secretariat at UNESCO, Paris;currently at UNICEF, New York.

38 (a) Johannessen, Eva et al: Op.cit. (b) In addition toUNHCR's implementing partners in education, we shouldremember that other NGOs and self-help schools also trynew methods in the classroom and teacher training courses.One such NGO is the Afghan Institute of Learning (AIL),Peshawar/Kabul. Materials are available at the variousNGOs. Most organizations are registered in the coordinat-ing bodies ACBAR and/or ANCB in Peshawar. The AfghanResource and Information Centre (ARIC), housed atACBAR, Peshawar and Kabul, is the largest library ofrefugee literature in Pakistan/Afghanistan.

39 See BEFARe's report sheets and other materials forfield/school visits, etc.

40 We visited BEFARe School No. 099 several times in2004 and 2005. We conducted interviews with BalgisRangg, Head Teacher, on several occasions. On a couple ofoccasions our visits coincided with visits by managers andmaster/lead trainers and we got a positive picture of the

manner in which classroom and school observation andadvice took place, using instruments mentioned under Note39 above.

41 Johannessen, Eva et al: Op.cit.42 Interview with Balgis Rangg, 14 May 2005 43 Interview with Mujadidi Aga Shah, 15 May 2005.

Interview with Dr. S.B. Ekanayake, 15 June 2005.44 The INEE committee work related to minimum

standards in various refugee/emergency education fields,including teacher training and training of trainers, will beuseful in developing new standards, or, as it is termed 'mini-mum standards'. INEE has published several books and CDsof relevance. www.hamninfo.org Training for refugeeteachers should be much longer than the very brief coursesthat are common today. Courses of 3-4 months' durationare more realistic duration considering the difficult workthat refugee teachers have. Even longer duration, say 6-8months would be important, for example organized as a 3-4months' introductory training module, followed by one-twosimilar period/s during school vacations, with part-timecourse-work during the school year. It is also hoped that wesoon can reach a situation when training of experts (orsemi-experts) in various fields can be trained, i.e, in specialeducation subjects, early childhood development, languages,science subjects, vocational training, education planning,etc. Even if the refugee situation in question is expected tolast for a short time (but experience has proven that mostrefugee situations last for many years) we have to developbetter and longer refugee teacher training courses in future.This is a general issue worldwide, especially in developingcountries. It is in no way only limited to the Afghan refugeesituation in Pakistan, which seems finally to be coming toand end. (Of other international organizations in Peshawar,Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA) gave majorattention to training of teachers for work in Afghanistan.When "9/11" changed the world, and the work of NGOs inPakistan/Afghanistan, SCA was in the process of planningfull teacher training for a class of Afghan refugees at aSwedish teacher training college/university.)

45 The DAFI Scholarship programme was for manyyears administered by Tauqir Mirza, UNHCR, Islamabad,who developed a keen interest in the programme. His suc-cessor Nasir Sahibzada, who took over in 2003 also gavethe programme major attention. However, the programmewas always administered as an appendix to the educationfields that were seen as more important, notably basic edu-cation.

46 Although there may be some 'wastage' from a pro-gramme like DAFI, i.e. that a large percentage of the candi-dates will never return home, we warn against drawing toocategorical conclusions about the value of the programme.Even if a refugee does not return home, or he or she returnshome only for a short while, or in retirement, DAFI gavehope and a better life to some few refugees. A relativelysmall percentage of those who received DAFI scholarshipscame from the refugee camps, including adolescents whohad attended BEFARe schools, but most of the recipients

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were urban refugees. The programme is well monitoredfrom UNHCR, Geneva, and the DAFI officer (seconded byGermany) visits Pakistan every 1-2 years to evaluate devel-opments and problems. For further details, seeDAFI/Education Mission Reports and other documents andbrochures in UNHCR, Islamabad.

47 In the future, there could be closer cooperationbetween DAFI and the German higher educational pro-gramme known as DAAD (German Academic ExchangeService), which gives attention to institutional cooperation.Towards the end of a refugee era (before and early in thereconstruction phase) it is important to normalize activities,including such related to higher education and research.Teacher training, educational planning, statistics andresearch should always have a central place throughout arefugee period and at its end.

48 As for general guidelines, see UNHCR: (a)Handbook for Emergencies. Second Edition. UNHCR,Geneva, 2000. (b) Education Field Guidelines. UNHCR,Geneva, February 2003. (c) It should be noted that UNHCRand the host Government of Pakistan have solicited forfunds for refugee-hosting areas and urban refugees (whichin the current refugee situation constituted half of theAfghan refugees in Pakistan). However, such funds wouldbe seen as outside UNHCR's main mandate and donorswould be less willing to provide funding. In recent yearsand currently, there seem to be greater interest for assistingurban refugees and in particular refugee-hosting areas,which would have a majority of Pakistani citizens, living inpoor conditions.

49 The basic concepts are described in, Chinapah,Vina: Basic Learning Competencies. UNESCO, Paris, 1993

50 The establishment of the Knowledge Centre, laterrenamed R&D department, was a major innovative action,which was important to (a) give professional aspects greaterplace and (b) give clearer focus to future planning of changeand development (of BEFARe as an organization and ofcontent in education and other fields).

51 Except for consultants and short-term staff mem-bers, Dr. Rehman was the first academic appointed atBEFARe. The organization should have appointed academ-ic/highly professional staff members earlier and it wouldhave benefited from it in its work. With focused efforts webelieve funding would have been possible.

52 In 2004 BEFARe implemented a major short-termproject on behalf of the International Organization forMigration (IOM) regarding Out-of-country Registration andVoting (OCRV) in the Afghan Presidential Election inOctober 2004. In all such exercises schools (buildings) andhuman resources (head teachers/teachers, SMCs and par-ents) play key roles.

53 Democracy is a new concept in Afghanistan's histo-ry. Equal rights for women and men are indeed new con-cepts. However, refugee women experience few problems in

being allowed in taking part in the Presidential Election inNWFP.

54 Nancy Hatch Dupree, born in America, had lived inAfghanistan since the 1960s with her husband LouisDupree, a renowned scholar when she was forced to leavethe country soon after the invasion of the Soviet Union. Thecouple probably felt like related to the Afghan refugees inPakistan and they both devoted their lives to the Afghancause, writing books, giving lectures and speeches and estab-lishing an organization ACBAR and Library, ARIC, inPeshawar and Kabul. Nancy has continued the work afterher husband passed away many years ago. She is a memberof BEFARe's Board of Trustees. Dr. Hatch Dupree is oneof the most respected foreigners in the Afghan refugee com-munity in Pakistan.

55 See reference in Note 18. The seriousness of lack ofeducational opportunities for refugees at secondary level,and literacy training, basic skills training and vocationaltraining, is graver than statistics reveal. It is hoped that theextremely low progress rate will be considered unacceptablein the near future. Even in many poor African countries 20-25% of the primary school cohort continues at secondarylevel.

56 The importance of assisting refugees to repatriateand get relevant jobs at home should be emphasized. InBEFARe, local and international staff and consultants havebeen concerned about the field, termed 'bridging assistance'.Cooperation should be established with several NGOs, UNorganizations (such as ILO, UNESCO, etc.), other interna-tional organizations (such as IOM), bilateral organizationsand Government authorities. Teachers is a professional cate-gory of particular importance, inter alia, because teachersand head teachers can be used in many types of jobs, inaddition to teaching. More than a quarter of all refugeeteachers in Pakistan are women.

57 BEFARe places importance on applying its expertisein education and related fields in future, especially inrefugee-hosting areas.

58 The United Nations and the international commu-nity in general use Education for All (EFA) as a generalterm. The target is to achieve Universal Primary Education(UPE), and close to universal literacy, by 2015. The educa-tion targets are part of The Millennium Development Goals(MDGs), which also emphasize economic development,health and other development areas. Refugees and IDPs,who on average are about one percent of populations indeveloping countries, must not be 'forgotten' in theEFA/MDG efforts. In education, the new term 'inclusiveeducation' is a useful reminder to include and mainstreamall marginalized groups, yet also allow them to keep theiruniqueness.

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BEFARe - A “Flagship” in Refugee EducationContributing to refugee and emer-gency education worldwide

8Chapter

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223


BEFARe - A “Flagship” in Refugee Education

In this chapter we draw attention to some of the salient features of the BEFARe project. Its achieve-ments are among the most advanced in refugee education, and the project is the world’s largest.

The achievements can be measured in number of pupils who have completed primary school, adulteducation courses, training courses for teachers and various community development activities.

BEFARe, as an organization, has also developed into a solid local non-governmental organization(NGO), aiming at continued activities in education and other sectors to benefit Afghan refugees,refugee-hosting areas and victims of the devastating earthquake in Pakistan on 8 October 2005.

From 2006, activities also take place in Afghanistan.

We believe that when an impact study is carried out of BEFARe and GTZ-implemented assistance torefugee education in Pakistan, they will be given a high score. Many countries can draw lessons

from the work done in Afghan refugee education in Pakistan, including the project which is the mainfocus of this book, making it a foundation book in refugee and emergency education.

We are convinced that the impact of the project in Afghanistan is already noticeable. We hope, how-ever, that donors do not cease to assist refugee education in Pakistan at this crucial point and con-

tinue to provide ‘bridging assistance’ to the returnees. We hope that assistance is enlarged for sever-al years to come so that the about four million Afghans who are still living in Pakistan and in someother countries, can return home with dignity, with skills and knowledge, with prospects for liveli-

hoods as adults, with education as children and youth, and with realistic hopes for a sustainable andprosperous life ahead for all men and women.

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Prose MeditationMarch 2005

An Exile’s Dream of Coming Home to AfghanistanSometimes, when I am alone and I close my eyes,

I think of my country, Afghanistan, and it makes me sad inside.Afghanistan, you are the love of my life,

you have always had a special place in my heart.My parents talked about you and you sounded like heaven on earth.

My elder brother and sister also talk about you and I become envious.I have never seen you, my beloved home country,

but you are there in my heart, in my dreams.Sometimes, though, I wonder if you really are that fantastic.

Yet that I cannot tell since I have lived all my life in exile andI only know what others have told me.

There are many things that I have learned in exile, even thingsI would not have learned at home.

But there are also many things I have never learned becauseI have been away from home.

I hope I can learn all the things I have missed about you.But I also hope you can accept me the way I am.

I have many new ideas, taught to me by teachers and others, andI have plans for change and reconstruction.

I also have heard about old-fashioned customs and ways that I do not want to keep.You know, I have learned that men and women are equal.I have learned that everybody must go to school and that

the land belongs to all regardless of cradle or creed.I would like to come and meet you some day soon now, my dear Afghanistan.

Yet, I keep postponing it because I both long for you, and at the same time,I am afraid of meeting you.

Perhaps I am like an orphan whose parents have been found.I am like a child who wants to keep the dream and not face the reality, not quite yet.I also want you to be ready for me when I come, so that you do not disappoint me.

And I do not want to disappoint you, so I keep learning and preparing for coming home.I may be a demanding returnee and I may expect too much from you.

Yet, I also want to help rebuild you, my Afghanistan,so that you can truly shine, like you shine in my heart when

I close my eyes.I want our meeting to be joyful and happy. I want you to shine forever.

This time, Afghanistan, I don’t want wars, conflicts or drought to destroy our land.Are you ready for me so that I can come home to you, Afghanistan?

Am I ready, not only to meet you, but to live with you for the rest of my life?

Syed Javed Ahmad Murad

Young Afghan Refugee Teacher in Peshawar, Pakistan

This book gives an overview of refugee issues, inparticular, refugee education in Pakistan andelsewhere. Emphasis is placed on the BEFAReproject, which is a broad term for several proj-ects implemented by the German government aidagency, GTZ, in Pakistan, recently registered as alocal organization. Most of the funding has beenprovided by the United Nations Refugee Agency,UNHCR. In addition, some bilateral German aidhas been provided from BMZ, as well as assis-tance from various other international and localorganizations.

BEFARe has always operated within theparameters of the Government of Pakistan, over-seen by the Chief Commissionerate for AfghanRefugees (CCAR), Islamabad, and theCommissionerate for Afghan Refugees and itsEducation Cell (CAR/EC), Peshawar.

We have termed BEFARe the world’s largestrefugee education project, believing this to becorrect, at least when excluding activities of theUnited Nations Organization for the PalestinianAreas, UNRWA, which falls outside the generalrefugee responsibility of UNHCR operations.

To cater for more than one hundred thou-sand pupils and up to three thousand teachers hasrequired major administrative, pedagogical andother professional organizational support on thepart of GTZ-BEFARe.

In addition to BEFARe, there are severalother highly professional international and localnon-governmental organizations (NGOs), orimplementing partners as they are called inUnited Nations and UNHCR terminology. UNorganizations with part of their mandate in edu-cation, such as UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO, WFP,and other organizations, including bilateral ones,are important actors in the refugee educationcommunity in Pakistan. These organizations areparticularly important as funding agencies and asagencies of policy development, while the NGOsthat focus on refugees and internally displacedpersons (IDPs), such as BEFARe, are specialists inimplementation.

There are two or three major focus areas ofsupport for refugees and refugee education in

Pakistan. They are defined according to wherethe refugees live and where the refugee campshave been established, notably in Quetta,Balochistan, and Peshawar, North-West FrontierProvince (NWFP). Mianwali in Punjab is a thirdrefugee- hosting area with one refugee camp, butit is small in comparison to the other areas,which have had up to two hundred camps in all.

In Quetta and Balochistan province, Save theChildren - United States (SC/US) has played alead role. In Peshawar, BEFARe has played a sim-ilar role, although not with quite the samemonopoly status that SC/US has had in Quettaover long periods. However, BEFARe is aboutfive times as large (measured in number ofpupils) and could be said to have played the leadrole in refugee education in the whole ofPakistan.

We believe that refugee education has beenwell served by all the participating organizations,most of them international NGOs. The quality ofthe services provided has been consistently goodor excellent.

However, we, including BEFARe, should notrest on our laurels because there are still manyrefugees, in the camps/villages and many more inurban areas who have never had an opportunityto enrol their children in school – should theyhave wanted to do so. Initially, this was notalways the case but, today, most parents wanttheir sons and daughters to go to school.

Literacy and other youth and adult educa-tion opportunities are still few.

Secondary education opportunities havealways been limited, and higher education hasbeen for the select few in spite of UNHCR’sDAFI Scholarship Programme (funded byGermany) and the Islamic Development Bank(IDB) Loan Scheme.

We would all have liked to see education forall children of primary school-age, academic andvocational secondary school opportunities for atleast a quarter of primary school leavers, andskills training for livelihoods for the rest. Wewould naturally have liked to see a good propor-tion afforded the chance of college-level educa-

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tion, liberal university education and training inthe professions.

Following medium- or long-term refugee sit-uations, when reconstruction begins and refugeesreturn home, the importance of educated humanresources always become clear, along with thedifficulties that arise when this has been neglect-ed. Some of Afghanistan’s difficulties today arecaused by the fact that many refugees have notreceived enough, or indeed any formal educa-tion. Those who stayed at home during the yearsof war and conflict, notably some two-thirds ofthe 20-25 million population of Afghanistan, hadeven more limited education opportunities –especially during the Taliban regime – than thosewho left for Pakistan or Iran. Education oppor-tunities were better in Iran than in Pakistan, butit was usually only provided according to thatcountry’s curricula. In Pakistan, Afghanistan’sown curriculum, with modifications over theyears, has been followed.

During the Taliban regime, girls’ educationwas available for less than ten percent of school-age children in Afghanistan, and it was veryunevenly available, depending on geographicalarea and social class. Thus, many refugees had abetter chance for education than those whostayed at home. Yet far from all refugees had theopportunity to go to school.

At the current time of ongoing repatriationand reconstruction, the importance of educatedhuman resources at all levels and particularly atmiddle level is becoming clear. Such resourcesinclude teachers, nurses, midwives, electricians,plumbers, commercial school graduates, admin-istrators etc. Teachers have been included in thisgroup, but often they are at a more advancedlevel, especially those who teach in secondaryschools. Teachers and head teachers usually havea special role to play as community leaders inaddition to their ordinary teaching duties.

It is unfortunate that donors and implement-ing partners, and sometimes even the refugeesthemselves, did not realize clearly the impor-tance of education at an early stage in the three-decade long Afghan refugee era. Some, such as

the German development aid workers, UNHCRand other organizations did realize the impor-tance of education, but the forcefulness that wasrequired was missing perhaps even in theseorganizations. We have felt at times that discus-sion of education matters was important in termsof seminars and conferences rather than in termsof implementation in refugee camps/villages andin the shanty towns for urban refugees and theirPakistani hosts living in the same neighbour-hoods.

On another continent, notably Africa, theSudan is in a situation similar to Afghanistan’s.Peace seems to have come finally to that countryafter civil wars and conflicts that have lastedabout the same length of time as in the sad caseof Afghanistan. There too millions of refugees inneighbouring countries and further away, andIDPs, now look to return home, provided theycan find shelter, livelihoods, education for theirchildren and other basic social services.

Refugee life also opens people’s eyes becausethey get a chance to experience alternatives.They get exposure and new ideas. This is a posi-tive outcome of what is mostly a miserable exis-tence. Forced migration is rarely, if ever, an easyride.

For the Afghan refugees in Pakistan, theshortcomings were many. Those who receivededucation through organizations like BEFARewere well served. But there were never morethan fifty to sixty percent of school-aage childrenin school, and at best, in the refugee camps/vil-lages, only one third of the pupils were girls.

For urban refugees there was very little fund-ing for and implementation of quality educationand yet they comprised about half of all Afghansliving in Pakistan over the last decades.Coordination of organizations should also havebeen done better, although the Education Sub-committee of ACBAR (Agency CoordinationBody for Afghan Relief) and others did excellentwork, considering the circumstances. PerhapsBEFARe could have played an even more proac-tive role had it formed part of a consortium-typeorganization with other partners. The beneficiar-

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ies themselves, the refugees, and local Pakistaniand Afghan institutions and organizations shouldhave been included too.

Shortcomings aside, the success stories inAfghan refugee education in Pakistan should becelebrated. BEFARe is one such success story.Hence, the author of this book nominatedBEFARe for the Nansen Refugee Award for 2005and 2007, whose secretariat is in UNHCR,Geneva. The award was established in honour ofFridtjof Nansen, the Norwegian explorer andphilanthropist who is seen as the world’s firsthigh commissioner and spokesman for refugees.Although the winner in 2005 was another wor-thy organization in the battered Great LakesRegion of Africa, we believe that BEFARe,refugee education and the sad and brave historyof Afghan refugees were seriously considered.Perhaps it has a winning chance in 2007?

Thousands of teachers have been trainedthrough BEFARe’s teacher orientation and train-ing programmes, as well as through practicalexperience in well-organized schools and in-serv-ice advice and training. Through BEFARe, hun-dreds of thousands of children have received pri-mary education. Close to one hundred thousandadolescents and adults have received literacytraining and other non-formal education. Inaddition, through BEFARe and other organiza-tions, tens of thousands have received skills andvocational training

This book is mainly a documentation ofBEFARe’s work. It contains some analysis but thetotal impact of the work has not been evaluated.

We advocate on behalf of education forrefugees and IDPs everywhere, not only forAfghan refugees in Pakistan, their brothers andsisters in the host country, and returnees uponarrival in the home country.

When the time to go home comes, educationneeds to be supplemented by additional assis-tance, notably employable skills, maybe subsi-dized temporary employment, housing, socialservices, micro-finance and other assistance. If wethink that education alone can make majorchanges, we are like ostriches hiding our heads in

the sand. Yet we also know that without educa-tion, the other factors, notably money and otherincentives, are certainly not going to work.

We would like to emphasize BEFARe’s par-ticular achievements as regards awareness cre-ation, enlightenment and education of the public.Special mention should be made of its highly suc-cessful work in community participation anddevelopment, which has included the establish-ment of school management committees (SMCs)in every BEFARe school. This community train-ing has reached hundreds of thousands of Afghanrefugees, who have been pupils without knowingit! For those who return to Afghanistan, or forthose who stay on in Pakistan for some time andbecome integrated, this knowledge and experi-ence will be particularly useful.

Democracies, peaceful and prosperous soci-eties, are built by people who are active partici-pants in their communities. People will discuss,argue, agree or disagree, look for alternatives,new solutions, and so on. They will in each casetry to reach conclusions if not always consensusthat are acceptable to everyone in the communi-ty, not only to the powerful and strong, but alsoto the weak, the handicapped, the minorities,and the women. The term ‘inclusive education’underlines this point.

We believe that BEFARe has taught theinhabitants of the refugee camps/villages themain aspects of building and living in more dem-ocratic and egalitarian societies, where thestrength of an argument should not be decidedby a person’s wealth, possession of arms, formaleducation, gender or other attributes that peoplemay traditionally have had to accept, but by anargument’s real strength and practical value tothe development of the society in question, andto the benefit of each and every member of it.

We believe that BEFARe has contributed todeveloping understanding of the need for greatergender equality, the rights of the child, andhuman rights in general.

When the impact of BEFARe is one day eval-uated, we are confident that it will be a positiveevaluation: it will get a high ‘test score’ at the

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1. UNHCR: Searching for Solutions. 25 years of UNHCR-Pakistan Cooperation on Afghan Refugees. UNHCR,Islamabad, 2005. See also, Voluntary Repatriation toAfghanistan, published by UNHCR, Islamabad in 2003,2004 and 2005. 2. See Note 26(b) in Chapter 2.3. UNDP’s Human Development Report for Afghanistan.UNDP, Kabul, 2004.4. In education, three recent booklets about Afghanistan arerecommended. (a) Craig Naumann et al: Results andDiscussion of Education Data collected in the AfghanNational Risk and Vulnerability Assessment 2003. WorldFood Programme, Kabul, April 2005. (b) Craig Naumann:Survival, Dropout and other Indicators. Compilation ofsome Basic School Statistics in the Afghan School System.Analysis: WFP CO AFG, Education Unit. Main Source:UNICEF RALS, 2002 and 2003/4 data. World FoodProgramme, Kabul, 2005. E-mail: [email protected](c) AREU has compiled several surveys and reports fromAfghanistan and Pakistan. www.areu.org.af5. For a writer’s account of the situation in Afghanistan in2002, with emphasis on repatriation, we recommend,Albinati, Adoardo: Coming Back. Diary of a mission toAfghanistan. Hesperus Press, London, 2002, and UNHCR,Geneva, 2003.6. For a photographic account, we recommend, Zahnai:Return. Afghanistan. (Preface by Ruud Lubbers, UNHCR

High Commissioner, and an essay by Ron Moreau.)UNHCR/Aperture Foundation, Geneva, 2004. 7. A recent theatre play takes up sole searching questionsabout migration and refugees. Ariane Mnouchkine’s pageantof the uprooted. See a review by Johan Lahr: “The NewNomads”, depicting asylum seekers turned into voyagers.The New Yorker, August 1, 2005. www.neyworker.com8. The Pakistani daily, The News, Lahore/Karachi/Islamabad,has a Special Report on refugees and returnees on SundayJune 26, 2005. The articles include, inter alia, a well-researched historical article. www.jang.com.pk 9. BEAFRe’s recent Annual Reports make useful reading,especially for 2002, 2003 and 2004 and 2005. BEFARe,Peshawar. In addition, BEFARe has produced a few DVDsabout formal and non-formal education and one about thefuture, entitled, BFEARe: The New Horizon. Contact theorganization for copies. www.befare.org10. The author has written a number of articles on refugeeand returnee issues in various Pakistani dailies, especiallyThe Dawn and The News, and several other publications,including some short articles in Forced Migration, publishedby the Oxford University Refugees Studies Centre, Oxford,UK, with the Norwegian Refugee Council. Subscriptionsfrom Third World institutions are usually free.www.fmreview.org

final exam. In the meantime, we hope thatBEFARe’s work – and that of its sister NGOs –will continue and expand. We hope it willinclude Pakistanis in poor areas in the cities andrural areas, including people afflicted by the dev-astating earthquake of 8 October 2005 inPakistan, among them BEFARe’s traditional areasof operation.

If the reader feels that he or she has learnedsomething about BEFARe and the examples pro-vided through its work, after having read thisbook, our efforts will not have been in vain.

Though in all humility, we should rememberthat whatever writers, researchers, donors andphilanthropists do, the burden is always carriedby the refugees themselves and their hosts, not byoutsiders. The real achievements, therefore, are

always those of the people themselves. However,funds and assistance can make a difference andno efforts are without significance.

Since there are still several millions Afghansin Pakistan who need education, the work mustgo on. All of us must contribute until all Afghanswho wish to return to their homeland are safelyhome with the prospect of being able to live theirlives in harmony and progress. Such a prospectshould include schools for their children andyoung men and women. The prospects for theNew Afghanistan should indeed be Education forAll and Literacy for All, in accordance with theUnited Nations Millennium Development Goals(MDGs). Afghanistan is now again part of theinternational community and aims at the samestandards as other countries.

Recommended ReadingIn this Chapter we have not included Notes. Instead we would like to recommend a few titles for further

reading; some of which have been included in the Notes in other chapters.

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Part V

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Going HomeHow well are the refugees preparedfor returning home and what educa-tional qualifications do they bringwith them from Pakistan?

9Chapter

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Going HomeHow well are the refugees prepared for returning home and

what educational qualifications do they bring with themfrom Pakistan?

This chapter focuses on the many difficult decisions that face refugees when they considerreturning home after years, sometimes decades, in exile. The ‘going home’ process may seem

straightforward but in practice it requires serious consideration and planning.

This chapter acknowledges that the process is difficult: on the one hand, it is a happy timewhen the option of return actually exists, on the other hand, the refugees have to leave a rela-tively safe and organized situation to meet factors which are unknown. They need to find shel-

ter, livelihoods, daily security, health services, education for their children, and so on. Thereturnees also need to know that their neighbours and other people really welcome them home;not only the central government and the official authorities. They also need to be relatively sure

that the peace will hold, that life prospects are better at home than in exile, and that livingcosts are not prohibitive, as is often the case after wars, especially in major cities. The answers

may vary from one ethnic group to another, and from one geographic area to another.

Many Afghan refugees in Pakistan have lived in exile for a long time. They came in major exo-duses due to the wars in Afghanistan: notably in the late 1970s and early 1980s, in the mid1980s and in the early 1990s. Some came at other times, including after “9/11”, but most of

those who came recently have already returned home.

There are still about three million Afghans in Pakistan and most of them are refugees. A similarnumber have already returned after “9/11” or more precisely after the UNHCR assisted repatri-

ation programme started in the spring of 2002. Some Afghans are still coming to Pakistan,mostly to seek survival and livelihoods.

Availability of education for children and adolescents is an important element when decidingon ‘going home’ or ‘staying-on’. Qualifications and prospects of work at home are even more

important. How well were the refugees trained and prepared for going home? What lessons canwe learn from Pakistan’s efforts in Afghan refugee education, including those of BEFARe?

The chapter draws relatively few conclusions. It focuses on the many difficult questions thatarise when we discuss refugee issues, even when it is about ‘going home’. All humanitarian anddevelopment aid includes many difficult issues and decisions. We outsiders influence poor peo-

ple’s lives directly, and we must always bear in mind that each refugee andeach family is unique.

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At the end of the chapter we discuss some aspects related to lessons that we can learn from thequarter century Afghan refugee era, especially as related to education. We ask whether what we

did contributes to the refugees now being in a good position to return. Here it is possible todraw a positive conclusion, notably that Pakistan and Pakistanis treated their Afghan brothers

and sisters well, with the help of the international community. But should more have beendone, or should other measures have been taken? Also should more have been done for the

poor Pakistanis in refugee hosting areas and communities?1

Special thanks for providing information, data and opinions for this chapter go to the teachers,parents and other refugees we have spoken to during the work with the book. Thanks also go to

other people; Afghans, Pakistanis and others, who have shared their valuable insights. A largeamount of written material has been consulted, especially from UNHCR and other United

Nations organizations. Weeklies and daily newspapers have also been consulted over severalyears, especially Pakistani papers such as The News, The Dawn and others. The author remains

responsible for interpretations and analysis of issues.

Painting by Professor Gh. M. Shabnam Ghaznawi of his former home in Kabul, Afghanistan. The artist has livedin exile in Pakistan for many years and the painting shows a house, not a home, without solid foundation andsurroundings. The artist may have used this symbolically to show how he feels about how the past wars andconflicts have treated him, his family and hundreds of thousands of other Afghans in exile and at home inAfghanistan. The painting is in the ownership of the author and permission to reproduce it has been given by the artist.2

See also Prose Recitation about going home to Afghanistan, written by Syed Javed A. Murad, a young Afghan refugee teacher in Pakistan, in the introduction of Chapter 8.

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There are three solutions forrefugees at the end of a short or along stay in exile:

- Return to home country - Resettlement in “third country” - Integration in the country of asylum(temporarily or permanently)

1. Return to home countryFor the majority of the refugees,the first option is generally con-sidered the most preferred solu-tion, by the parties concerned, i.e.the refugees themselves, the hostcountry, the home country, theinternational community, includ-ing UNHCR and other UN organ-izations, donor countries, NGOsand interest organizations. Since spring 2002, close to 3 mil-lion Afghans have returned homefrom Pakistan, more than a mil-lion from Iran, and smaller num-bers from other countries, bring-ing the total number to almost 4.5million. UNHCR has activelyassisted this voluntary repatria-tion, which has turned out to bethe largest such operation in theagency’s history. Some of those who have returnedhave not been able to settle in athome and have had to come back,and some other new refugees haveentered Pakistan, but the repatria-tion has generally been a success-ful operation.Return to the home country canbe delayed by various unsettledlegal issues, either in the homecountry or in the country of exile,for example if a refugee has estab-lished business in partnership witha national in the country of exile.Payment of the share the refugeeis entitled to may be delayed,either on purpose or because theformal or informal business opera-tion cannot afford the money tobe paid without closing down.Other situations may be outright,or close to, bonded labour whichsometimes include young adoles-cents and even children. In thehome country there may be dis-

putes about ownership of therefugees’ land. For example aneigbour may have taken over theland of those who fled and maynot be willing, or able, to give all,or any of the land, back to theactual owner. These are examplesof situations delaying repatriation.They can usually only be solvedamicably if given time, combinedwith legal advise and commonsense. Some cases need court’sdecisions but enforcment of suchdecisions is often difficult. Every year UNHCR Pakistan haspromptly published end-of-yearsummaries of its repatriationwork, which has always beenimplemented in close cooperationwith the Governments of Pakistanand Afghanistan, in accordancewith the tripartite agreements.Donor countries have funded theoperations, mainly throughUNHCR, which has also directlyimplemented much of the work,with the governments of Pakistanand Afghanistan, and the NGOs.(See exact reference below and inthe Notes.)

2. Resettlement in “third country”Only a small number of countriesin the world accept resettlementin “third country”. It is a facilityused by UNHCR to find perma-nent residence for refugees who,for various reasons, cannot livesafely in the first country of asy-lum, or in the home country, forfear of continued persecution. In 2005, some tens of thousand ofplaces were open for resettlementof refugees in about 20 countries,with U.S.A., Canada and Australiataking the largest numbers.Sometimes, not all resettlementplaces are made use of, mainlybecause of time-consuming pro-cessing procedures, and it can alsobe difficult to draw final conclu-sions in many individual cases. It should be emphasized thatresettlement remains an importantoffer of a fresh start for a verysmall number of refugees, and that

it is important that the system ismaintained.

3. Integration in the country ofasylumIntegration into the country ofasylum is an option that refugeeswho have lived abroad for a longtime, or who were born abroad,are particularly interested in. Families with children of schoolgoing-age, and particularly adoles-cents doing secondary or highereducation may be interested instaying in Pakistan rather thanreturning to areas in Afghanistanwith particularly poor educationopportunities.Handicapped and other vulnerableindividuals and families are oftenunable to return home and make aliving in Afghanistan. However, the majority of thosewho are interested in integrationin the country of asylum, in thiscase Pakistan, are ordinaryAfghans who find daily life inPakistan better than inAfghanistan, with better prospectsfor their children, and who findPakistan as much home asAfghanistan. Let us repeat thatmost of these refugees are ordi-nary poor Afghans, making a liv-ing as daily wage earners and try-ing hard to meet daily expenses.Some are businessmen with goodincomes. Many of the refugees arePashtuns and belong to the samegroup as the majority in the host-ing areas, but some are fromminority ethnic groups inAfghanistan.It should be mentioned that thereis a relatively large group ofAfghans who are businessmen andtraders traveling frequentlybetween Afghanistan and Pakistan,and maybe also visiting Iran andother neighbouring countries. Thebetter off in this group may not berefugees in a true sense. Some mayeven be involved in illegal orsemi-legal trade and smuggling.

Box 9.1 Post-Refugee Options

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1. Pakistan has been a generoushost for millions of Afghanrefugees for more than twenty-fiveyears, as we have repeatedly men-tioned in this book. UNHCR hasbeen the coordinator of the inter-national assistance to Pakistan andthe Afghan refugees. Althoughthere are shortcomings in theassistance provided by the interna-tional community, UNHCR hasgenerally performed as well ascould be expected under its man-date. The massive assisted volun-tary repatriation since spring 2002has been implemented withoutmajor shortcomings with the gen-eral agreement of all parties.

2. At the end of 2006 there arestill about three million Afghans inPakistan, most of whom would beconsidered refugees. About half amillion Afghans take part in thelabour market in Pakistan, assum-ing that each family has six mem-bers. In addition, family membersmay be involved in income-gener-ating activities on a part-timebasis, such as carpet weaving orother handicrafts. 3. In 2006, the Government of

Pakistan’s National DatabaseRegistration Authority (NADRA)will carry out a registration exer-cise of all Afghans in the countrywho were counted in the Censusof Afghans in Pakistan undertakenin spring 2005. The current tri-partite agreement (Pakistan-Afghanistan-UNHCR) has beenextended until the end of 2006.Based on the registration, in thesecond half of 2006, it will bedecided what kind of solutionswill be required to bring theAfghan refugee era to an end inways which are acceptable to theparties concerned, with a time-frame (3 years). Discussions about,and search for, optimal solutionsstill go on.

4. In 2005, close to half a millionAfghans chose to return to theirhome country under the UNHCRassisted programme, which wasabove the adjusted expected figureof 400,000. It is hoped that thenumber of returnees will continueto be high in the coming years,thus making it easier for the hostcountry to accept special solutionsfor a relatively small number ofindividuals and families who willseek integration in Pakistan, tem-

porarily of permanently.

5. Assistance to refugee hostingareas and selected host communi-ties in Pakistan is given priority.Future international assistance issought shifted from refugee assis-tance to more ordinary develop-ment assistance (“mainstream-ing”). Such assistance is alsorequired for Pakistan, not only forAfghanistan although the latter isobvious and requirements large tosettle returnees and reconstructthe country.

6. Since Pakistan and Afghanistanare close neighbours, with a com-mon history, present and futureinterests, it is important that therefugee era be brought to an endin a way which is acceptable toboth countries and their people,and that it is also acceptable in aregional and international geopo-litical context. Naturally, it iseverybody’s hope that the politicaland economic developments inAfghanistan will be such that peo-ple do not need to flee their homecountry and become refugees inPakistan and other countriesagain.

Box 9.2 The refugee/returnee situation in Pakistan

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1. Most of the Afghan refugeeswho came to Pakistan were illiter-ate. Rural refugees and especiallywomen were more often illiteratethan men from the major cities. Some refugees had some or fullprimary school. A small group hadsecondary education, technicaltraining and even university edu-cation. A very small number hadcompleted university degrees fromAfghanistan, the former SovietUnion or elsewhere. Most ofthose with higher education, andrefugees from the upper segmentof Afghan society found refuge inthe West, not in Pakistan, and asmall proportion of this group islikely to return home.

2. In Pakistan, the children in therefugee camps/villages had a muchbetter possibility of getting goodprimary education than those innon-camp/urban settings.However, even in the camps there

were rarely more than fifty, occa-sionally up to sixty percent of theschool-age children being enrolledin the 6-year primary schools. Thepercentage of enrolment of girlsincreased over the years andpeaked at about thirty-five percentin BEFARe schools in 2005.

3. UNHCR’s statistics from thelarge two-year voluntary repatria-tion in 2002 and 2003 show thatless than a quarter of the returneeshad any formal education at all.However, the majority of therefugees were urban refugees.Later, when refugees from thecamps began to return in largernumbers, the percentage of liter-ates and returnees with primaryschool and further educationincreased.

4. The fact that a very high per-centage of the refugees havereturned home without having

had any formal education is amajor shortcoming on the part ofthe international community inprovision of services to refugeesin Pakistan. It also slows downrebuilding of Afghanistan, as thecountry will lack educatedhuman resources for many years.

5. In future refugee crises it ishoped that education will begiven higher priority. Refugeesform part of the groups, whichare included in the Education forAll (EFA) movement and theMillennium Development Goals(MDGs) to be realized by 2015.Education for girls and adultwomen and men are included inthe objectives. A special UN girls’education initiative has beenlaunched (UNGEI) and the litera-cy decade (UNLD) runs from2003 –2012.

References:See, inter alia, UNHCR's three booklets about theVoluntary Repatriation from Pakistan to Afghanistan in2002-3, 2004 and 2005. UNHCR, Islamabad. See also,Searching for Solutions. 25 years of UNHCR-PakistanCooperation on Afghan Refugees. UNHCR, Islamabad,2005.

As for further references concerning information in theboxes, see the above chapters in the book, includingNotes for details.The Bibliography includes some important website and

e-mail addresses.3 & 4

Box 9.3 Education and the refugee/returnee situation in Pakistan

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Photo: Fiona Torrens-Spence. Islamabad, 2003.

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Returning to their homes and villages is the ulti-mate goal for most refugees, but it is both aeuphoric and frightening experience. Theprocess of planning to go, and actually going, isnot easy, especially not when the refugees havebeen in exile for many years, even decades. Onaverage, the world’s refugees live in exile forsome ten years, not just a few years, as we oftenthink and plan for.

The majority of the Afghan refugees inPakistan who returned home in 2005 had been inexile for more than two decades, and theyounger ones were born in Pakistan. However,most of the refugees would have visited relativesin the home country once or more, and theywould have gathered more detailed informationabout the situation at home before deciding toreturn, and maybe sent one or two of their fam-ily members on “exploration missions” to take afinal look and discuss the return with family,friends, neighbours and authorities at home.5

UNHCR’s magazine Refugees, Vol. 1, No.134, 2004, is devoted to “The long road home”,with discussions of principles and practical ques-tions that arise when refugees plan to repatriate,and some reports are from concrete refugee andreturnee situations. The cover story has beengiven the telling title, “Dreams and Fears: I amgoing back to the land God gave us”.6

Under the sub-heading “ComplexProblems”, it is stated that in theory at least,refugees, humanitarian agencies, such asUNHCR, and governments, all agree on theoverall solution: the process of ‘going home’should be relatively straightforward.

Instead, in practice, it is always a complex

equation embracing extreme emotions and prac-tical considerations – euphoria, fear, dreams,nightmares, nostalgia, hostility, legal issues, andso on.

Some of the questions arising before therefugees can return are: Why abandon the rela-tive safety of a refugee camp, no matter how des-perate the conditions, for a leap into theunknown? Will there be any homes, schools orclinics to return home to? What about land andcrops? Who stays in the old house and who cul-tivates the land? Will there be jobs and educa-tion? What about physical dangers such as land-mines? Can people who have been away, some-times, for many years, socially reintegrate withthe civilian population, which stayed at homeduring the war?

Both the refugees and those who stayed athome have often changed; their families havegrown larger, some of the refugees may evenhave changed religion or denomination, or takenon habits that were seen as unacceptable before.Can civilians, especially the young, who havetasted city or urban life during exile, even withinthe confines of a crowded refugee camp, returnto isolated and often primitive hamlets andfarms?

Refugees sometimes face the perplexingprospect of deciding whether to go back to thecountry when there is peace in one region, butfighting in another, and they may worry aboutwhether the peace will last.

We could go on posing more difficult questionsbut let the above suffice. They serve the purpose ofshowing that although in theory the process ofreturning is straightforward, in practice, it is not.

INTRODUCTION

Since the individual refugees and their fami-lies face dilemmas and difficulties in connectionwith returning home, the agencies supportingrefugees and returnees, including UNHCR andNGOs, take these issues into account, and theywork with the host country and the refugees’home country in planning the voluntary repatri-ation or other durable solutions. It is a generalprinciple that repatriation should be voluntary.First of all that means that refugees must be givenample time to plan, and they must be given infor-mation, advice and other required assistance.

If possible, the early stages of a refugee situ-ation should include consideration and planningof how to end it, with some time estimates con-cerning when the refugees will eventually gohome, and the conditions required for it to befeasible. This may not always have been done,and the actual planning of repatriation will main-ly begin when the situation in the home countryis such that the option of return exists.

Many of the questions and issues that thereturnees are faced with are private and practicalones; they include logistical considerations andrelated actions. Other issues are more subtle andcomplex. Both sets of questions and issues willeventually influence the “going home” process.7

EDUCATION ABOUTREPATRIATION

In education, there are a number of importanttopics, outside the ordinary school subjects, thatrefugees need to address during their months,years or decades in exile – as we have tried toshow in earlier chapters of this book aboutAfghan refugees in Pakistan. Preparation forgoing home should be considered an education-related topic to include children, parents andother adults. The psychosocial and practicalaspects about “going home” must be dealt with,including collection of information about the sit-uation at home. The latter is particularly impor-tant since such data must be realistic and correctand neither too positive nor too negative. It goeswithout saying that schools and teachers play

major roles in this connection, together withother civil servants and, of course, relatives,friends and old neighbours.

When the actual time comes that refugeesturn into returnees they can draw upon discus-sions and knowledge gained from formal andnon-formal education sessions in the refugeecommunities. Still, there will be a whole newrange of concrete issues to address. Some issuesare short-term, and will be over when therefugees have reached home, while other issuesand problems may arise upon return home, andhence be new to the returnees and their environ-ment. Some of the long-term issues are develop-mental in nature, and it may take a generation ormore to solve them.

Gender issues, peace and reconciliationissues, questions about democracy, elections anddevelopment options, and a wide range of daily-life and future-oriented issues confront therefugees upon their arrival home. The better pre-pared and more knowledgeable the refugees arebefore going, the easier will be the return andreintegration.

However, since there are many unknownand uncontrollable factors, thorough planningand preparation is no guarantee for smooth andsuccessful return. On the other hand, withoutany, or with little preparation, the process ofgoing home and re-iintegrating will be harder.

EDUCATION FORREPATRIATION

Education is in itself an asset to every person,refugee or non-refugee. In earlier chapters wehave emphasized that education should impartgeneral knowledge and orientation, and not onlybe focused on employable skills. Still, the latterare certainly important, not least for refugeesand returnees, because without livelihoods theyhave no sustainable future ahead of them athome.

Practical, general knowledge, or life-skills, aswe often term it today, is also of great impor-tance, especially to rural residents in

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Afghanistan, who will need to be more self-suffi-cient than the urban dwellers. Therefore, non-formal education is of great importance, includ-ing topics like mother-and-child health care,early-childhood development, psychosocialissues, and so on, in addition to literacy andcivics education for the new Afghanistan.

The more formal schooling at primary andsecondary levels a refugee can get before returninghome the better. Training directly related toemployment and income-generation is essential,notably skills, vocational and technical training,and even university education, if possible. Themajority of the Afghan refugees will only returnwith limited education, but still, on average,their education and exposure will generally behigher than that of those who stayed at homeduring the war years. In our time and age, and asAfghan society changes, education and trainingfor refugees should aim at gender parity andequal opportunities for boys and girls.

Throughout the book we have emphasizedthe importance of providing education for allrefugees anywhere in the world, and in our con-text, education for all Afghan refugees inPakistan.

We have emphasized that the internationalcommunity has fixed 2015 as the target year forprovision of Education for All (EFA). EFAincludes all boys and girls, irrespective of gifted-ness, handicap or other differences among peo-ple. This means that there shall be no discrimina-tion against any child’s access to education,based on geographic, social, economic, ethnic,linguistic, cultural, religious, or any other fac-tors. “Special programmes have to be developedto reach various groups of handicapped andother minorities, such as refugees”, wrote theUNESCO Director in Pakistan in a book aboutrefugee teachers in 2003 and she added that,according to UNESCO’s estimates, about onepercent of populations in developing countriesare made up of refugees and other displaced per-sons.8

In Pakistan, during the Afghan refugee era,and especially after the devastating earthquake

on 8 October 2005, the percentage is even high-er. In addition there are the Pakistanis living inrefugee hosting areas and communities, who areoften as deserving and vulnerable as the refugeesand internally displaced persons (IDPs).

The United Nations has re-emphasized theEFA efforts in connection with its MillenniumDevelopment Goals, which focus more specifi-cally on poverty reduction and economic, socialand health aspects. Again, the target year is2015, which is less than ten years away.9

On a more general note, it is interesting thatat the end of the 20th century it was estimatedthat about 150 million people were living outsidethe country of their birth, amounting to two anda half percent of the world’s population.UNHCR has estimated that of these about 15million, or ten percent, were refugees.10

Dependent on the definition of refugee, the per-centage may be much higher. It should be notedthat many people become migrants throughvarying degrees of force. Hence, the term “forcedmigration” is a professional term for a variety ofmigrants who leave their home place or countryfor a whole range of reasons.

There is also a large “hidden number” ofmigrants, including persons being victims ofhuman trafficking, including its worst kind, childtrafficking, which is increasing and is beginningto be given greater focus in studies and policywork.11

Afghanistan has had an unprecedentedlyhigh number of refugees abroad and many ofthem are “forced migrants”. Pakistan, which is amuch larger and more populous country, also hasa large number of migrants and foreign workersabroad, especially in the Middle East and theWest. Some of them do not return home perma-nently but become immigrants. They didn’t leavebecause they were forced to leave, so there is abig difference between such migrants andrefugees. However, those Afghans who left morefor economic or other reasons of their ownchoice are similar to the Pakistanis workingabroad. When the time of “going home” comes,at the end of the refugee era for the Afghans in

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Pakistan, and at retirement age or contractexpiry for Pakistanis working abroad, the twodifferent groups will face many of the same ques-tions and considerations. Is it better at home orabroad? Or, perhaps, can I have a foot at homeand a foot abroad, getting the best of “bothworlds”?

HOW WELL ARE THE RETURNEESPREPARED FOR GOING HOME?

In Afghan refugee education in Pakistan we nevermanaged to enroll more than between one-quar-ter and two-thirds of the children of school-going age in the refugee camps/villages, and alower percentage in urban areas. The statisticsprepared by UNHCR in Pakistan at the end of2003, following the first couple of years of repa-triation after “9/11”, show that only about twen-ty percent of the returnees had any formal edu-cation at all. We keep repeating these figuresbecause they give a simple and clear picture,which we all can easily understand.12

The education situation among the returneeswas probably not quite as dramatic as the abovementioned figures indicated; many had attended

some non-fformal education and skills trainingcourses with some apprenticeship elements, andevery refugee had had informal exposure to newknowledge, values and ways of doing things in aforeign country and with people from other eth-nic backgrounds and areas in their home country.This must be counted as education, although itcannot be labeled formal education. Still, the fig-ures were dramatic. The poor education indica-tors can partly be explained by the fact that themajority of the refugees who returned soon after“9/11” were the poorest refugees, mostly fromurban areas. In 2004 and 2005, the percentage ofrefugees with some education was higher, andincreasing mainly since the refugees in the campsbegan returning in larger numbers.13

In spite of all the good work done byPakistani authorities, international organizations,NGOs, the refugees themselves, and other indi-viduals and organizations, the low percentage ofeducated returnees leaves a stain on the Afghanrefugee era in Pakistan.

We should add that the refugee hosting areas,with poor Pakistani sisters and brothers, werealso not given the attention they deserved. InPakistan, as in most other refugee situations, it isa general rule that in order to receive assistancefrom the international community (coordinatedby UNHCR and the host government) therefugees must register and live in a refugeecamp/village. However, in Pakistan the assistancethe refugees received was not covering allexpenses and the refugees had to find somelivelihood to sustain themselves and their fami-lies. In order to get employment, mostly for dailywages, the refugees would undercut the goingrate that Pakistani citizens would require. Urbanrefugees received minimal assistance. This led toextra burdens on poor Pakistanis who competedin the same market place, or, put crudely, thesame crumbs from the rich man’s table.Sometimes, refugees would have a little betteraccess to services than the locals, but they wouldnormally not have the family and social networkthat locals would have.

It should not be forgotten that Pakistani

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One of the first travels abroad after Angelina Jolie becameUNHCR's Goodwill Ambassador in 2001 took her toPakistan, where she visited refugee camps/villages andschools for Afghans in Peshawar and elsewhere in NWFP.The American actress has paid several visits to the countrylater. She came back again soon after the devastatingearthquake in Northern Pakistan on 8 October 2005. Photo:United Nations, Pakistan, 2005.

authorities have provided a number of direct orindirect services to refugees, such as free orreduced costs for medical treatment, electricity,water and other services. In addition, povertystricken and extremely vulnerable urban refugeesin many cases also received some assistance fromprivate individuals and NGOs run by Pakistanisand Afghans. Some limited assistance was alsoprovided by international organizations.

In Pakistan, where about half of all Afghans,mainly refugees, lived in urban areas and not incamps, the international community should haveprovided more direct assistance, especially in thefields of education and health. At least this wouldbe the perspective as seen from a humanitarianpoint of view.

Basic data about the number and conditionsof urban refugees was not available until aCensus was carried out by the Government ofPakistan (GoP), assisted by UNHCR, inFebruary/March 2005.14 In its repatriationreport for 2005, UNHCR Pakistan, writes: “Toensure international burden sharing and to facil-itate the temporary stay of Afghans in Pakistan,UNHCR is also assisting the GoP in developingits plan for Refugee Affected Areas (RAA) &Host Community (HC) Development Programs.The goal of the RAA and HC programs will be toalleviate poverty among selected communities,both Pakistani and Afghan.”15

Furthermore it is stated that UNHCR willcontinue to assist the Government of Pakistan inmainstreaming assistance to selected refugee hostcommunities and channel such assistancethrough ordinary development channels. In suchareas, as well as in Afghanistan, it is important toaddress the economic, social and environmentaldevelopment issues. Refugees and returnees needto be assisted so that durable solutions can befound. Shelter and sustainable livelihoods arekey, but also security and social services, includ-ing general education, civics education, literacy,and employable skills training.

In the above mentioned UNHCR report it isalso stated that the agency wishes 2006 to be ayear of hope for many Afghans in exile, express-

ing optimism as regards their possibility ofreturning to their homeland and living there inpeace and dignity: “UNHCR and its partnershope to be an integral part of making their aspi-rations a reality”, the document concludes.16

Based on the large and successful repatria-tion after “9/11”, there is reason for optimism.The Government of Pakistan acknowledges thatthe voluntary repatriation process has largelybeen successful. Yet, the GoP also “remains con-cerned over what it notes as a reverse flow ofAfghans into Pakistan, which is more a phenom-enon of economic migration of Afghans seekinglivelihood opportunities in Pakistan.”17

SOME FURTHER EDUCATIONFACTORS INFLUENCINGREPATRIATION

When refugees return home, it is often said thatthe only luggage they can take with them is theknowledge and skills they have learned abroadand the exposure they have had to new knowl-edge, ways of doing things, and new ideas andvalues. They have often become more tolerantand developed greater respect for other people.Yet, they have also learned to cherish their owntraditions and values, perhaps not all and blind-ly, based on comparison and exposure.

Families with school-aage children and adoles-

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Practical and vocational skills, literacy, life skills and othereducation and training are valuable assets when a refugeereturns home and sets up a new life and a new home. Peshawar, 2004.

cents in colleges, universities, or in their earlyyears in careers, are less likely to return homethan other refugees. This is the case for Afghanrefugees in the West and also in Pakistan, wherethere are better education opportunities than inwar-torn Afghanistan, whose secondary, techni-cal and university level institutions will only berebuilt over a decade or two. After wars it alwaystakes longer to rebuild post-primary educationthan primary education, with some literacy andother adult education. Professional institutions,the health sector and the general civil service willalso be rebuilt gradually. Services will be insuffi-cient and job opportunities will be few.Furthermore, people are not sure of the dailysecurity situation, and they cannot yet trust fair-ness in enforcement of law and order. De-mininggoes on but in some areas the process will takeseveral years. Especially in rural areas, there willbe risks for many years to come.

In Pakistan, only some five percent ofAfghan refugee pupils who completed primaryschool could continue to middle and secondaryeducation, and a tiny percentage managed toreach university level. This is still slightly betterthan for refugees in other developing countries,but it is still much lower than the average forordinary youth in developing countries, whicheven in poorer African countries reaches one-fifth to one-quarter.

Vocational education and skills trainingcourses reached a good number of refugees inPakistan, but if we study these courses in furtherdetail, the course content was often quite rudi-mentary and not always planned by profession-als. Practical work-opportunities, which indirect-ly or sometimes directly include on-tthe-jjob train-ing, have reached a large number of refugees.Various short courses, especially in English lan-guage and computer work, offered by privatesector schools, have reached a large number ofAfghan refugees, especially in the main refugee-hosting cities of Peshawar, Karachi and Quetta.When returning home, many Afghans will discov-er how useful such training courses have been, andthey will see the lack of such training at home.

Very few refugees come home with fame andfortune, and the ones who have been more suc-cessful in exile will probably remain abroad.

In the case of Afghan refugees in the West,very few have returned home, and the main rea-son is that they have had some success wherethey have gone and, even more importantly, theyhope that their children and grandchildren willhave a better life where they are than what theyexpect to be the case in their homeland.

The Afghan diaspora in countries in the Westwill consider Afghanistan their homeland, butthey will still prefer to live abroad and be morelike immigrants than refugees. The second andthird generation will not have direct affinity topeople and places at home, although they maykeep contact with relatives “at home” but willfeel more and more part of the new land.

We should remember that most of theAfghans did not move out of choice but out ofdespair; they were forced to move due to warand conflict at home. Sometimes, though, thestrongest “push factors” may have been econom-ic; notably the need for livelihoods and fear ofimmediate or future poverty.

Many of those who managed to seek exile inthe West were not the poorest Afghans; the poor-est could only reach the nearest refugee camp orurban shantytown in a neighbouring country.Still, we should be careful to substitute the termeconomic migrant for refugee without knowingthe details in the various cases.

The “pull factors” are many in the richercountries, especially in countries in the West,where the social and economic welfare systemsare well developed. Older people can expectgood health services when they need it, and theyoung ones will have education and employmentopportunities. (UNHCR discusses these issues inits fiftieth anniversary book, published in 2000,in Chapter 11, “The Changing Dynamics ofDisplacement”, and especially the sub-sectionentitled “The growing complexity of populationmovements”.)18

It is still too early to say if, and how many of,the Afghan refugees and migrants in the West,

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will actually return to the land of their ancestors.Some may go and stay for a while, others mayreturn periodically, and yet others may return inretirement, with the “safety net” of having chil-dren abroad in case they need to travel for med-ical treatment or other reasons.

LESSONS LEARNED IN REFUGEEEDUCATION

Lessons will be drawn by all organizations, insti-tutions and individuals who have been involvedin the large and long-lasting Afghan refugee erain Pakistan over the last quarter century (from1978/79), and the largest voluntary repatriationexercise UNHCR has ever been involved in,notably that of Afghan refugees returning homefrom the spring of 2002.

The refugees themselves also draw conclu-sions, which influence their decisions about“going home”. In many cases the refugees knowthe key issues as well as, or better than theexperts. They have first-hand knowledge andthey may also have directly related education andexperience. Refugee teachers, managers andNGO staff are the main experts on “their ownsituations”. They are key experts in drawing les-sons from experience, including advising onfuture refugee situations and reconstructionwork in home country (countries).

The Afghan refugee education experience inPakistan is of general interest, not only to educa-tionists and educationalists, but everyone dealingwith refugee issues, or who are refugees them-selves. It has become increasingly clear that edu-cation has an influence on, or is part of most ofthe other refugee sectors. Researchers and inter-national experts are focusing more on this obvi-ous fact than in the past when they “compart-mentalized” sectors more.19

Of particular interest to those studyingAfghan refugee education in Pakistan is that theworld’s largest refugee education project wasthat of BEFARe in Pakistan. The project haslargely been a great success and is a pride to theimplementing partner, the German governmentaid agency GTZ and now the local organizationBEFARe, the main donor UNHCR, with theGerman government ministry of developmentaid, BMZ, the other donors, and the host coun-try Pakistan and its Commissionerate for Afghanrefugees in Islamabad and Peshawar, CCAR andCAR.

What overall lessons can we draw? What les-sons pertain particularly to the education sector?Are we drawing lessons and documenting experi-ence, or do we let unique experience go to waste?Are we helping the Afghan refugees and other con-cerned parties in developing mechanisms to makeuse of the experience from Pakistan (in BEFAReand other organizations) in developingAfghanistan’s future education system and givingguidance in other refugee situations?

We shall list ten lessons, which we believe areof interest. When refugees go home, they takewith them their conclusions and experience. Theknowledge will help them in the future whenrebuilding their lives and home country. Theknowledge is also of importance to other coun-tries in reconstruction and in avoiding futureconflicts.

Provided that refugees are invited to con-tribute to their home countries’ reconstruction,and there are mechanisms to make use of theirexpertise, the refugees are more likely to plan togo home soon; not only from neighbouringcountries but even from overseas.

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Ten lessons learned in refugee education inPakistan

The lessons are important in themselves and they also influencethe ‘going home’ process

Lesson 1: In other similar refugee situations, which turn out to be long lasting, com-plex and unpredictable as for magnitude, shape and when they will end, a compre-hensive and constantly updated database is needed. Lesson 2: There is a need to seek development of better mechanisms for planning andcooperation among all partners, within and between the various sectors. Teachertraining and professional development must be given much larger attention. This alsoincludes training of refugees to become leaders and senior managers.Lesson 3: There is a clear responsibility for the international community to assist thehost government (and also the refugee-producing country) in providing education forall children, literacy and skills training for adults and secondary and higher educationfor a much larger percentage than in the Afghan refugee era in Pakistan. There aremany factors explaining the situation, but it should not be excused or “explainedaway”. We should have done better – in spite of the education achievements inPakistan and Iran being among the best in refugee situations in developing countries. Lesson 4: Refugees and other displaced persons, such as those affected by the earth-quake in Pakistan on 8 October 2005, should be given special priority under theUnited Nations goals to be reached by 2015 as described in various plans and pro-grammes. There is a need to comply with the goals and objectives of the internation-al community as regards EFA and the MDGs, including girls’ education (UNGEI) andliteracy for all (UNLD).Lesson 5: A clear humanitarian approach and targeted plans are needed in line withthinking and objectives of “inclusive education” in order to comprehend the groupsthat need special protection and help, including the physically and mentally handi-capped and traumatized, the vulnerable and extremely vulnerable refugees (many ofwhom are women), and others. Special topics need to be given attention, such aspeace education and democracy, gender issues, reproductive health, includingHIV/AIDS, environmental issues, etc.Lesson 6: The international community should widen its assistance to include urban(non-camp) refugees and local refugee hosting areas and communities. In Pakistan halfof the refugees were urban, yet they received negligible international assistance.Lesson 7: It is essential that EFA is not seen as a luxury but of direct benefit to chil-dren and adolescents. Education interventions reduce conflicts. It is realized thatunemployed youth, especially adolescent boys, are increasing risks for conflicts.Education gives a high rate of return in social and economic fields. Girls’ educationmust usually be given special focus in planning and implementation; again the rate ofreturn is high. Lesson 8: Documentation, studies and research, should be implemented during, at theend of, and after refugee crises. Both case studies and theoretical studies are impor-tant. Lesson 9: Whereas coordination and cooperation is important, as mentioned above,exchange of information and experience with colleagues handling refugee crises andrefugee education elsewhere, including on other continents, is essential. It adds com-parative data, ideas and insights. Some distance training courses can be used, e.g. inteacher training.Lesson 10: It is important to establish linkages between host country and home coun-try for future, normal cooperation. Even during refugee/emergency situations it isimportant that closeness is maintained with the ordinary education systems and agen-cies.

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The News, 26.06.05

“O Peshawar, you will miss us”Afghans have done good by Pakistan. They have reinvigorated Pashto language and litera-

ture. Through Afghan refugees, Pashtuns from both Pakistan and Afghanistan have agreed on a standard script for Pashto.

“The mass migration 1979 onwards turned millions of Afghans homeless – yet the removal ofthe iron curtain along the Durand Line after almost 100 years proved a blessing in disguise for thePashto language. The linguistic link between the people having similar culture on either side was re-established and nourished.

Pashto then was fast vanishing from school books, under the heavy influence of Urdu. It wasignored on the official television channel, marginalized at the radio station and the number of Pashtospeekers in Peshawar city – the only Pashtun city on the world map – was declining. Come theAfghans, and Pashto was given a new lease of life.

During the stay of the Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Pashtuns from both sides agreed on a stan-dard script to remove ambiguities that were hindering the growth of a language spoke by more than50 million people. Afghans in the wake brought newspapers, magazines, and a sizeable number of lit-erary work. Different factions of mujahideen, fighting the Soviet invaders with the active help ofPakistan and the West, as well as intellectuals having crossed over from Afghanistan, have no doubtreinvigorated Pashto language and literature.

This article is from a Special Report section about refugees in “The News on Sunday”, Lahore/Islamabad/Karachi,26.06.05. The article takes up cultural aspects related to the Afghan refugees in Pakistan, with emphasis on language andliterature among Pashtuns, the largest ethnic group among the refugees and in the refugee-hosting areas in Pakistan. 20

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In the beginning, the Afghan refugees concentrated on glorifying the ‘holy’ war against the infi-dels, which continued rigorously till the late 1980s. The trend, however, changed with the withdraw-al of the Soviet forces and the writers, painters, poets and intellectuals now focused on the sufferingsof the homeless Afghans in Pakistan. At the same time, there were writings inspired by people caughtin the civil war in Afghanistan.

The exhibition of paintings of Afghan children organized by UNHCR an the Commissioneratefor Afghan Refugees some years ago was about planes dropping bombs, tanks, and missiles. It wasabout destruction and wailing women – images which have recently been replaced with those ofhouses and greenery, of cows, trees, cars and schools that have teachers.

A vast majority of the Pashtuns live in Pakistan. Interestingly, some two million Pashtuns live inKarachi, according to the 1998 census. This is the biggest concentration of Pashtuns in a city. ButPeshawar has been and will remain the fort-city of Pashtuns, like it was the walled city of non-Pashtuns in the past. The new face of Peshawar is testimony to the Afghan influence in recentdecades. The change is expressed loudly in food and dressing and music and in crafts such as carpetweaving – and indeed in the new value system that has emerged out of the reciprocal relationshipbetween the Afghan refugees and their Pakistani hosts. The Afghan exodus may have stopped afterthe overthrow of the Talibal regime, but the inflow via Torkham in the north and Chaman in thesouth continues to further enrich this tradition.

Take music to gauge the widening of the Pashtun horizon. In the past all the Pashtuns had wasRadio Kabul; today Afghan singers like Qamar Gulla, Shah Wali, Farzana, Naghma, and BaryalaySammadi are no more voices from a distant background. All these singers at one time or the otherhave made Peshawar their abode and found the same feeling and love from people here which theywere used to back in their own country. As many of the Afghan artists, writers and intellectuals pre-pare to return home, it is not just them who are experiencing the panis of separation. The pain is asmuch local, and the hosts feel they are about to lose an asset.

Budding Afghan poet Babarzai’s so bids his farewell to Peshawar:“Pa maza maza Kabul ta Kadi larhi, Pekhawar biya pa moong pasi ba jharhi.”

“Slowly and gradually the Afghans are going back to Kabul. O Peshawar, you will miss us, and will cry after us!”

- Behroz Khan

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1 Special thanks for providing information, data and opin-ions for this chapter go to the teachers, parents and otherrefugees we have spoken to during the work with the book.Thanks also go to other people; Afghans, Pakistanis and oth-ers, who have shared their valuable insights. A large amountof written material has been consulted, especially fromUNHCR and other United Nations organizations. Weekliesand daily newspapers have also been consulted over severalyears, especially Pakistani papers such as The News, TheDawn and others. The author remains responsible for inter-pretations and analysis of issues. 2 We have been given permission to use reproductions of sev-eral paintings by Professor Gh. M. Shabnam Ghaznawi, arenowned Afghan painter living in Pakistan, in this book. Forreaders who are interested in seeing other paintings by thesame artist, and his selection of a number of other paintings,with a brief biography of each painter, see the large book byProf. Ghaznawi entitled Afghan Refugee Artists. UNESCO,Islamabad, 2002. E-mail: [email protected] UNHCR’s repatriations booklets mainly contain quantita-tive data, except for the latest one, which has more qualita-tive data. (a) UNHCR: Voluntary Repatriation to Afghanistan2003. UNHCR, Islamabad. (b) UNHCR: VoluntaryRepatriation to Afghanistan 2004. UNHCR, Islamabad. (c)UNHCR: Voluntary Repatriation from Pakistan 2005.UNHCR, Islamabad. 4 Ibid.5 Ibid.6 See UNHCR’s main periodic magazine, Refugees, Vol. 1,Number 134, 2004. UNHCR, Geneva.7 For some data about vulnerable and extremely vulnerableAfghan refugees in urban areas in Peshawar, see an evaluationreport of a major project by IRC. The report also includesgeneral data and is an advocacy report for more massive edu-cation for the poorest and most vulnerable refugees and hostcommunities, i.e., to include Afghans and Pakistanis.Hetland, Atle: International Rescue Committee (IRC),Pakistan. Durable Solutions Project (DSP): (a) MainEvaluation Report (open); (b) Separate Field Visits andInterviews Report (confidential). IRC, Peshawar/Islamabad,

October 2005. 8 Hetland, Atle (for UNESCO): Teaching for the Future.Profiles of Afghan Refugee Teachers in Pakistan. UNESCO,Islamabad, 2003. “Introduction” by Ingeborg Breines, p. iii. 9 See the list of international declarations and instrumentsdefining education as a basic right at the end of this book.10 UNHCR: The State of the World’s Refugees 2000. FiftyYears of Humanitarian Action. UNHCR, Geneva, p. 280.11 The field of human trafficking, not only child trafficking,is in general growing. We do not have data showing that thispertains especially to refugees or Afghan refugees in Pakistan.We recommend that the reader explores literature fromlibraries in UNHCR, UNICEF, Save the Children,International Rescue Committee (IRC), Women’sCommission on Refugee Women, and other organizations. 12 See Notes in the Formal Education Chapter.13 See the UNHCR booklets referred to in Note 3 above.14 See, Government of Pakistan and UNHCR: Census ofAfghans in Pakistan. 23rd February – 11th March 2005.Islamabad, 2005. See, also the UNHCR booklets referred toin Note 3 above.15 UNHCR: Voluntary Repatriation from Pakistan 2005.UNHCR, Islamabad, 2005. p. 20-21.16 Ibid., p. 21.17 Ibid., p. 20.18 UNHCR: The State of the World’s Refugees 2000. FiftyYears of Humanitarian Action. UNHCR, Geneva, p. 275 –287, and in particular, p. 280 –282.19 Association for the Development of Education in Africa(ADEA): ADEA Newsletter, Vol. 16, Number 4, 2004. (a)Article by Susan Opper: “Building Resilience to Conflict”,incl. “Providing education after conflicts: lessons learnedfrom country experiences”. ADEA c/o UNESCO/IIEP, Paris,2004. (b) See also article by Joris van Bommel: “EducationBefore, During and After Conflict”, incl. “The MombasaDeclaration”. 20 The News on Sunday, 26.06.05,Lahore/Islamabad/Karachi, Special Report section aboutAfghan refugees.

Notes

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Coming HomeWhat livelihoods andeducation system meet thereturnees in Afghanistan?

10Chapter

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Coming HomeWhat livelihoods and

education system meet the returnees in Afghanistan?

In this last chapter of the book we shall focus on major aspects of the education system inAfghanistan. We also draw attention to some overall aspects of Afghan society but with empha-

sis on education. For a general historical background about Afghanistan reference is made toChapter 2, where we also discuss some issues related to current affairs.

The boxes at the introduction of the chapter include a major overview of the education system.It should be underlined, however, that Afghanistan’s education system is still in the making.

Data presented should be taken only as a rough indicator; sometimes more of intentions thanreality. However, Afghanistan has made significant gains in education since “9/11”. It is proba-bly one of the most successful sectors, and a sector where there is a great desire to achieve morefast. At the same time, there are huge problems and there are also pockets where there is resist-ance to education; more so for girls and women than for boys and men. Education is mainlybasic education (primary school and literacy and other non-formal education), but it is also

secondary education, technical training and higher education, and teacher training. It is evidentthat lack of female teachers slows down provision of girls’ education in many areas of

Afghanistan.This in turn also slows down the return of refugee families with girls.

On another continent some decades ago, the great educator Mwalimu Julius Nyerere, the firstPresident of the independent Tanzania, said that we should use the book as a tool to uplift ourlives and rid us of ignorance the same way as a farmer uses the hoe to cultivate his or her land.

Afghanistan has embarked in the same way under President Hamid Karzai’s leadership.

We believe that the refugees in Pakistan and in other neighbouring countries, will pay greatattention to the prevalence of education in Afghanistan when deciding on whether to return

now, postpone until later or maybe for good. They want quality education and a better futurefor their children at home; not only the educated parents, but all refugee parents.

We wish that the parents could have been given better education while in exile, which wouldhelp them in finding livelihoods upon return. Yet, even if many could not receive formal school-

ing, literacy and skills training, and further qualifications while in exile, they do return withexposure, practical experience and valuable knowledge. We also believe that refugees return

home with greater tolerance, new ideas and general knowledge from years and often decades inneighbouring Pakistan.1

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Painting by Professor Gh. M. Ghaznawi entitled “Old Bazaar in Kabul”. 2002. The paintingis in the ownership of the author and permission to reproduce it has been given by theartist.

See Note 2 in Chapter 9 for reference to a UNESCO book by the same artist with a collec-tion of paintings by Afghan refugees.

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1. Afghanistan is listed as one thefive or six poorest countries in theworld (even when including theillegal drug trade), with the major-ity of the people living below thepoverty line. Modern health serv-ices are rudimentary, especially inrural areas. Life expectancy inAfghanistan is 44 years for womenand 45 for men (2003, CSO). Thechild mortality rate is estimated tobe one in five (before the age offive years). In spite of wars,drought, high child mortality, dis-eases related to poverty (includingTB and polio), and outflow ofrefugees and migrants,Afghanistan’s population has beengrowing over recent decades andis now 25-30 million.

2. Afghanistan’s gender disparitiesare larger than in the other coun-tries in the region, with the for-mer Soviet republics to the Northscoring higher and the countriesto the South being more similar toAfghanistan. All are Muslim coun-tries. The average literacy rate isestimated to be only 14% forwomen and 43% for men, withgreat socio-economic and geo-graphic variations (2003,MICS/UNICEF). The average forboth sexes is about 29-30%,which places Afghanistan amongthe lowest of all countries in theworld (2004, HDR). School enrol-ment (at all levels) is estimated tobe about 60% for boys and 40%for girls, again with huge varia-tions throughout the country.

3. The economic activities are alsotilted gender-wise, and it is esti-

mated that women only have 30%share of the participation and men70%. It is estimated that of theearned income, men earn aboutUDS 1200 and women USD 400per year (2003, HDR).

4. About 90% of the country’sdevelopment budget comes fromforeign reconstruction and devel-opment assistance. As mentioned,the illegal drug trade is a seriousproblem; it may hamper the cen-tral government’s possibility tointroduce law and order country-wide. However, many of the war-lords and regional leaders havebeen included in PresidentKarzai’s new government follow-ing the election of a parliamentand his own election (after havingbeen interim president) in 2005.

5. Improvement of security, lawand order, reconciliation andpeace, livelihoods, housing anddevelopment of the social andeconomic sectors is key toAfghanistan’s future stability. It isalso important to realize that thedevelopment efforts will take timeand they must be made indige-nous, i.e. the country’s localresources in agriculture and otherfields must be the basis for furtherdevelopment and industrialization.At the same time, urbanizationmay be important for nationalintegration and development ofpeace and prosperity. The generalframework for Afghanistan’s first5-year emergency rebuilding pro-gramme was drawn up in Bonn in2001, and the framework for thenext period in London in early

2006. It is essential that the inter-national community continues tosee Afghanistan’s normalizationand reconstruction as an interna-tional duty, since major interna-tional powers also have to takemuch of the responsibility for thecountry’s problems in the lastquarter century.

6. It is also essential that the inter-national community delivers on itspledges and promises asAfghanistan hopefully comeslower on the international newsagenda. If the country, on theother hand, is not assisted, includ-ing with a “window” of assistanceto tribal and other neighbouringregions of Pakistan, Afghanistancould relapse back into further,and new, conflicts and wars, withgeopolitical aspects, which wouldyet again lead to exodus ofrefugees and countless otherindigenous problems. Pakistan,together with the internationaldonor community and otherneighbouring countries, has a par-ticularly heavy and difficult dutyin providing the right help andcooperation.

7. The Afghan Conference inLondon in January/February 2006gave hope for the future ofAfghanistan: the internationalcommunity expressed satisfactionwith the last four years’ develop-ments and gave commitments tocontinue its financial and othersupport in the short-term as wellas in the long-term.

Note: References are includedat the end of all boxes.2

AFGHANISTANBRIEF OVERVIEW OF CURRENT DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS AND

EFFORTS IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR

Box 10.1 Basic development indicators for Afghanistan

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1. Afghanistan’s education systemwas in a shambles at the fall of theTaliban regime. NGOs played amajor role in provision of educa-tion. Education for boys was bet-ter than for girls. It was estimatedthat about 30% of boys went toschool but only 10% of girls. Itwas a deliberate policy to give pri-ority to boys. There were socio-economic and geographic differ-ences, and there were periodic upsand downs in girls’ education. Itshould be noted that many of theTaliban leaders sent their owndaughters across the border toPakistan (or Iran) to receive pri-mary, secondary and sometimesalso higher education. The waythe Taliban treated girls in theeducation system and the waywomen were treated, notably to amajor extent kept away from thepublic sphere, in addition to otherextremist/orthodox and uncom-promising interpretations of Islam,

can be seen as major reasons whythe West turned so stronglyagainst the regime at this particu-lar time in history.

2. Historically, education wasalways for the select few inAfghanistan, mainly depending onclass and geography. The numberof school children went downdrastically from 1980 (the peakyear until then) to 1985, but itcrept slowly upwards afterwards,with some fluctuations, until theTaliban’s fall in October 2001.The number of pupils was aboutthe same in 1975 as in 1995,about one million, but the numberof school-age-children doubledover the twenty-year period.

3. The “back to school campaign”,which UNICEF played a key rolein launching from the beginningof the first school year after thefall on the Taliban at the end of

March 2002, was a tremendoussuccess. The authorities had esti-mated less than a doubling of theexisting enrolment but saw morethan a tripling of intake in pri-mary and secondary schools.

4. “Today tears come from theeyes of our people, but these aretears of happiness, because ourchildren, our daughters and sons,are going to school. These are tearsof pride”, President Karzai said inhis speech at Amani High Schoolin Kabul on 23 March 2002.

5. Subsequent years have seen fur-ther increases in enrolment: in2003, the enrolment figure forgrades 1-12 was close to four mil-lion, increasing to close to fourand a half million in 2004(Naumann, 2003), and about sixmillion in 2005 (GoA, quoted inMunsch, 2005).

1. The geographic disparities inenrolment remain much the sametoday as they have been historical-ly: The north and northeasternparts of the country (and in par-ticular the cities in those areas)have always had higher enrolmentthan the central areas, south andsouthwest of Kabul and the wholeof the south of Afghanistan.

2. The gender disparities haveimproved but they are still similarto the way they have been histori-cally. The enrolment of girls isbetween thirty and forty percent.

3. As mentioned above, 40% ofthe pupils (at all levels) are girlsand 60% boys, but with huge dif-ferences. For example, in Kabul,the enrolment rate for girls isabout 80%, while in otherprovinces (mainly in the south) itcan be as low as 15%. Then thereare some areas where educationenrolment in general is dramati-cally low; such pockets are, forexample, Kandahar, which has anoverall primary school enrolmentof about 22% and the enrolmentof girls is as low as 1.4%; inHilmand province, the figures are

42% and 6.5% while in Kabulthey are 49% and 34% (Naumannet al, 2005). This remains the caseeven with today’s impressiveincrease.

Note: Statistics from developingcountries are often unreliable,especially in countries in and afterconflicts where areas may be inac-cessible to outsiders. Recent infor-mation from Afghanistan indicatesthat the actual enrolment andschool attendance may be up to25-30% lower than the reportedfigures.

Box 10.2 Basic data concerning education in Afghanistan

Box 10.3 Geographic and gender disparities in education

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1. During the years of wars andconflicts about 80% of all schoolsin Afghanistan were seriouslydamaged or destroyed. In 1978,there were about 1150 primaryschools and 350 middle schools inAfghanistan. Only six years later,the numbers had fallen to 210 pri-mary schools and 78 middleschools (Ekayanake, 2004).

2. In the 2002/3 school-year,3500 of the existing 5000 schoolswere considered in great need ofrepair.

3. In 2003/4, there were 7000schools (or, what was termed“learning spaces”) with 70% for-mal government schools and 30%non-formal schools.

4. In 2004/5, the number ofrequired schools to accommodatethe 6 million pupils would be inthe range of 10,000.

5. A large proportion of theschool buildings were constructedby NGOs.

6. It goes without saying thatmany of the pupils have to learnin overcrowded classrooms, shedsor sometimes in schools “underthe sky”. Anecdotal informationalso tells us that schools may existon paper but not in reality, causedby lack of schools, facilities andother resources.

7. Lack of teachers salaries, orvery poor salaries (about forty-fivedollars per month and some unre-liable payment of foodallowances), is one such major“shortage factor”. In rural areas,where the control and sanctionmechanisms are limited, schoolswould sometimes be “ghostschools”. Parents would simplynot find it worthwhile or safe tosend their children to school, and

the children would themselvesrather learn in informal settings;play or help their parents atwork.

8. UNICEF has played a key rolein provision and distribution oftextbooks and other teachingmaterials, in cooperation withthe Ministry of Education andNGOs since the first “back toschool campaign” in 2002.

9. Afghan refugee organizationsin Pakistan have, over the lastdecades, developed a large num-ber of textbooks and teachers’guides, labeled as supplementaryteaching materials, which can bemade use of in revising andrenewing Afghanistan’s curriculaand textbooks. BEFARe hasdeveloped more than one hun-dred books and teachers’ guides.(See Chapter 7 for some furtherdetails.)

Box 10.4 Schoolhouses, textbooks and other resources

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1. The Database of Afghanrefugee teachers in Pakistan wasprepared in 2002/3. The workwas coordinated by BEFARe, incooperation with NGOs andUNESCO as the main adviser andUNICEF and UNHCR as partici-pants. The Database includedabout 5,000 experienced teachers,about 30% women, when it washanded over to the Ministry ofEducation in Kabul in April 2003.Unfortunately, the Database wasonly made limited use of due toshortcomings on the side of theMinistry of Education, UN organi-zations and NGOs in Afghanistan.However, it remains a model forhow data about human resourcescan be collected and made avail-able at the time of repatriation.Stronger cooperation betweenorganizations in Pakistan andAfghan would have made it moreuseful. (See Chapter 7 for furtherdetails.)

2. Integrating and making use offormer refugee teachers, whoreturn with new ideas, experienceand some training, is important,albeit a small help in improvingthe standards of classroom teach-ers and of head teachers.

3. It is generally thought that nineout of ten Afghan teachers areuntrained or need further training.

4. Afghanistan’s Ministry ofEducation has recorded shortagesof teachers. In 2002 there wereabout 65,000 teachers but another30,000 were needed and in 2004,there were about 100,000 teach-ers, yet another 50,000 were need-ed. Shortage of female teachershampers girls’ education,

5. Since 2003, over 50,000 teach-ers received short pre- and in-serv-ice training courses. It is estimatedthat the new curriculum (complet-ed by the end of 2004) requiredtraining of another 50,000 teach-ers. A large proportion of theteachers have been trained byNGOs.

6. As a general rule, teachers arerequired to have secondary educa-tion as basic general education inorder to be accepted to teach andattend the emergency trainingcourses and ordinary teacher train-ing.

7. Upgrading and modernizing theteaching force, including in peda-

gogy, psychology, teaching meth-ods and subject matters, is anessential task to ensure higherquality standards in Afghanschools. The work has begun butit will take many years to reach anormal situation when all Afghanteachers will receive a completeteachers’ diploma of two years’duration based on a good second-ary school certificate for primaryschool teachers and a universitydegree for secondary school teach-ers. In addition, there is the train-ing of teachers for vocational andtechnical training institutes, col-leges and universities to be consid-ered. Some teachers need to haveexposure to research and high-level knowledge, and all teachersshould be assisted with updatingtheir knowledge during theircareer.

8. Already, Afghanistan has takenthe initiative in establishing teach-ers’ unions and associations.

Box 10.5 Teachers and teacher training

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1. The first curriculum changeswere initiated with the first “back-to-school campaign” in 2002,with UNICEF as central actor,with the Afghan authorities, andlater USAID, The World Bank,WFP, bilateral agencies, such asDenmark/Danida, and NGOs likeSwedish Committee forAfghanistan (SCA). The interna-tional organizations (and others)also play key roles in implementa-tion of education in the districtsand provinces, with the NGOshaving the greatest presence atlocal levels together with theMinistry of Education. Securityprecautions have to be taken byall implementing partners withforeign linkages, especially in cer-tain areas, not least in Kandahar,Hilmand and other southernprovinces.

2. In 2003, the first comprehen-sive policy document was submit-

ted to the government by a largeeducation commission under Dr.Ghaznawi’s Chairmanship. He isa former UNESCO staff member.The report takes up broad back-ground issues. Quantitative datahas been collected from the locallevels, as far as possible. Deeperconsultations with the users seemnot to have been implemented.There seems to be extensive con-tact among partners at centrallevel, with a small group of agen-cies and donors playing lead roles,with the GoA.

3. Afghanistan’s government hasstated that it wishes to ensure thatall children receive 9 years qualitycompulsory education. Expandedprovision and improved quality offurther and higher education willalso be prioritized and related toreconstruction needs. Vocationaland adult education will also beprovided. Afghanistan wishes to

comply with the objectives ofEducation for All (EFA) and theMillennium Development Goals(MDGs). Education planning andmonitoring will be given priority,including development of EFAaction plans, to ensure progresstowards achievement of targets by2015.

4. As for education change andimprovement, inputs can comefrom refugee education, especiallyin Pakistan. Organizations likeBEFARe posses a large amount ofrelevant knowledge and experi-ence. BEFARe has, over the lastdecades, developed a large num-ber of textbooks and teachers’guides, labeled as supplementaryteaching materials. (See Chapter 7for futher details.)

Sources: (a) CSO Statistical Yearbook. Central Statistics Office, Kabul, 2003; (b) MICS/UNICEF: Multiple IndicatorCluster Survey/United Nations Children’s Fund. Kabul, 2003; (c) HDR: Human Development Report Afghanistan.UNHCR, Kabul, 2005, and earlier reports; (d) Wirak, Anders et al.: Afghanistan: Norwegian Education Team Report.Draft 4th April 2005. DECO/LINS/NCG, Oslo, 2005; (e) Naumann, Craig: Compilation of Some Basic Schools Statistics.World Food Programme (WFP), Kabul, 2003; (f) Munsch, Holger: Education. Chapter in an evaluation report of aid toAfghanistan, carried out by Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI), Bergen, Norway, 2005. Strand, Arne and Gunnar Olesen(Eds.): Afghanistan: Findings on Education, Environment, Health, Gender, Livelihood and Water and Sanitation (2001 toearly 2005). R 2005:15. CMI. (g) Naumann, Craig, et al: Results and Discussion of Education Data collected in theAfghanistan National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment 2003. (NRVA 2003.) WFP, APEP, USAID, SC/US, Kabul, 2005;(h) Various articles in magazines, journals and newspapers handling current affairs related to Afghanistan and theregion, published in Islamabad, New York, etc.; (i) See also earlier chapters in this book, inter alia, Chapter 2 and 7.

Box 10.6 Policies, planning and curriculum development

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Photo: Fiona Torrens-Spence. Islamabad 2003.

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The overall situation in Afghanistan has beendescribed briefly above, but the main emphasishas been placed on the education sector andespecially basic education for children. In theremaining text of this chapter, we shall followthe same pattern and discuss education issuesfrom the point of view of refugees who returnhome from Pakistan. Basic education is usuallygeneral without any specific vocational orienta-tion. In the case of refugees, they are all in needof livelihoods when they come home and weshall therefore consider to what extent the edu-cation the refugees received in exile helps themin this respect.

In our context, in a book which is mainlyabout BEFARe and other well-organized educa-tion activities in Pakistan, we would like thereader to bear in mind that many of the refugeeswho return home will compare the good schoolstheir children have attended in Pakistan with theschools they find at home in Afghanistan. It goeswithout saying that few schools in Afghanistanreach the BEFARe standards, in quality, manage-ment and administration. BEFARe’s teachers areusually experienced teachers, who have attendedBEFARe’s training courses and are supervisedand given advice when needed by trainers andmanagers, and they have relevant textbooks andsupplementary materials at their disposal. Theclassrooms are, however, often quite overcrowd-ed and modest; but at least they do have class-rooms.3

It is natural that Afghan refugee parents andchildren make comparisons with what they comefrom with what they come to. In the currentAfghan situation, there are shortcomings, and a

BEFARe pupil will usually miss his or her goodschool in Pakistan. But then there are also otherrefugees who return home, many from urbanareas, whose children have not attended goodschools, just some self-help schools who havehad very limited resources, in poor urban areasin the cities of Pakistan.

In Pakistan the returnees also know that theassistance from the international community,mainly channeled from UNHCR through NGOs,is also being reduced. Some have seen this, evenin BEFARe schools, and many have heard aboutit. Therefore, they have realized that provision ofeducation in refugee camps in Pakistan is comingto an end. “Then better not cling on to staying inPakistan, but rather go back to Afghanistan andtry to make the best out of it there”, is whatmany refugees think. For example, Pakistan inagreement with UNHCR have closed severallarge camps in and near Peshawar in 2006, and alarge number of schools have been closed too.(See future updates in press releases fromUNHCR, IRIN and GoP.)

The education system the returnees find inAfghanistan is not yet ideal, and availability andquality varies tremendously from location tolocation. The people who have lived at home inAfghanistan all the time may sometimes be lessinterested in education than returnees who haverealized the great importance of formal educa-tion for children, further training for adoles-cents, and skills training, literacy and other adulteducation. They know that even general educa-tion is important in order to find a job, and if theyoungsters, especially the young men, havelearned some skills, the possibilities for findinggainful employment is much higher than if they

INTRODUCTION

are unskilled. We should bear in mind that mostreturnees, and again especially the young men,will have to seek employment for somebody else;they will not be self-employed, cultivate their ownland or have their own small-scale businesses.

Initially, there may be disagreement and dis-appointment on the part of the returnees, but webelieve that they will soon realize that the “edu-cation luggage” that children and adolescentsbring with them is a great asset when rebuildingtheir lives and the education system at home.

However, it is a fact that the internationalcommunity could have done more in order togive basic and further education to a much larg-er proportion of the refugee children and adoles-cents than what was the case. We shall not repeatthe professional arguments and documentationfor that here, in order to make repatriation fasterand durable reintegration more successful, as wehave discussed these issues in earlier chapters inthe book. Here, we shall only underline thatmore and better employable skills training wouldhave played a particularly important role.

Refugee teachers who return will soon realizethat they possess useful qualifications and theywill most likely either become teachers, commu-nity workers or get into other paid employmentor voluntary help. Often though, the local com-munity needs time to get used to the returningteachers and sometimes they need to overcomethe threat that a better qualified refugee teacherposes to the home community.

In this book, we have repeatedly praised theprofessional and personal quality and compe-tence of refugee teachers. Imagine what a formerBEFARe teacher can do in Afghanistan today ifhe or she is willing to see the possibilities – andis given the opportunity to help!

We do not believe that the main obstacle isthe education system when a refugee familyreturns home.4

The education systems the refugees haveattended in Pakistan, and more so in Iran, mayhave been a bit different from the governmenteducation system at home in Afghanistan.However, the differences are usually small and

can easily be overcome; Afghan school authori-ties would realize the importance of integratingthe former refugee pupils as well as teachers.

There are many other obstacles which aremuch more complicated when returnees comehome than integrating pupils and teachers in thehome country’s school system. The returneestogether with the school authorities and villagemembers at home can solve these reintegrationproblems themselves.

In other sectors what the returnees do maynot solve the problems; for example, findingacceptable shelter and paid jobs. In education, onthe other hand, the human inputs; what thereturnees can do will count.

Education is in addition one of the fieldswhich Afghanistan’s leadership is placing veryhigh on the reconstruction and developmentagenda. It is also a sector, which has madetremendous progress over the last years, whilstresults are less visible in other fields. It should benoted that national political institutions havealso been established, especially at central level,and that the presidential and parliamentary elec-tions were successfully held in 2004 and 2005. Itis interesting to note that about a quarter of theparliamentarians are women. Who could havebelieved that during the Taliban time?

“BACK TO SCHOOL” AND“BUSINESS AS USUAL”?5

How Afghanistan is faring in educating its peoplecan serve as a crucial indicator for how well it isfaring on the road to resuming “business asusual” as a nation. Also, the efficacy of the out-sider in helping build a peaceful Afghan societycan be directly measured by the success or failureof their endeavours to educate the country’syounger generation in a way, which enables it toget on with life, armed with skills necessary toforge ahead in a society, which is still very toughsocio-economically.

For any education system to be successful itis important that it imparts knowledge, skills andattitudes, which are consistent with the society’s

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social, economic and cultural context. More sofor strife-ridden societies like Afghanistan,breaking away from many aspects of its past andstarting afresh on a new and peaceful road, withhelp not interference from stronger neighbours,superpowers and other donor countries. Therehas to be willingness to make compromises whenthe new school system develops. For manyAfghans going to good schools and skills trainingcentres in neighbouring countries, it can betempting to stay on in refugee camps or even asurban refugees rather than to return to theirhomeland. Many refugees want to go home, butnot quite yet, they want more education luggagewith them before returning, especially employ-able skills, so that they can have better jobprospects.

The real test of how useful these skills andknowledge will be for profitable employment inreal life situations still lies in the future. In themeantime, it is important to evaluate how wellthe returnee children and adolescents fit into therefurbished Afghan education system. That is, ifthey all find places, especially the girls in ruralareas, and boys and girls beyond primary school.Do the teachers show up to teach consideringthat they are paid less than two dollars a day?Are the teachers qualified? Do they have text-books and other materials? Do the returningchildren feel welcomed home and integratingwell with their brothers and sisters in the post-war environs? Or, do they feel alienated by a sys-tem of education, which to a large extent is actu-ally run by foreigners?

Before trying to shed some light on thesequestions, it seems appropriate to consider whois doing what when it comes to educating theAfghans and what the results are so far.

According to the figures cited in UNDP’sHuman Development Report for Afghanistan,2004,6 well over half of the children of school-going age, or on average possibly about sixty per-cent, are actually going to school. As we showedin the boxes above, the figures vary between boysand girls, geographic areas, and between thecities and rural areas. On average, only 30-440

percent of girls attend school, and up to 60 per-cent of the boys. There are about six millionpupils in Afghanistan’s schools. In general,school attendance is better in the north and cen-tral areas southwards to Kabul, but further southit becomes dramatically poorer in manyprovinces and districts, and in some of the mostorthodox and conservative areas, just a smallpercentage of the girls go to school and some tento twenty percent of the boys. It is also a worrythat teachers are so poorly paid that in manyrural and remote schools, where there is lessmonitoring from the side of the authorities, theschools do not operate as they should. They aresometimes “ghost schools” which exist on paperbut not in reality.

Due to lack of buildings and shortage ofteachers, many schools have to be run in shifts.That is in situations where there is a greatdemand and teachers and pupils do show up andtake advantage of the education provided. Theflipside of that coin is that the school daybecomes short, and sometimes boys get the lion’sshare and the girls may not be prioritized.However, girls are prioritized in one particularfield, in refugee situations and in Afghanistan,notably when it comes to home schools. We findsuch schools important, especially in a transitionperiod after wars, in situations where Westerneducation is not yet accepted in conservativecommunities and for other reasons, for examplethe distance to the school is far and unsafe. Insuch cases home schools should be organized forboys and girls.

BEFARe and other organizations haveunique experience from running home schoolsfor groups of refugee children in Pakistan, whichAfghanistan can learn from.7

Craig Naumann, an international consultantwith yearlong experience from work in educa-tion in Afghanistan, highlights an overlookedphenomenon, notably that there is ethnic dis-crimination in certain parts of Afghanistan. In aninterview, he mentions that in some areas, theminority ethnic groups may have difficulties inbeing admitted to school. He says that in some

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cases, the only alternative is to establish a sepa-rate school for the ethnic minority group, and headds that over time it will be possible to reach anunderstanding between various ethnic groups,but it is usually a gradual process since attitudeschange gradually. “On the other hand we alsohave evidence of students from different ethnici-ties attending schools together without prob-lems.”8

The new curriculum for Afghan schools isnearing its completion, assisted by experts fromthe University of Columbia Teachers’ College inthe United States and elsewhere. During therefugee years, there was particularly close coop-eration with the University of Nebraska atOmaha in the United States and the so-called“UNO textbooks” were used in refugee schoolsin Pakistan as well as in Afghanistan. The cur-riculum and textbook changes are much largerthis time than for decades and it is hoped that thenew books will suit the Afghans social, econom-ic and cultural context and fulfill the needs of thepeople.

It should be noted that the Afghan Ministryof Education had the wisdom to introduce so-called “life-sskills” content in the curriculum forgrades one to three, as a foundation of the socialstudies curriculum that covers grades four to six.The life-skills syllabus focuses on the importanceof building and maintaining healthy social rela-tionships, peace skills such as responsible prob-lem solving and reconciliation, care for the envi-ronment and other similar notions.

The new curriculum will play an importantrole in contributing to resolving, or avoidingoccurrence of conflicts that so frequently plaguesAfghan society. In the case of existing or poten-tial conflicts, we would hope that the new cur-riculum will result in the younger generationovercoming them. Stereotypes, prejudice andpreconceptions can only be eradicated by educa-tion; specifically secondary school educationwhich serves to strengthen the foundation laidearlier.

It should be added that peace education isessential in schools everywhere, not least in

countries coming out of wars and conflicts. InBEFARe’s schools and other refugee schools inPakistan, peace issues were given increasingimportance, in line with the general importancegiven to peace education in pedagogy.9

In a longer time perspective, peace educationin schools can contribute directly to solvingmany internal problems in a country, but cannotdo much to avoid external interventions, or otherinterference, which Afghanistan has suffered.However, peace educators and activists in peacemovements believe that the response to suchexternal interference and influence will be differ-ent if children and adults have learned about anddiscussed peace issues at school and in publicdebate. If this is true, then peace education is apowerful tool that can help countries enjoydurable peace, not only at the political level butat many other levels that are important in peo-ple’s daily lives.10

For Afghanistan, it is important to takeadvantage of the investment that all the well-meaning foreigners are making in order to helpin improving the country’s education system.11

It should be underlined that efforts by for-eigners can only assist. The major efforts shouldbe carried out by Afghans and under the leader-ship of government staff and leaders. But for-eigners can and should help in providing expert-ise and advice in various fields, such as, teachingand learning methods, curriculum development,preparation, printing and distribution of text-books and materials, evaluation and assessmentmethods, education planning and monitoring,education research, etc.

Foreigners could also have a role in settingtargets, making sure that realistic inputs areavailable, monitoring implementation, and alsotaking corrective measures if developments arenot on track. Some of these tasks are probablyeasier for foreigners to handle, especially at cen-tral level, but also at provincial levels.

NGOs do certainly have a role to play,staffed with foreigners and locals, but their roleshould be adjusted to the needs and policies asset by the country’s government and the interna-

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tional donor organizations. In principle, some-one also needs to “keep an eye” on the donorstoo, and the NGOs, as has already been a topicin Afghanistan since the majority of the develop-ment aid has gone outside the ordinary govern-ment channels. It is the recipient country, withthe donor countries and organizations that inpartnership have to monitor implementation.Reviews and evaluations are important but havenot always been sufficient. Afghanistan’s largereconstruction operations require special moni-toring and control systems as soon as possible.There is also need for continued staff develop-ment and institutional capacity developmentprogrammes. These issues pertain to all sectors,including education, where there is a great needfor training of teachers and managers.

The contents of the teaching materials shouldbe modern and build on new knowledge in ped-agogy, but the materials must not have a foreignoutlook. If they do, that will make many parentsless interested in sending their children to thegovernment schools. They would in that caserather send their children to madrassas, or otherprivate schools if they exist and the parents canafford it. Some parents may even keep childrenaway from educational institutions which theythink have foreign (Western) content if theybelieve it does not harmonize with the Islamicreligion and traditional values.

There have always been pockets of deep con-servatism in the Afghan society, not only duringthe Taliban regime. Yet, there is also the oppositeproblem, notably that some people, perhaps ado-lescents, lack solid foundations and can be“swayed with the wind”. We believe that this canbe an existential problem felt by many Afghans,after all the criticism their traditions and way oflife have received.

There is a great need for public education inAfghanistan, in schools, through mass media,civic education organizations, and so on, in orderto develop the new Afghanistan, with democrat-ic institutions, gender equality and greater equal-ity between rich and poor, learned and lay, hand-icapped and able bodied, and so on and so forth.

Related to the above is the education ofteachers, social and health workers, communityleaders and various types of civil servants.Naturally, teachers play a special role in localcommunities in cities, towns and especially in thevillages. Above, we have devoted a chapter inthis book to issues related to refugee teachers.Many of those aspects we have discussed are asrelevant for ordinary teachers as they are forrefugee teachers, or in the current situation ofAfghanistan, when many of the teachers areinvolved in reconstruction and rebuilding of thecountry, and are emergency teachers.

The number of children completing primaryschool, having qualifications for middle and sec-ondary education, is steadily increasing. Someare returnees who come home mainly fromPakistan and Iran, but more and more pupilscome out of Afghanistan’s own primary schools,putting pressure on the system for further educa-tion. Education planners in Afghanistan believethat opening a sufficient number of middle andsecondary schools, and other middle-level skills,vocational and technical training, is not an insur-mountable task.

With sustained donor support, as waspledged at the London Conference forAfghanistan at the turn of January and February2006, the rebuilding of the education system ispossible.

The fields that take longest are higher educa-tion and research, and the creation of a culture inthe government and private sectors that are con-ducive to development.

School certificates, with bookish knowledge,skills and attitudes, are essential but they need tobe paired with good practical experience after-wards. For most developing countries, the latteris a much more complex problem than to erectschool buildings, develop and print books, andeven educate teachers. When we use the termdevelopment of human resources, which is key indeveloping the new and modern Afghanistan, weinclude education and training at school as wellas practical on-the-job training and maturity.

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EDUCATION FORRECONSTRUCTION

Throughout this book we have emphasized theimportance of education for refugees, returneesand the majority of Afghans who lived at homeduring the recent decades of wars and conflicts.In this chapter, we have in particular underlinedthat education is a key factor in rebuilding anddeveloping a peaceful and prosperousAfghanistan. We have tried to highlight that thereturnees find a far from perfect education sys-tem, but still a system which is on track.

We are emphasizing that a country’s peopleare its real capital. The better educated andtrained they are, the richer the country is.However, this human capital cannot be used onlyby itself, it also requires other inputs, in order todevelop the country. In Afghanistan there is avery long way to go to develop the country’sinstitutions and infrastructure, such as roads,electricity, water, health, security, the judicial sys-tem, and other sectors.

The success that Afghanistan can show in itsdevelopment of the education sector over thefour-five years after “9/11” promises well for thecountry’s further reconstruction. Educated andtrained people will be in a better position to dothe jobs and do them well. The better back-grounds people have, the easier it will be forthem to find livelihoods – either they arerefugees returning home or they are Afghanswho endured the difficulties at home during thelong years of wars and conflicts.

Although we are concerned about education,it should be underlined that investments mustalso be made in infrastructure, institutionaldevelopment, in health and nutrition, and othersocial and productive sectors. Yet, on the otherhand, we also know that without an educatedand trained workforce no country can succeed,especially a country like Afghanistan, coming outof wars and conflicts, and still experiencing postconflict problems including security problems,huge illegal smuggling of drugs and corruption.

The future development problems are much

more complex in a country like Afghanistan thanfor an industrialized country, say in Europe. Thelatter has a much larger base of excellentlytrained people, it has capital, functioning institu-tions, low corruption, law and order, and so on.

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These girls are from a makeshift school established afterthe devastating earthquake that hit Kashmir and NWFP,Pakistan, on 8 October 2005. Amongst the four millionsaffected by the earthquake; the death toll was more than80,000. Many of the survivors became homeless and hadto move into temporary camps. Victims of natural disas-ters, like the earthquake in Pakistan, experience similartrauma and have similar needs for help as victims of wars,creating refugees. Afghan refugees have done their best tohelp out after the earthquake, especially in villages inNWFP, where BEFARe is also involved.In Kashmir, the interest for education among earthquakevictims in the temporary camps was much higher thanexpected. When the people can move back to their settle-ments in the mountains after the winter season is over, itis hoped that they can “take the schools with them”, i.e.that permanent schools can be established for children andliteracy and skills training centers for adolescents andadults. Establishment of women groups should be givenspecial attention. In addition to focusing on ordinary func-tional adult education issues, the groups should also focuson psychosocial issues related to rehabilitation after theearthquake.12 Photo by United Nations, 2005.

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This again points to how crucial education andtraining are to form the basis and move ahead.

It is with pleasure we note that BEFARe andother projects and activities dealing withrefugees in Pakistan have made excellent contri-butions in the education sector over the years.Hundreds of thousands of refugees havereturned home to Afghanistan with basic educa-tion from BEFARe’s good schools in Pakistan.Some are still in school and need to completetheir schooling upon return to Afghanistan.Thousands of experienced and trained BEFAReteachers, head teachers and managers have alsoreturned home. About thirty percent of thepupils and teachers are girls and women.

The former BEFARe pupils and teachers arecontributing significantly to Afghanistan’s devel-opment. BEFARe books and other materials arealso valuable assets to the new Afghanistan.

BEFARe still has a large number of pupils inits schools in Pakistan. That means that essentialeducation work still continues on both sides ofthe Afghan border on the way to a normal situa-tion.

In Pakistan, there are refugee-hosting areaswith poor Pakistanis who need help, and thereare Pakistanis and Afghans affected by the devas-tating earthquake in Pakistan in October 2005.Afghans and Pakistanis work hand in hand tomake the best out of difficult situations, includ-ing as refugees, hosts of refugees, returnees,workers and experts on both sides of the bor-ders. The two countries and their people havemuch in common in peace and when disastersstrike.

THE FUTUREMany Afghan refugees in Pakistan and elsewhereare cautious when deciding on returning home.This is understandable. But as for the educationsector they meet in Afghanistan, we believe thatrefugees will find it satisfactory. Afghanistan hasnever, in its history, had such a large number ofpupils going to school. Some sources show fig-ures as high as six million, although very few

pupils are in high quality schools. The qualitywould usually be lower than schools run byBEFARE and other NGOs in Pakistan, or thegovernment schools in Iran. Still we hope theAfghans at home and the returnees find theschool system bearable, accepting that it is con-tinuously being rebuilt and improved. Returneestoo can play a major role in improving the schoolsystem. Teachers, parents, pupils and the localcommunities where the schools are situated,should all help on the road to a better future.

Other problems, such as lack of housing,livelihoods, health services, and law and order,and general security are more worrying. But thisbook is about education, and it is therefore ourtask to report on that sector, which we find to beon track and moving fast in the right direction.

The international community has promisedAfghanistan assistance in rebuilding the country,and they have said they will be there over thelong haul. The conferences after “9/11” have allconfirmed this; in Bonn, Tokyo, Berlin andLondon. The international community also has aresponsibility for assisting Afghanistan since thelast quarter century’s wars and conflicts weremuch due to geo-political reasons and foreigninfluence. Now, it is up to the Afghans to getback into the driver’s seat and steer future devel-opments.

The foreign forces should be warned andmake it possible to give Afghanistan back to itsrightful custodians. Afghanistan will remain apoor country for many years and decades, but itdoes have the potential to reach acceptable eco-nomic levels, which can give the people ofAfghanistan a future in peaceful development,where the daily struggle leads to betterment andimprovements are not destroyed, but where peo-ple again care for each other and can look for-ward to a better future in safety for their children– a country which every Afghan will be proud ofcalling home. We as educationists have a specialduty in this, but each Afghan has his or her dutyin rebuilding their land.

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1 (a) Special thanks for providing information, data andopinions for this chapter go to the teachers, parents andother refugees we have spoken to during the work withthe book. Thanks also go to other people, Afghans,Pakistanis and others, who have shared their valuableinsights. In a footnote below a few names have beenmentioned. (b) There is a range of new books givingbackground about the modern and “new” Afghanistan(fiction and more journalistic reports), such as (i)Albinati, Edoardo. Coming Back. Diary of a mission toAfghanistan. Hesperus Press, London, and, UNHCR,Geneva, 2003; (ii) Seierstad, Aasne: The Bookseller ofKabul. Little, Brown, Time Warner Books, London,2003; (iii) Hosseini, Khaled: The Kite Runner. RiverheadBooks, New York, 2003. 2 Sources for the boxes: (a) CSO Statistical Yearbook.Central Statistics Office, Kabul, 2003; (b)MICS/UNICEF: Multiple Indicator ClusterSurvey/United Nations Children’s Fund. Kabul, 2003; (c) HDR: Human Development Report Afghanistan.UNHCR, Kabul, 2005, and earlier reports; (d) Wirak,Anders et al.: Afghanistan: Norwegian Education TeamReport. Draft 4th April 2005. DECO/LINS/NCG, Oslo,2005; (e) Naumann, Craig: Compilation of Some BasicSchools Statistics. World Food Programme (WFP),Kabul, 2003; (f) Munsch, Holger: Education. Chapter inan evaluation report of aid to Afghanistan, carried outby Chr. Michelsen Institute, Bergen, Norway, 2005; (g) Naumann, Craig, et al: Results and Discussion ofEducation Data collected in the Afghanistan NationalRisk and Vulnerability Assessment 2003. (NRVA 2003.)WFP, APEP, USAID, SC/US, Kabul, 2005; (h) Variousarticles in magazines, journals and newspapers handlingcurrent affairs related to Afghan and the region, pub-lished in Islamabad, New York, etc.; (i) See also earlierchapters in this book, especially Chapters 1, 5, 6 and 7.3 In addition to the references in Note 2 above, refer-ence is also made to Note 3 in Chapter 9, notablyUNHCR Pakistan’s booklets concerning repatriation. 4 UNHCR’s offices in Pakistan and Afghanistan havedetailed information about various repatriation issues.The offices have Public Information (PI) Officers andalso Mass Information (MI) Officers; the PI officersmaintain overall information while the MI officers havefurther details about the local community situations. (b)Information is updated and made available almost dailyfrom other media organizations and networks, such asIRIN, which is a network under the United NationsOffice for Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA). 5 In the following text of this chapter we draw heavilyupon material from key international organizations

based in Afghanistan, the World Food Programme(WFP), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF),United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR), Save the Children Alliance, bilateral aidagencies (USAID, Danida, etc.), a number of otherorganizations, and various Afghan ministries in educa-tion and other sectors. As mentioned in Note 1 a fewindividuals deserve special mention for their assistancein providing data and contributing to the analysis in thischapter: Craig Naumann, an international consultant,with some four years of experience from work in thefield of education, mainly for WFP, in contact with otherorganizations. Muhammad Badar Alam, Assistant Editor,The News, Lahore, also needs special mention.Furthermore, Dr. S.B. Ekanayake should be mentionedas contributing to this chapter as well. His book entitled,Education in the Doldrums. Afghan Tragedy. Islamabad,2000 and 2005, has been drawn upon, and in particularthe last chapter, “Curriculum Conflict”, which is new inthe 2nd edition of the book. 6 See Note 2 (c) above.7 Laila Ayoubi completed a Ph. D. dissertation on home-schools for refugee girls in Pakistan at PrestonUniversity, Kohat, 2006. The author had the privilege ofadvising and discussing issues during Dr. Ayoubi’s workwith her dissertation.8 Several interviews were held with Craig Naumann inIslamabad in October – December 2005. Some of thedata originates from these interviews and some from anarticle in “The News”, Lahore/Islamabad/Karachi,22.01.06, by Atle Hetland and Muhammad Badar Alam. 9 See BEFARe’s Annual Reports, including the one for2005, and various internal reports in non-formal andformal education. See also Holger Munsch’s report (inGerman) entitled, Grunderziehung fur afghanischeFluchtlinge. Basic Education for Afghan Refugees(BEFARe). GTZ Fallstudie. Gutachten im Rhamen desSektorhaben Bildung und konfliktbearbeitung. Bremen,October 2004. 10 See countless UNESCO reports for general aspects ofpeace education, including as related to emergency situa-tions. See website addresses at the end of the book.11 In the boxes at the beginning of the chapter we haveincluded some basic data about the education sector.The references in Note 2 above give further referencesto studies/evaluations. 12 See, Atle Hetland: “ABC of post-disaster” and“Curriculum for change” in “The News on Sunday”,Lahore/Islamabad/Karachi, 30.10.05 and 25.12.05,respectively.

Notes

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“ I am ready to go home now”,this young Afghan boy seems to be saying

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Annexes

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INTERNATIONAL DECLARATIONS ONTHE RIGHT TO EDUCATION

IntroductionThe following text concerning the usefulness of the international instruments and declarations is from a recent publi-cation by the Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) entitled, Minimum Standards for Educationin Emergencies, Chronic Crises and Early Reconstruction. INEE, c/o UNESCO, Paris, 2004, page. 71. (Currently,INEF is housed by UNICEF, New York.)

BEFARe is the coordinator of the INEE Working Group on Minimum Standards for Teachers and Other EducationPersonnel.

International instruments and declarations proclaim the right of all individuals to have an education, which sets thefoundation for the promotion of all human rights. The right to free expression, the right to equality and the right to havea voice in decision-making with regard to social and educational policies are integral parts of education.

In emergency settings it is essential that these rights are preserved. As part of the emergency response, educationauthorities and key stakeholders should develop and implement an education plan that takes into account national andinternational education policies, upholds the right to education, and is responsive to the learning needs of affected pop-ulations. This framework should aim to improve the quality of education and access to schools and should clearly showthe transition from emergency response to development. Community involvement in the planning and implementation ofinterventions, programmes and policies is vital to the success of any emergency response.”

The Universal Declaration of Human RightsAdopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1948.

Article 1All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience andshould act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, suchas race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other sta-tus. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of thecountry or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any otherlimitation of sovereignty.

Article 261. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally availableand higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. 2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect forhuman rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations,racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.3. Parents have the prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.

Annex 1

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The Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

Adopted in London, November 1945.

The Preamble emphasized that the states parties to the Organization’s Constitution believed in “full and equal oppor-tunities for education for all, in the unrestricted pursuit of objective truth, and in the free exchange of ideas andknowledge (…).

Article 1 of the Constitution of the Organization emphasized its role in contributing to peace and security “by pro-moting collaboration among the nations through education, science and culture in order to further universal respectfor justice, for the rule of law and the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples ofthe world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations.”

The Integrated Framework of Action on Education for Peace,Human Rights and Democracy

Declaration of the 44th session of the International Conference on Education.Endorsed by the General Conference of UNESCO, November 1995.

With this Declaration, Ministers of Education expressed their concern with the “manifestations of violence, racism,xenophobia, aggressive nationalism and violations of human rights” as well as “by religious intolerance, by theupsurge of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations and by the growing gap separating wealthy countries frompoor countries”. They also expressed their conviction that well-carried out education policies will contribute to thedevelopment of tolerance and understanding, thus to the development of human rights and to the construction of aculture of peace and democracy. They reaffirmed their determination to base education on principles and methods thatcontribute to forming the human personality, who are respectful of their fellow human beings and determined to pro-mote peace, human rights and democracy.

The Integrated Framework of Action pays attention to the “vulnerable groups” in order to respect “their right to edu-cation” and set up for them programmes and specific means and methods of teaching organized in a way that enablesthem to fully exercise this right.

The World Declaration on Education for AllAdopted at the World Conference on Education for All, Jomtien, Thailand, March 1990.

Article 1, Section 1 of the Declaration affirmed that “every person – child, youth and adult – shall be able to benefitfrom educational opportunities designed to meet their basic learning needs”. Section 3 added, “Another and no lessfundamental aim of educational development is the transmission and enrichment of common cultural and moral val-ues. It is in these values that the individual and society find their identity and worth.”

Article 3 added that “ basic education should be provided to all children, youth and adults” and declared, “For basiceducation to be equitable, all children, youth and adults must be given the opportunity to achieve and maintain anacceptable level of learning.”

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The Dakar Framework of Action Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments.

Adopted by the World Education Forum, Dakar, Senegal, April 2000.

The six goals of the Dakar Framework of Action

1. Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerableand disadvantaged children.

2. Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality.

3. Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes.

4. Achieving a 50 percent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.

5. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education ofgood quality.

6. Improving all aspects of the quality of education, and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measura-ble learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.

UNESCO, which is responsible for co-ordinating the EFA Movement, has developed standard-setting and monitoring instruments,and correctional measures to be taken underway, without which many goals may not be reached by the poorer developing countries.The international community has committed itself to supporting each country’s efforts, provided the policies and actions by the coun-try itself are considered sound.

The Ten Years United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI)Launched by Mr. Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations at the World Education Forum, Dakar,

Senegal, April 2000.

UNGEI’s aim is at reaching equality of enrolment and achievement in education between girls and boys. UNGEImounts a sustained campaign to improve the quality and availability of girls’ education through collaboration amongdifferent partners within and outside the UN system.

UNGEI recognizes that the education goals will not be reached unless affirmative actions are taken in support ofgirls’ education. The international poverty reduction goals will not be reached without concerted efforts to achievegender equality and to eliminate discrimination against women and girls. Therefore, UNGEI is envisaged as an essen-tial, integral element in the global efforts to reduce poverty. UNGEI is a major UN system contribution to theEducation for All Movement and to achieving the Millennium Development Goals. UNGEI’s task force is co-ordinat-ed by UNICEF.

The Millennium Development GoalsAmong other standard-setting instruments are the Millennium Development Goals, 2000,

of which two goals specifically concern education.

GOAL 2: Achieve universal primary education. Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike,will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling.

GOAL 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondaryeducation preferably by 2005 and at all levels of education no later than 2015.

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The United Nations Literacy Decade (UNLD). 2003 – 2012Adopted at the 56th session of the United Nations General Assembly, December 2001.Launched at UN Headquarters on 13 February 2003 with UNESCO as lead agency.

The United Nations Literacy Decade (UNLD), 2003 – 2012, aims to extend the literacy to those who do not currentlyhave access to it. “Literacy as Freedom” is the theme of the Decade.

While societies enter into the information and knowledge society, and modern technologies develop and spread at rapidspeed, close to 1 billion adults are illiterate (more than one in five people above the age of 15) and at least 120 millionchildren have no access to school, and hundreds of millions attend sub-standard schools. It has been estimated that abouthalf of all children who do not attend school belongs to groups affected by war, conflict, post-conflict and emergencysituations.

Countless children, youth and adults who attend school or other education programmes fall short of the required levelto be considered functional literate in today’s world, mostly in developing countries.

The UN Resolution (56/116) recognizes that literacy is crucial to the acquisition, by every child, youth and adult, ofessential life skills that enable them to address the challenges they face in life. Literacy represents an essential stepin basic education, which is an indispensable means for effective participation in the societies and economies of thetwenty-first century.

UNLD endorses the insight that literacy is not limited to the generic skills of reading, writing and calculating, but isinstead a human right related to development. Literacy may be culturally, linguistically and even temporally diverse.

UNLD aims at achieving 50% improvement in adult literacy by 2015 as well as equitable access to basic and contin-uing education for all adults. (See EFA goal 4, where girls and women have been mentioned specifically; reference isalso made to the girls’ education initiative, UNGEI.)

Doubling the literacy rate in countries with very poor literacy is a very conservative goal and the UNLD spirit is thatcountries should achieve universal, or close to universal literacy.

In Afghanistan and the “tribal areas” on the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan, sometimes the literacy rate isoften less than ten percent, and among women just a few percent. In such cases, the spirit of the UNLD is reaching muchmore than doubling of the literacy rate. UNESCO supports each country in developing its National Action Plan forLiteracy, modeled on the International Action Plan, to take cognizance of the situation in each country unique situationand internal variations.

UNLD focuses on meeting the learning needs of those who are excluded from quality learning. (See EFA goal 6.)Attention shall be given to various marginalized groups, including children, adolescent girls and boys (such as drop-outs) and adults in situations of conflict, emergency, and displaced people and refugees.

The Decade will also play a vital role in realizing the objectives of the Education for All movement and theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs); the latter focus on eradication of poverty, economic development, andhealth issues, including education.

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Considering the constant production of new lit-erature and references in today’s world, wehave decided not to include an ordinaryBibliography in this book. The main substantivechapters include relatively detailed Notes withreferences to some of the existing literature.

Below, we present the websites and e-mailaddresses to selected organizations and institu-tions so that the reader can have access to the lat-est information directly from these. The list isnot exhaustive.

The Government of Pakistan has informa-tion on issues pertaining to all aspects ofrefugees/returnees at Ministry level and at itsChief Commissionerate for Afghan Refugees(CCAR), House 10, Street 30, F-7/1, Islamabad.Furthermore, there is a Commissionerate (CAR)in each of the major refugee-hosting cities inPakistan.

Addresses for further informationand literature acquisition

1. GTZ and BEFARe• BEFARe – Basic Education for Afghan Refugees,

8 Tatara Road, Rahatabad, Peshawarwww.gtz.de [email protected] [email protected]

• GTZ HeadquartersEschborn, Germanywww.gtz.de

2. International networks• IRIN - UNOCHA’s integrated humanitarian aid infor-

mation network, Islamabad. [email protected]

• INEE - Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies. [email protected]

• RLN - Refugee Livelihoods Network

[email protected]

3. Coordinating body and library for Afghan refugees in Pakistan

• ACBAR - Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief, incl. Education Comte. [email protected]

• ARIC - ACBAR’s Afghan Resource and Information Centre [email protected]

4. Some International NGOs in Pakistan in refugeeeducation (implementing partners)

• OI-Ockenden International (UK), Peshawar/Quetta/[email protected]

• IRC - International Rescue Committee, Peshawar/Islamabad/Kabul www.theirc.org [email protected] [email protected]

• SC/US - Save the Children (United States), Quetta/Islamabad.www.savechildren.org [email protected] [email protected]

• SC/UK – Save the Children (UK), Islamabad. www.savethechildren.org.uk

• SC/Sweden – Save the Children (Sweden), Peshawar. [email protected]

• NRC - Norwegian Refugee Council (Norway), Peshawar/Teheran/[email protected]

• World Vision Pakistanwww.worldvision.org

• Mercy Corps (UK), Quetta/Islamabadwww.mercycorps.org

5. Some local NGOs in refuge education in Pakistan

• Afghan Institute of Learning, Peshawar/[email protected]

• Society for Support for Primary Education in Balochistan, Quetta/[email protected]

• AED - Academy for Educational Development, Islamabad. www.aed.org

Annex 2

Literature and References

6. Some United Nations Organizations *• UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization, [email protected] j. [email protected]

• UNESCO Office, Kabul. [email protected] [email protected]

• UNESCO Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok (curriculum development, etc.) www.unescobkk.org

• IIEP – UNESCO Institute for Educational Planning, Paris www.unesco.org/iiep

• UIE – UNESCO Institute for Education, Hamburg (literacy and adult education).www.unesco.org/education/uie

• IBE – UNESCO International Bureau of Education, Geneva (curriculum development). www.ibe.unesco.org

• UNEVOC – UNESCO International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, Bonn www.unevoc.unesco.org

• UIS – UNESCO Institute for Statistics. www.uis.unesco.org [email protected]

• UNHCR – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Islamabad. E-mail: [email protected] [email protected]

• UNHCR Headquarters – Senior Education Officer, Geneva. www.unhcr.ch [email protected] [email protected]

• UNICEF – United Nations Children’s Fund, [email protected]

• UNICEF Headquarters, New York. www.unicef.org • ILO – International Labour Organization, Geneva

www.ilo.org

7. Some universities and research institutes• Area Study Center (Russia, China and Central Asia),

University of [email protected]

• Human Rights Studies Centre, Faculty of Law, University of Peshawar. [email protected]

• Hazara University, [email protected]

• Refugee Studies Center, University of Oxford, UKWebsite to its magazine: “Forced Migration Review”www.fmreview.org

• AREU-Afghan Research and Evoluation Unit, a Kabul based NGO.www.areu.org.af

8. Some individual experts In alphabetical order; the list is not comprehen-sive.

• Syed Javed Ahmad (primary, IT, Pak./Afgh.)[email protected]

• Tauqir Alam (history, migration, Central Asian geopoli-tics) [email protected]

• Anne Kristine Angeltveit (emergency management of

educ. and other proj.)[email protected]

• M. Daud Awan (refugee hosting areas, earthquake response, institutional cooperation, Pak.)[email protected]

• Laila Ayoubi (home schools, Pak./Afgh.) [email protected]

• Ulf Bartholomae (management, innovation, Pak./Asia) [email protected]

• Anthony J. Barrett (management, leadership, culture, refugee hosting areas, Kenya/Sudan) [email protected]

• Tim Brown (secondary, general, Sudan/East Africa) [email protected]

• Laila Bokhari (pol.science, religion, sociology, Pak./global) [email protected]

• Udo Bude (management, research, evaluation, Pak.)[email protected]

• Dana Burde (girls’ education, educ. for repatriation, research, Pak./global) [email protected]

• S.B. Ekanayake (teacher training, adult educ., history, Pak./Afgh./Asia) [email protected]

• Ingrid Fossland (management, planning, health educ., Central Asia/Africa) [email protected]

• Ulrike Hanemann (adult education, general, Afgh./global) [email protected]

• Michael Hirth (planning, management, Pak./Afgh.) [email protected]

• Eva Marion Johannessen (special educ., eval., Pak./Afgh./global) [email protected]

• Bjorn Johannessen (emergency aid, media, current affairs, Pak./Afgh./Asia/Africa) [email protected]

• Evelin Gerda Lindner (psychosocial issues, trauma, Eastern Africa/global) [email protected]

• Eldrid Kvamen Midttun (advocacy, networks, admin., global) [email protected]

• Holger Munsch (management, vocational, general, Pak./Afgh.) [email protected]

• Craig Naumann (statistics, analysis, planning, Afgh.) [email protected]

• Pilar Robledo (management, fieldwork, Pak./Central Asia) [email protected]

• Mujadidi Agha Shah (management, curriculum, planning, leadership, Pak./Afgh.) [email protected]

• Margaret Sinclair (overall, peace, Pak./Afgh./Eastern Africa/ global) [email protected]

• Sabiha. H. Syed (migration, demography, Pak./Central Asia) [email protected]

• Fiona Torrens-spence (educ.,languages.,Pak./Afgh.)[email protected]

* Although UNESCO has a number of specialized officeswith relevant information about refugee education, men-tioned in our list, it should be noted that UNHCR is themain refugee agency. However, UNESCO has a potential toplay a more proactive role, and is likely to do so, if we are toachieve Education for All, including refugees, by 2015, asper international goals.

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Following the devastating earthquake in Pakistanon 8 October 2005, the Government of Pakistan,the United Nations and other intergovernmentalorganizations, local and international NGOs,private companies and individuals respondedquickly. However, the response was not fastenough, especially not that of the United Nationsand the international community, which have tomobilize the donors through ‘flash appeals’ andother mechanisms since they have minimal‘reserve budgets’.

The large natural disasters in the last fewyears, notably the earthquake in Pakistan in2005, the unprecedented tsunami in South EastAsia at the end of 2004, and other disasters,prompted the United Nations to evaluate andrevise its preparedness and ability to respondquickly in emergencies. The UN decided it need-ed to establish the Central Emergency ResponseFund (CERF) to be able to purchase, or providefrom its several warehouses around the world,goods and services immediately after disastershave stricken, thus avoiding critical delays andsaving lives and suffering. The United NationsHeadquarters and the United NationsOrganization for Coordination of HumanitarianAffairs (UNOCHA) maintain their strong leader-ship and coordination roles related to emergen-cies, in cooperation with the disaster-strickencountry or countries in each case. In addition,donor countries and organizations, and numer-ous local and international non-governmentalorganizations play essential roles in fund-raisingand as implementing organizations providing theassistance on the ground, together with the gov-ernment authorities.

At the Pakistani level, the Government has

set up a Federal Relief Commission (FRC) tocoordinate, monitor and implement the emer-gency, transition and long-term development aidrequired after the earthquake in 2005. It is fore-seen that in some fields assistance will be neededfor at least a five-year period. FRC will developimproved systems for local coordination of disas-ters, including sector/subject-area coordinationin ‘clusters’, monitoring and evaluation of workand results, budget control, etc. FRC aims atimproving markedly the country’s preparednessfor response to possible disasters that may strikein future.

For all practical coordination after the 1985earthquake, Pakistan has established theEarthquake Reconstruction and RehabilitationAuthority (ERRA), which works in collaborationwith the UN Resident and HumanitarianCoordination.

Pakistan has a Chief Commissionerate forAfghan Refugees (CCAR), with sub-offices(CARs) in the major cities of the refugee hostingprovinces. The country still hosts between 2.5and 3 million Afghan citizens, although not allare refugees in a strict sense but more like ‘eco-nomic migrants’, mostly fleeing from living onless than a dollar a day, or in other words,extreme poverty in Afghanistan. From poor areaswithin a country, for example caused by droughtor other environmental reasons, general poorand uncertain living conditions, disturbances,discrimination, etc., people may also migrateaway and settle temporarily or permanently inother areas.

There is often a fine line between the term(voluntary) internal migrants and internally dis-placed persons (IDPs). In recent years, the UN

Earthquake in PakistanEmergency Education and Community Services as Part of the

Early, Medium and Long-term Response to Natural and Man-madeDisasters

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Refugee Agency UNHCR has begun to grapplemore seriously with the mentioned fields, whichclearly fall within the agency’s core mandate ofprotection. Furthermore, UNHCR has begunconsidering education and community services asproactive tools in protection.

Forced migration and human trafficking,within and across borders, are fields of increasedconcern to UNHCR and other organizations andgovernments as the magnitude of these problemsis already high and growing. It is sometimes saidthat the profits in these fields are higher, and therisk lower, than in other international crime,including smuggling of drugs, which is a curse toAfghanistan’s development and security. Often,children and young adolescents fall pray to thesecrimes. UNICEF, Save the Children, theInternational Rescue Committee (IRC), andmany other local and international organizationsare already helping national governments andNGOs in beginning to handle these serious prob-lems on the ground, in international forums, andin various other ways, such as helping in creatingawareness, collecting data and seeking solutions.

After the earthquake in Pakistan, BEFAReresponded quickly and opened some non-formal

schools. Since BEFARe works in NWFP and italready had a sub-center (resource center) inAbbottabad, near Manshera, which again is onlysome 30 kilometers from one of the hardest-hittowns by the earthquake, Balakot, these areaswere chosen for BEFARe’s initial assistance,which it partly implemented in cooperation withthe UN Education Agency UNESCO.

For long-term assistance and more ordinarydevelopment aid to the people of these and otherareas, we recommend that BEFARe seek cooper-ation with the teacher training college inAbbottabad and the new Hazara University inMansehra. BEFARe, with its long practical, andalso some theoretical experience, can draw uponthe higher educational institutions’ research andteaching capacities, and they can in turn learnfrom BEFARe and other NGOs dealing withrefugee education, community services and otheremergency response. In emergency work it isalways important to combine theory and prac-tice, and UNHCR’s guidelines in education andother fields are often exemplary.

In future BEFARe-academic institutionalcooperation, emphasis can be placed on typicalpsychological and pedagogical disciplines, such as

This photo collage is from areas hit by the devastating earthquake in Pakistan on 8 October 2005. Photo: Torgrim Halvari, 2005/6.

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post-traumatic stress, psychosocial issues, teachingunder stress, etc., and the study of managementactivities related to communities in and after emer-gencies, in addition to other issues which the insti-tutions and partners may find to be within theirfields of competence and capacity.

The institutions and organizations could alsoplay key roles in developing local manuals andguidelines, and evaluation methods, for responseto emergencies, to be channeled into the plansfor preparedness, which the Government ofPakistan’s new bodies FRC and ERRA are incharge of. Unfortunately, there is likelihood fordisasters happening again, sooner or later, in thiscountry, or in other countries in the sub-region.

As for refugee issues in Pakistan, andreturnee issues in Afghanistan, there is need forinter-university/college cooperation, not only inour fields of concern, notably education andcommunity services, but in many other fieldstoo. We have elsewhere in this book pointed outthat emergency issues in general, includingrefugee issues, which usually turn out to be long-lasting emergencies, have been given inexplicablylittle research and scientific attention.

Although we know that Pakistan andAfghanistan are situated in areas, which are morelikely to be affected by earthquakes than manyother parts of the world, little research has beendone in fields like geology, seismology, architec-ture, construction works, and other natural sci-ence fields, and how to respond afterwards,which becomes a combination of natural andsocial sciences – and practical and commonsense. Pakistan’s newly established FRC will bein a position to guide policy developments but itis also necessary for the scientific and profession-al milieux, locally and internationally, to increasetheir involvement and provide politicians andcivil servants with the data they need. We shouldadd that data in many of these fields will oftenremain inaccurate, but in other fields, data is pre-cise, and lessons can be learned from elsewherein the world, such as Japan, south-western USA,Turkey, Iran, etc.

Keeping to the scope of this book, we havein earlier chapters recommended that emergency

education, teaching under stress, first-aid, andother topics mentioned above become compulso-ry components in all teacher training courses andstudies of education at local universities. In spiteof the large and long-lasting Afghan refugee cri-sis, and Pakistan being one of the world’s largestrefugee hosting countries, limited documenta-tion and research have been done.

In future, studies should take place withinthe various disciplines, such as education, psy-chology, sociology, history, demography, andother fields. Migration studies, including forcedmigration and related fields, would comprehendmost of these issues, but they should still be dealtwith as part of the various university subjects anddisciplines, and at the teacher training collegesand schools for social and health workers.

Community services include several of themore practically oriented areas of importance toeducationists and social workers in and after dis-asters. Much short-term and long-term sufferingcan be avoided if specialists in education andsocial work are included in providing assistance.Some of the assistance is highly specialized and itrequires additional medical and other expertisein physiotherapy, ergotherapy, psychology, andother fields, and the fieldworkers must be able tojudge when victims need to be referred to spe-cialists. In this book we have emphasized thatspecial education (‘inclusive education’) shouldbe given higher priority in refugee and otheremergency education.

The Abbottabad-Mansehra area, whereBEFARe has some of its activities, is near theAfghan border and an area which has been arefugee hosting area throughout the Afghanrefugee era. It should be noted that estimatesmade soon after the earthquake showed that two– three hundred thousand of those affected wereAfghan refugees; several million Pakistanis wereaffected, mostly in higher elevations in Kashmirand other areas in northern Pakistan (and somealso in India and Afghanistan), while damageswere less in lower areas in NWFP and elsewhere,including as far south as the capital cityIslamabad and Rawalpindi nearby.

In NWFP there are many Afghan refugee

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teachers and others who possess skills and under-standing of great importance to help the earth-quake victims. We hope NGOs and others haveconsulted them for advice, and that some ofthem have been employed by good organizationslike BEFARe and others in helping the injured,traumatized and devastated people after theearthquake. Many, maybe all, refugees haveunique competence in how to handle and getthrough difficult daily-life situations.

Perhaps we can say that Afghan refugeeshave gained knowledge in suffering over decades.In addition, they have received help from kindpeople, authorities and organizations in Pakistan.After the earthquake on 8 October 2005, theirspecial experience gained a strange new value. Itshould be remembered that the people who havebeen at the receiving end for so many years,would certainly like to be invited to pay back, ifeven just a little.

In the years to come, BEFARe’s workwill focus more on refugee-hosting areas, wherethere will be a majority of Pakistanis but with asegment of Afghans, and now also possibly somemigrants after the earthquake on 8 October 2005and some of its stronger aftershocks. BEFARe’s

experience from refugee education is highly rel-evant in the current earthquake relief work, inparticular as related to the transition and long-term response phases, and in connection with‘integrated populations’ in refugee hosting areas,in particular in poor urban communities.Together with the universities and colleges,BEFARe should initiate documentation andanalysis of the response after the earthquake ineducation and community services.

Let us end this brief annex in an optimisticspirit: It seems possible that provision of univer-sal primary education and literacy can become areality sooner in areas receiving assistance afterthe earthquake than in some other areas ofPakistan. Education and skills training becomeparticularly important to earthquake victims andrefugees because their ordinary livelihoods haveoften been made difficult or impossible, andsome people may wish to migrate to safer areas.In many cases, education and skills become ‘theonly luggage’ and hope for young people toavoid poverty, or even experience prosperity. Forthis to come true would be our prayer.

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Alhamrawww.alhamra.comISBN 969-516-166-9


Cases: “Basic Education for Afghan Refugees” - BEFARe and other refugee and returneeeducation activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan1980 - 2005

By Atle Hetland

Atle Hetland (Norway/Kenya) is the author of Learning Away from Home.He is a specialist in development and refugee education and researchand has spent more than 25 years in this field, including 5 years inAfghan refugee education in Pakistan as a consultant working forUNHCR, UNESCO, and other organizations. During the work with the bookhe has been professionally affiliated to Hazara University Mansehra, Pakistan

S.B. Ekanayake (Sri Lanka/Pakistan) has been research associate on the book project.Fiona-Torrens-Spence (UK/USA) has been language and editorial consultant.Salman Beenish (Pakistan) has been the graphic designer and photo editor.

“ I believe that provision of basic secondary, technical and

vocational education is the most important help we as a host

country can give to refugee children and adoleseants. Education

is also an essential tool in preparing refugees for returning

home because education will give them a better chance of

finding empolyment in Afghanistan.”

Dr. Imran Zeb KhanChief Commissionerate for Afghan Refugees Government of

Pakistan.

“I find education an essential element in rebuilding Afghanistan

and it is important for the refugees to become active members

in society. I would like to express gratitude to host countries

and donor countries, bilateral organizations, United Nations

and other multilateral organizations, and a large number of

non-governmental organizations for the education they have

provided to refugees over many years.”

H.E. Dr. Nanguyalai TarziAmbassador of Afghanistan in Pakistan

“Mother’s Tears” (oil colour) by Afghan ArtistGh. M. Shabnam Ghaznawi