This article was downloaded by:[Houser, Marian][Houser, Marian]

On: 26 March 2007Access Details: [subscription number 771667395]Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Communication QuarterlyPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713721778

Investigating a New Education Frontier: InstructorCommunication Behavior in CD-ROM Texts - DoTraditionally Positive Behaviors Translate into This NewEnvironment?

To cite this Article: , 'Investigating a New Education Frontier: InstructorCommunication Behavior in CD-ROM Texts - Do Traditionally Positive BehaviorsTranslate into This New Environment?', Communication Quarterly, 55:1, 19 - 38xxxx:journal To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/01463370600998319URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01463370600998319

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf

This article maybe used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction,re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expresslyforbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will becomplete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should beindependently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with orarising out of the use of this material.

© Taylor and Francis 2007

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

Investigating a New EducationFrontier: Instructor CommunicationBehavior in CD-ROM Texts—DoTraditionally Positive BehaviorsTranslate into This New Environment?Marian L. Houser, Renee L. Cowan, & Daniel A. West

The non-interactive video learning environment, or CD-ROM texts, that feature video

instructors delivering course material are becoming increasingly popular in institutions

of higher education. Instructor nonverbal immediacy and humor have been proven to

enhance instructor credibility and motivate student learning in the traditional and dis-

tance learning classrooms. Framed by the media naturalness hypothesis, this experi-

mental study investigated the effects (instructor credibility, student motivation, and

learning) of these behaviors when mediated. Results indicate that nonverbal immediacy

and humor do not have a significant effect on student learning in virtual instruction but

do have a significant effect on student motivation and perceptions of instructor credi-

bility. Highly immediate and highly humorous instructors appear to be more motivating

and credible, with nonverbal immediacy having the greatest impact.

Keywords: CD-ROM Textbooks; Credibility; Humor; Instructor Behaviors; Media

Naturalness Hypothesis; Motivation; Nonverbal Immediaccy; Student Learning; Virtual

Instruction

Marian L. Houser (PhD, University of Tennessee, 2002) is an assistant professor at Texas State University-San

Marcos. Renee L. Cowan (MA, Texas State University, 2005) is a doctoral student at Texas A&M University, and

Daniel A. West (MA, Texas State University, 2005) is the John A. Cassesse Director of Forensics at Ohio

University. Correspondence: Dr. Marian L. Houser, Department of Communication Studies, Texas State

University-San Marcos, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666-2165; Tel.: (512) 245-3137, Fax: (512)

245-3138; E-mail: mh53@txstate.edu

Communication Quarterly

Vol. 55, No. 1, February 2007, pp. 19–38

ISSN 0146-3373 print/1746-4102 online # 2007 Eastern Communication Association

DOI: 10.1080/01463370600998319

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

Technology is everywhere. From iPods2 to Blackberries2, the world has become a

place where almost anyone can afford a personal digital assistant or five hundred

channels on television. Of course the classroom is no exception; technology is being

used to communicate grades, confer with students outside of class, and even present

course material. One such trend emerging in higher education classrooms is the use

of CD-ROM texts incorporating virtual teachers presenting course material to stu-

dents (Lowerison, Sclater, Schmid, & Abrami, 2006; Roblyer, 2003; Unfred & Crooks,

2001). Many of the daily lectures once featured in traditional classrooms are now

observed by students on their own and outside of class. This allows ‘‘live’’ instructors

time to focus on engaging classroom activities, discussions, and assignments. The

bonus for instructors using this technology is a greater opportunity to focus on stu-

dent comprehension and application of the material in a more student-centered

classroom (Jonassen & Reeves, 1996; Kent & McNergney, 1999).

Recent studies have found that overall, students value the use of computer tech-

nology within their education (Davis, 1998; Lowerison, et al., 2006) and view it as

a motivator for learning (Shuell & Farber, 2001). However, it is unclear if this view

also translates to actual classroom instruction. In other words, are virtual instructors

capable of communicating information equally as well as face-to-face instructors?

One way to answer this question would be to investigate the effectiveness of specific

instructor communication behaviors when mediated via a CD-ROM instructor.

To date, communication scholars have not studied the effects of mediated instruc-

tion through CD-ROM texts. The media naturalness hypothesis (Kock, 2005) offers a

possible lens to evaluate mediated instructor communication as it describes the

necessity for creating electronic communication (e-communication) closely resem-

bling face-to-face communication. Adapted from media richness theory (Daft &

Lengel, 1984, 1986), which suggests that the richer the medium, the greater the

efficiency and effectiveness of the sender’s communicative goals (Sheer & Chen,

2004), this new hypothesis aligns itself with Darwin’s theory of evolution. As Kock

(2005) explains, the human brain is ‘‘genetically programmed to excel in communi-

cation interactions that incorporate co-located and synchronous communication

employing facial expressions, body language, and speech’’ (p. 120). Therefore, the

more natural and familiar the technology is perceived, the greater its communicative

effectiveness. If today’s students consider electronic forms of communication to be

natural, then it is possible they would continue to appreciate positive instructor

communication behaviors whether delivered via live or mediated instruction.

For more than 20 years, communication scholars have utilized instructor beha-

viors such as nonverbal immediacy and humor as barometers for classroom out-

comes such as enhanced perceptions of instructor credibility, student learning, and

motivation. As today’s instructors increasingly begin to invest in forms of virtual

instruction (Lowerison et al., 2006; Roblyer, 2003), the naturalness of the technology

for students should be considered. An important question to address this issue, there-

fore, would be, ‘‘Does the presentation of instructor nonverbal immediacy and

humor via CD-ROM instruction affect students?’’ In order to answer this question,

the goal of the present investigation is to determine if traditionally positive instructor

20 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

communication behaviors like nonverbal immediacy and humor affect student state

motivation, learning (recall of information), and perceptions of instructor credibility

in CD-ROM texts.

Theoretical Framework

The media naturalness hypothesis (Kock, 2005) contends that our ‘‘biological com-

munication apparatus’’ has been designed through evolution for this type of com-

municative interaction, and appropriate e-communication technologies can be

evaluated based on the degree to which they approximate ‘‘natural’’ or face-to-face

communication. The naturalness of e-communication technology is defined by the

incorporation or suppression of five key elements: a high degree of co-location, a

high degree of synchronicity, the ability to convey and observe facial expressions,

the ability to convey and observe body language, and the ability to convey and listen

to speech. It is theorized that a decrease in the ‘‘naturalness’’ of a communication

technology has significant effects on communication interaction, including an

increase in cognitive effort and communication ambiguity and a decrease in physio-

logical arousal. Consequently, the media naturalness hypothesis suggests making

e-communication technologies resemble face-to-face communication as closely as

possible. For example, by incorporating natural elements like facial expressions

in email through the use of emoticons, the email may have a higher degree of

naturalness.

So should instructors using e-communication technology be concerned they may

be unable to re-create the five key elements? Perhaps not, for just as language is essen-

tially learned through practice (Pinker, 1997) rather than genetically created, so too

might the appreciation for e-communication—something students today are already

exhibiting (Lowerison et al., 2006).

Developed as an alternative to Daft and Lengel’s (1984, 1986) media richness

theory, the media naturalness hypothesis extends and helps to make sense of previous

conflicting research associated with the theory. Media richness theory says that media

choice (richer or leaner) has an effect on information processing: the richer the

media, the higher the capacity for carrying different informational cues, feedback,

and language variety. Daft & Lengel (1984) create a hierarchy of richness that has

generally been supported when applied to traditional media like face-to-face com-

munication, telephone, and business memos (Daft & Lengel, 1986; Russ, Daft, &

Lengel, 1990; Sheer & Chen, 2004). However, when applied to newer e-communication

media, including e-mail and computer-mediated forms of communication (e.g., vir-

tual instruction), the theory has reportedly been inadequate (Burke & Chidambaram,

1999; Carlson & Zmud, 1999; Dennis & Kinney, 1998; Fulk, 1993; Zack, 1993). Burke

and Chidambaram (1999) found that over time, as groups used computer-mediated

communication (CMC), the technology was seen as having richer, more natural

characteristics. In this instance, the media naturalness hypothesis would suggest

Communication Quarterly 21

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

that over time, users of CMC could have developed a high degree of synchronicity or a

particular paralanguage enabling them to communicate more emotion.

The media naturalness hypothesis provides a useful alternative to media richness

theory due to two key differences: the primary dependent constructs and the different

media classification (Kock, 2005). Regarding the dependent constructs, media richness

theory suggests that the richness of the media affects task outcome quality, while media

naturalness hypothesis relates the degree of media naturalness to reactions or responses

that may lead to certain behaviors or task outcomes. Related to this is the second key

difference—the classification of different media. Media richness theory implies a hier-

archy with face-to-face communication placed at the top (Daft & Lengel, 1984). In

contrast, the media naturalness hypothesis takes into account e-communication by

viewing media on a one-dimensional scale based on the five key elements of natural

communication. It places face-to-face communication at the center, and movement

in either direction (left or right) would result in decreased naturalness and could

impact the effectiveness of communication interactions (Kock, 2005).

If virtual instructors in CD-ROM texts strive to present course material most closely

resembling the face-to-face instruction with which students have grown accustomed,

the degree of perceived naturalness would likely increase. The media naturalness

hypothesis offers a strong foundation for examining the instructional quality of

educators and student responses to their communication in CD ROM texts.

Review of Literature

Media Naturalness in Non-Interactive Video Instruction

Non-interactive video instruction is essentially a CD-ROM text meant to replace the

traditional course textbook and supplement classroom instruction. The term non-

interactive video learning refers to instruction without the use of a satellite for

instructor feedback. Students enrolled in a course utilizing this technology may

receive traditional classroom instruction by a live instructor and supplemental

instruction from the CD-ROM=virtual instructor. In some cases, however, instruc-

tors may opt to replace classroom lectures with virtual instruction, allowing more

time for classroom discussion, activities, and concept application. Current research

reports an increasing presence of these ‘‘electronic texts,’’ which appear to foster vis-

ual learning and promote greater independent learning (Brooks & Brooks, 1996;

Davis, 1998; Unfred & Crooks, 2001). Actual student learning (recall of material),

however, has rarely been a focus of investigation. Research by Milliken and Barnes

(2002) reported that students perceive these mediated lectures to be an improvement

over traditional classroom teaching, leading to clearer overall comprehension. How-

ever, Kock’s media naturalness hypothesis (2005) would suggest that the less natural

the students perceive instructor communication to be, the greater cognitive effort

and ambiguity and the ‘‘duller’’ the physiological response. It could be, therefore, that

virtual instructors presenting high levels of nonverbal immediacy and humor may be

able to capture the more natural learning encounters students typically experience.

22 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

With this in mind, the introduction of this new instructional technology raises an

inevitable question for communication scholars: are traditional classroom instructor

communication behaviors effective through this new teaching-learning technology?

Many studies have looked at student learning and the effects of instructor behaviors

in non-traditional classroom environments (Bork, 1991; Comeaux, 1995; Freitas,

Myers, & Avtgis 1998; Hackman & Walker, 1990; Silvernail & Johnson, 1990; Witt

& Wheeless, 1999). The most recent literature centers on distance-learning or interac-

tive video instruction. (Comeaux, 1995; Freitas et al., 1998; Hackman & Walker, 1990;

Mottet, 2000; Witt & Wheeless, 1999). Studies that have looked at positive instructor

behaviors like immediacy in distance learning classrooms found that instructors who

engaged in immediate behaviors were viewed more favorably (Hackman & Walker,

1990), but students expected less immediacy from distance learning instructors than

traditional classroom instructors (Witt & Wheeless, 1999).

Instructor communication in CD-ROM texts has not received much attention

even though college courses are increasingly relying on this technology (Lowerison

et al., 2006; Unfred & Crooks, 2001). According to Thinkwell1, a leading non-inter-

active video textbook company, more than 600 higher education institutions are

using their non-interactive video product in place of traditional textbooks (Adopting

Schools, 2004). These textbooks are distributed on CD-ROM and display streaming

video featuring an instructor teaching the subject material while, alongside, actual

text outlines the lecture. These next-generation textbooks are finding support in tra-

ditional as well as distance education courses (Bryant, 2002). Education scholars

Unfred and Crooks (2001) suggest the emergence and use of CD-ROM texts is

increasing, with established publishing companies such as Pearson Education

(2005), featuring more electronic options for their books. The company and its

authors describe their products featuring real video footage, animations, audio clips,

and pedagogy tools that create greater visual learning. The bonus is that students have

reported these electronic tools aid in overall comprehension of the subject matter

(Lowerison et al., 2006) and facilitate classroom learning (Brooks & Brooks, 1996).

Though CD-ROM instruction is relatively new in the education environment,

more and more colleges and universities are expanding their emphasis on this tech-

nology in the classroom (NCREL, 2002; Unfred & Crooks, 2001). Others expect CD-

ROM texts to grow in the coming years, with traditional publishers like McGraw Hill,

Thompson, and Pearson incorporating more multimedia into core learning materials

(Bryant, personal communication, April 15, 2005; Herron, 1998). With the popu-

larity of this new technology, it is important for communication scholars to investi-

gate it as an instructional tool with the goal of better understanding students’

perceptions of instructor communication in this context. Do they find this method

of instruction credible and motivating? Is the non-interactive video learning environ-

ment the same as the traditional classroom or the distance-learning classroom; do

positive traditional classroom instructor behaviors have the same effect in this new

learning environment? Answering these questions may help instructors prepare stu-

dents to use this new medium as well as adapt their own teaching to supplement=

enhance the effects of CD-ROM instruction.

Communication Quarterly 23

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

Naturalness of nonverbal immediacy

Instructor nonverbal immediacy has been studied in detail over the past 20 years

(Chesebro, 2003; Chesebro & McCroskey, 2001; Christensen & Menzel, 1998;

Christophel, 1990; Frymier 1994; Frymier & Shulman, 1995; Rodriquez, Plax, & Kear-

ney, 1996; Witt & Wheeless, 2001). Nonverbal immediacy refers to instructor beha-

viors, which have the effect of reducing physical distance and=or psychological

distance between the instructor and students. This immediacy is commonly attained

through behaviors such as eye gaze, relaxed body posture, gestures, smiles, and nods

(Kearney, Plax, & Wendt-Wasco, 1985; Witt & Wheeless, 2001) and more accurately

received through face-to-face communication (Burgoon, Bonito, Ramirez, Dunbar,

Kam, & Fischer, 2002). In the traditional classroom, studies have found that nonver-

bal immediacy has positive effects on instructor credibility, student cognitive learn-

ing, and student motivation (Chesebro & McCroskey, 2001; Christophel, 1990;

Christophel & Gorham, 1995; Frymier, 1994; Frymier & Shulman, 1995; Teven &

Hanson, 2004; Theweatt & McCroskey, 1998; Witt & Wheeless, 2001). Specifically,

Christophel (1990) examined the effects of instructor immediacy behaviors on stu-

dent motivation and affective learning and found significant positive relationships

between these variables in a traditional classroom environment.

However, research in the mediated environment would suggest individuals

have to work harder to understand the communication (Kock, 1999) and fre-

quently misinterpret what they’ve seen and heard (Pinker, 1997). Due to this,

more research on instructor nonverbal immediacy is warranted in the mediated

instructional context.

Naturalness of humor

Humorous messages have been defined as verbal and nonverbal messages that

prompt laughter (Booth-Butterfield & Booth-Butterfield, 1991). This includes the

use of jokes and=or funny stories as well as body movements used at the right time

to incite laughter or a happy feeling in the receiver. Student perceptions of the natu-

ralness of these instructor behaviors may be viewed differently when mediated,

though the use of humor by instructors has consistently been found to have a positive

impact (Aylor & Oppliger, 2003; Gorham, 1988; Gorham & Christophel, 1990; Scott,

1976; Welker, 1977). In early studies on the use of humor in the traditional class-

room, researchers found humor helped to facilitate student-teacher rapport (Welker,

1977) and improve student perceptions of the instructor (Scott, 1976). Gorham

(1988) found that students rated humor as an important part of teacher immediacy

and that the amount of humor perceived to be used by an instructor in class was

positively related to how students feel about the course content and their perceptions

of learning. Linked to this finding, Ziv (1988) reported students exposed to a humor-

ous instructor had higher cognitive recall of course information. It is possible, there-

fore, that if students perceive humorous CD-ROM instruction to be high in

naturalness, their levels of cognitive effort would be reduced.

24 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

Instructor Credibility

Instructor credibility has been studied in detail over the past 20 years (Beatty & Zahn,

1990; Frymier & Thompson, 1992; Myers, 2001, 2004; Schrodt, 2003; Teven &

Hanson, 2004; Theweatt & McCroskey, 1998). Instructor credibility is defined as stu-

dents’ evaluations of their instructors in regard to competence, character, composure,

sociability, and extroversion (McCroskey, Holdridge, & Toomb, 1974). Earlier

research presented credibility as a unidimensional attitude, but later research focused

on it as multidimensional with interaction behaviors predictive of all five dimensions

of credibility (McCroskey, Hamilton, & Wiener, 1974). Myers (2001) stated that the

instructor-student dynamic is largely affected by students’ perceptions of instructor

credibility. Research has found that when instructors in a traditional classroom

environment engage in nonverbally immediate behaviors, students generally rate

them as more credible (Frymier & Thompson, 1992; Johnson & Miller, 2002; Myers,

2001, 2004; Teven & Hanson, 2004; Theweatt & McCroskey, 1998; Wrench & Rich-

mond, 2004). The use of humor in the classroom has also been positively linked to

instructor credibility (Wrench & Richmond, 2004). Perceived instructor credibility

has many positive effects in the traditional classroom, including increased student

motivation (Frymier & Thompson, 1992) and higher cognitive and affective learning

(Beatty & Zahn, 1990; Teven & McCroskey, 1996).

One purpose of this study was to determine the effects of these instructor beha-

viors (nonverbal immediacy and humor) on the perceptions of instructor credibility

when mediated by CD-ROM text. Past research has shown that instructor credibility

is enhanced when instructors use nonverbal immediacy and humor during face-to-

face classroom instruction. However, the question remains: is the naturalness of these

mediated behaviors evident to students such that they enhance perceptions of

instructor credibility? As college students today have become avid technology consu-

mers, teachers utilizing the same positive communication behaviors within the CD-

ROM could be expected to achieve similar student reactions. Therefore, the following

hypothesis was posed.

H1: High levels of instructor nonverbal immediacy and humor will have greatereffects on perceptions of instructor credibility (sociability, extroversion, com-petence, composure, and character) than low levels of instructor nonverbalimmediacy and humor in CD-ROM instruction.

State Motivation

State motivation has frequently been defined as a student’s motivation toward a parti-

cular task or course subject. Research has confirmed that highly immediate instructors

are associated with increased student state motivation in traditional classrooms

(Christophel, 1990; Richmond, McCroskey, Plax, & Kearney, 1986). When instructors

in class engage in nonverbally immediate behaviors, students report that they are more

motivated to learn, actually learn more, and are more satisfied (Christophel &

Gorham, 1995; Frymier, 1994). Research supports the idea that instructor nonverbal

Communication Quarterly 25

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

immediacy and humor positively affect students’ state motivation and learning (recall

of information) in the traditional classroom (Chesebro, 2003; Chesebro & McCroskey,

2001; Christensen & Menzel, 1998; Christophel, 1990; Christophel & Gorham, 1995;

Frymier, 1994; Rodriguez, Plax, & Kearney, 1996; Wanzer & Frymier, 1999). Recent

research by Wrench and Richmond (2004) also reported motivation to be positively

related to the use of humor in the classroom. However, these studies have investigated

student motivation in the traditional classroom. Is the naturalness of these behaviors

evident when mediated such that students will be similarly motivated to learn? This

study attempts to understand whether these behaviors have the same effect with the

CD-ROM text. As students become increasingly familiar with CD-ROM instruction

(Lowerison et al., 2006; Roblyer, 2003; Unfred & Crooks, 2001), teachers using the

same positive communication behaviors in this context could be expected to

produce similar effects. Thus the following hypotheses were posed:

H2: High levels of instructor nonverbal immediacy and humor will have greatereffects on student levels of state motivation than low levels of nonverbalimmediacy and humor in CD-ROM instruction.

H3: High levels of instructor nonverbal immediacy and humor will have greatereffects on student learning (recall of information) than low levels of nonverbalimmediacy and humor in CD-ROM instruction.

Method

Participants

Participants were 329 undergraduate students enrolled in the basic communication

course at a mid-sized Southern university. The sample consisted of 129 males, 186

females, and 14 unidentified, and included 47.1% freshman, 27.3% sophomore,

14.3% juniors, 5.2% seniors, and 6.1% unidentified. To ensure validity, participants

represented a cross-section of the university due to the required status of the com-

munication course by all students attending the university. Participants were also

selected nonrandomly and chosen based on access resulting in a convenience sample.

In exchange for their participation, students were offered extra credit in the course.

Participation was completely voluntary, and students who chose not to participate

had other options for securing extra credit in the class.

Procedures

In order to test the three hypotheses, a 2 (high and low immediacy)� 2 (high and

low humor) experimental design was created. After securing human subjects

approval, a CD-ROM resembling products on the market was created. An instruc-

tional script on the topic of interpersonal attraction was created from content taken

directly from the course to ensure the video was a true supplement to the traditional

classroom instruction students were receiving in the course. The content centered on

the four variables that influence interpersonal attraction: similarity, physical and

26 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

sexual attraction, proximity, and complementarity. An experienced instructor

unknown to the participants was videotaped delivering the lecture for all four manip-

ulations. In each manipulation, the instructor stood behind a podium with a chalk-

board in the background; sound and light were manipulated giving the effect of a

professionally produced product. Each four-minute video was transferred to DVD

and loaded onto eighteen computers in the department’s computer lab.

Each of the four manipulations was shown to three course sections during their

regular class meeting time. Students not enrolled in these sections also had the option

to participate during a four-hour ‘‘open house.’’ When participants entered the com-

puter lab, they were handed a consent form describing the study’s intent to investi-

gate non-interactive video instruction or CD-ROM textbooks. After all consent forms

were signed and collected, the facilitator asked all the participants to put on the head-

phones provided at each computer and start the video. After participants watched the

video, the facilitator handed out the survey and asked the participants to complete

the items based on the instructor they just watched in the computer video.

Independent Variables

Nonverbal immediacy

Nonverbal immediacy behaviors include things such as eye gaze, relaxed body pos-

ture, gestures, smiles, and nods (Kearney et al., 1985; Witt & Wheeless, 2001). In

an attempt to maintain naturalness consistent with face-to-face instruction, the

CD-ROM instructor in the ‘‘high nonverbal immediacy’’ condition used hand ges-

turing while speaking, pointed to himself and the audience, maintained good eye

contact, smiled, and used vocal variety. In the ‘‘low nonverbal immediacy’’ condition,

the instructor looked down at his notes, used a monotone voice, kept his hands on

the podium, and never smiled.

Instructor Humor

Humor has been described as verbal and nonverbal messages that prompt laughter

(Booth-Butterfield & Booth-Butterfield, 1991). This includes the use of jokes and=or

funny stories as well as body movements used at the right time to incite laughter or a

happy feeling in the receiver. The humor orientation scale (Booth-Butterfield &

Booth-Butterfield, 1991) assisted in the manipulation of humor in the CD-ROM

such that verbal statements as well as verbal and nonverbal expressions were utilized

to reflect the naturalness present in face-to-face classroom instruction. For example,

in the ‘‘high humor’’ condition, comical stories, examples, and jokes were written

into the script, and pauses were used to create good comedic timing and perceptions

of a funny instructor. In the ‘‘low humor’’ condition, jokes were not featured and

examples and stories were bland and less amusing. Numerous examples were used

in both the high and low humor conditions in order to make both conditions com-

parable in length.

Communication Quarterly 27

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

Manipulation Checks

To ensure that immediacy and humor were manipulated by the instructor in the

four videotapes, two manipulation check studies were conducted, one for each

independent variable. The first check assessed the manipulation of the nonverbal

immediacy variable. Forty-two students from a required introductory communi-

cation course (not associated with the current study) were randomly assigned to

one of two conditions (high immediacy, low immediacy) and shown the five-

minute video lecture on CD-ROM. Following the videotaped instruction, the

respondents completed Anderson’s (1979) nine-item, seven-point semantic differen-

tial scale measuring the instructor’s nonverbal immediacy. Scores can range from

9–63 and yielded a mean of 36.85, SD ¼ 15.59, and a Cronbach’s a of .95 in the

present study. Students in the high immediacy condition (M ¼ 50.05, SD ¼ 8.78)

perceived significantly more nonverbally immediate behaviors than students in

the low immediacy condition (M ¼ 24.86, SD ¼ 9.41), (F(1, 41) ¼ 79.83,

p < .001). The data suggest that the high and low immediacy conditions were

manipulated correctly.

The second check assessed the manipulation of humor by the instructor in the

CD-ROM lecture. Sixty students from a required introductory communication

course (also not associated with the current study) were randomly assigned to one

of two conditions (high humor, low humor) and shown the five-minute video lecture

on CD-ROM. Following the videotaped instruction, the respondents completed

Booth-Butterfield and Booth-Butterfield’s (1991) humor orientation scale. This scale

was altered to an other-report with the wording slightly altered to create a report on

students’ perceptions of the humor used by the instructor in the video. The pronouns

used in scale items were changed from ‘‘I’’ to ‘‘The instructor.’’ For example, an item

reading, ‘‘I cannot tell a joke well’’ was changed to ‘‘The instructor cannot tell a joke

well.’’ One item was eliminated (‘‘People don’t seem to pay close attention when the

instructor tells a joke’’) because it applied to only one exposure of the instructor in

the mediated channel. Scores on the 16 item, five-point scale can range from 16–80

and yielded a mean of 45.77, SD ¼ 9.30, and a Cronbach’s a of .89 in the present

study. Students in the high humor condition (M ¼ 49.97, SD ¼ 8.88) perceived sig-

nificantly more humorous behaviors than students in the low humor (M ¼ 41.56,

SD ¼ 7.79), (F(1, 59) ¼ 15.17, p < .001). The data suggest that the high and low

humor conditions were manipulated correctly.

Outcome Variables

Instructor credibility

Credibility was measured as a dependent variable using the Source Credibility Scale, a

15-item semantic differential scale developed by McCroksey, Hamilton, and Weiner

(1974). The scale measures five dimensions of credibility: sociability, extroversion,

competence, composure, and character. Very similar versions of this scale have been

used to assess teacher credibility (McCroskey, Holdridge, & Toomb, 1974). The scale

28 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

uses a seven-point bipolar opposite format that asks participants to circle the number

between the adjectives that best represents their feelings about the instructor in the

video. Scores for each dimension can range from 3–21. McCroksey, Holdridge,

and Toomb (1974) obtained reliability coefficients ranging from .79 to .96 for each

of the dimensions. The present study produced an alpha reliability of .76 for socia-

bility with a M ¼ 13.98 and SD ¼ 4.17, .84 for extroversion with a M ¼ 14.18 and

SD ¼ 4.31, .80 for competence with a M ¼ 14.01 and SD ¼ 3.68, .75 for composure

with a M ¼ 12.61 and SD ¼ 4.12, and .65 for character with a M ¼ 14.97 and

SD ¼ 3.21.

Motivation

Motivation was measured as a dependent variable using the Student Motivation

Scale, a 16-item semantic differential scale developed by Beatty, Behnke, & Froelich

(1980) and later expanded by Richmond (1990). The scale was used to measure part-

icipants’ levels of motivation after watching the video. The scale uses a seven-point

bipolar opposite format that asks participants to circle the number between the adjec-

tives that best represents their feelings about the instructor in the video. Scores can

range from 16 to 112. Christophel (1990) obtained reliability coefficients of .95 to .96

for the measure. In this study, the scale produced an alpha reliability of .93 with a

M ¼ 60.67 and SD ¼ 21.49.

Learning (recall of information)

Learning, or recall of information, was operationalized with five fill-in-the-blank test

questions. These questions measured the recall of the four variables that influence

interpersonal attraction. One of the questions contained two blanks, making 5 the

highest score possible. The mean score was 3.13, SD ¼ 1.74, with a range from

0 to 5.

Results

Hypotheses

The first hypothesis investigated the effects that nonverbal immediacy (hi=lo NVI)

and humor (hi=lo H) has on the dimensions of instructor credibility in the CD-

ROM text. To test this hypothesis while minimizing Type I error, a 2� 2 multivariate

analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted with sociability, extroversion, com-

petence, composure, and character as the dependent variables. Significant findings

were probed using follow-up ANOVAs. The significance level was set at .01 to

counteract an inflated error rate. Results revealed that the interaction between the

factors was not significant for the dimensions of instructor credibility (Pillai’s

(F(5, 314) ¼ .038, p > .01). The MANOVA results showed significant main effects

for all of the dependent variables on NVI (Pillai’s (F(5, 314) ¼ .505, p < .001) as well

as Humor (Pillai’s (F(5, 314) ¼ .147, p < .001). Students view the highly immediate

Communication Quarterly 29

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

and humorous instructor as more credible in the CD-ROM text than one exhibiting

low nonverbal immediacy and humor.

At the univariate level, NVI had a significant main effect for all five dimensions of

instructor credibility. Univariate results are summarized in Table 1 and means are

displayed in Table 2. In regard to instructor humor, main effects for sociability,

extroversion, and character were significant for levels of humor (see Table 1), but

no significant differences were discovered in perceptions of instructor competence

or composure.

H2 and H3 investigated the effects of levels of NVI (hi vs. lo) and humor (hi vs. lo)

on student levels of state motivation and learning (recall of information). To test these

hypotheses, two separate two-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were utilized with

Table 1 ANOVA Results for Instructor Credibility, Student State Motivation, and

Student Learning

Main effects Interaction effects

NVI Humor NVI and humor

F p g2 F p g2 F p g2

Sociability 270.78 .001 .46 29.03 .001 .08 1.47 .23 .005

Extroversion 153.61 .001 .32 30.82 .001 .09 .54 .46 .002

Competence 65.12 .001 .17 1.83 .177 .006 3.30 .07 .001

Composure 31.20 .001 .09 5.56 .02 .02 1.05 .31 .003

Character 98.81 .001 .24 18.11 .001 .05 2.16 .14 .007

State motivation 198.78 .001 .38 32.67 .001 .09 .475 .49 .001

Learning (recall) 1.24 .26 .004 3.83 .26 .004 2.20 .13 .007

Table 2 Means for Instructor Credibility, Student State Motivation, and Student

Learning

LoNVI=LoH LoNVI=HiH HiNVI=LoH HiNVI=HiH

M SD M SD M SD M SD

Sociability 10.58 2.41 (87) 11.97 3.61 (80) 15.60 2.52 (71) 17.85 3.11 (88)

Extroversion 10.97 3.71 (88) 12.79 3.69 (81) 15.26 3.69 (69) 17.81 2.48 (88)

Competence 12.00 3.38 (88) 13.14 3.25 (82) 15.59 3.50 (71) 15.55 3.29 (88)

Composure 10.60 3.57 (88) 12.18 4.20 (82) 13.69 3.92 (71) 14.14 3.88 (88)

Character 12.60 3.00 (88) 14.37 2.55 (81) 16.14 2.56 (69) 16.97 2.70 (88)

State motivation 43.58 14.62 (87) 52.68 16.58 (82) 67.85 18.54 (68) 79.44 15.45 (88)

Learning (recall) 3.05 1.80 (88) 2.98 1.80 (82) 2.98 1.66 (71) 3.48 1.66 (88)

Numbers in parentheses represent N sizes for each condition.

30 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

state motivation and learning as the dependent variables. The ANOVA results are

summarized in Table 1 and means and standard deviations are displayed in Table 2.

ANOVA results for state motivation (H2) showed a significant main effect for

nonverbal immediacy and a main effect for humor. There was no interaction effect

between nonverbal immediacy and humor for student levels of state motivation

(F(1, 321) ¼ .475, p > .05).H3, which investigated the effects of instructor levels of

nonverbal immediacy (hi vs. lo) and humor (hi vs. lo) on student levels of learning

(recall of information), revealed no significant main effects for instructor use of non-

verbal immediacy or humor. The level of instructor nonverbal immediacy and humor

presented on the CD-ROM made no difference in the students’ recall of information.

There was also no significant interaction effect between nonverbal immediacy and

humor for student learning in the CD-ROM text (F(1, 325) ¼ 2.21, p > .05).

Discussion

The overall purpose of this study was to determine if variables historically found to

motivate learning in the traditional classroom were perceived as ‘‘natural’’ and thus

effective in a nontraditional instructional context—specifically, the CD-ROM text.

The growth of electronic texts warrants an investigation into the most appropriate

and effective methods of presentation to determine if the naturalness of instructional

communication behaviors is comparable when mediated. The media naturalness

hypothesis would suggest that if the CD-ROM text virtually incorporated facial

expressions and body movements, co-location, and a high degree of synchronicity,

as well as had the ability to convey speech, it would appear natural and thus more

effective. The CD-ROM text may be utilized more often if students find virtual

instructors credible and are motivated to learn from them. If not, classroom instruc-

tors may want to re-evaluate the use of CD-ROM texts as a teaching tool.

The results of this study confirm 20 years of instructional research literature—

instructor use of nonverbal immediacy produces positive effects. This can now also

be reported for instructors in CD-ROM textbooks. Even in this mediated context,

nonverbal immediacy was a significant indicator of instructor credibility. While

watching a computerized version of an instructor relaying valuable textbook infor-

mation, students responded favorably to high levels of instructor nonverbal immedi-

acy. In each of the four manipulations, students reported the highly immediate

instructor to have more character and be more sociable, extroverted, competent,

and composed. The proportion of variance explained in sociability and extroversion

by nonverbal immediacy was, respectively, .46 and .32. Though not extremely large,

this nonetheless indicates the positive visual effects of instructor gesturing, eye con-

tact, and smiling. Students were able to perceive the naturalness of these mediated

behaviors, and, as with face-to-face instruction, high and low levels of NVI affected

their evaluations of instructor credibility. Classroom instructors utilizing electronic

texts can offer them to students with greater confidence when the virtual instructors

display behaviors that enhance student-teacher closeness. What this also suggests is

Communication Quarterly 31

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

the need for instructors to carefully review CD-ROM texts for the presence or

absence of these behaviors prior to adoption.

Nonverbal immediacy appears to have the strongest effect on student perceptions

of instructor credibility but does not work with humor when mediated to enhance it.

There was no interaction between humor and nonverbal immediacy for perceptions

of instructor credibility. This contradicts past research, which found strong links

between the two variables (Gorham & Christophel, 1990; Wanzer & Frymier,

1999) and their combined effects on instructor credibility (Wrench & Richmond,

2004). The mediated instructor in this study failed to convey the naturalness of

instructor humor valued in face-to-face classroom interactions. While students

may have been able to distinguish high and low levels of instructor humor, high levels

of instructor humor explained very little variance in the dimensions of instructor

credibility (highest g2 ¼ .09). One explanation could be, as Meyer (2000) contended,

that humor can serve as a double-edged sword and actually create greater distance

between speaker and message. In addition, participants in this study were only able

to observe the CD-ROM instructor one time, whereas participants in other research

(e.g., Frymier, 1994) experienced multiple encounters. This can be seen as a limi-

tation in the current study, and future research should be conducted to capture stu-

dent impressions of CD-ROM instructors after multiple exposures.

An additional explanation could be the technology that students encounter today.

Their senses are bombarded with lights, sounds, and activity from video games, vir-

tual reality software, and even cellular phones. Perhaps they expect a non-interactive

CD-ROM textbook to be more stimulating than the one presented in this experi-

ment. Results appear to reflect the lack of physiological arousal that Kock (2005)

refers to as a dependent construct in the media naturalness hypothesis. His research

frequently refers to electronic communication as less exciting or less emotionally

fulfilling than face-to-face interactions. This may be confirmed through the weak

effects of instructor humor on instructor credibility in the CD-ROM text. It may

be that instructor humor cannot be conveyed in an equally stimulating or natural

manner as face-to-face humor in the classroom. Future investigations should look

at student expectations for mediated instruction and more closely resemble the tech-

nology students’ encounter on a daily basis.

Surprisingly, neither nonverbal immediacy nor humor impacted student learning

in the present study. High levels of nonverbal immediacy and humor are known to

increase learning in the traditional classroom (Chesebro, 2003; Wanzer & Frymier,

1999) but do not appear to affect this vital outcome in mediated instruction. Again,

participants in this study were only exposed to the virtual instructor one time and

were not able to form a relationship with the instructor, which could certainly affect

student learning. Watching a virtual highly immediate=highly humorous instructor

present text material in a format similar to the traditional classroom only one time

may not be enough to stimulate learning.

In addition, Kock (2005) reports that increased cognitive effort and communication

ambiguity result from a decrease in media naturalness. This could also explain the

student’s lack of information recall. High degrees of co-location and synchronicity

32 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

may be necessary elements for decreased levels of cognitive effort and ambiguity, and

the CD-ROM text cannot offer them. This indicates a need for classroom instructors

to review the CD-ROM material with their students to ensure greater comprehen-

sion. Again, this is critical information for both classroom instructors and communi-

cation scholars whose primary goal centers on student learning. If CD-ROM

textbooks are to have a future, we need to better understand what virtual instructor

behaviors might enhance learning and more closely approximate face-to-face

communication.

Thirty-eight percent of the variance in student levels of state motivation was

accounted for by instructor use of nonverbal immediacy in the non-interactive

CD-ROM textbook. This can be interpreted as students being motivated to learn

textbook information from an engaging ‘‘natural’’ instructor, which would be a rel-

evant finding. Students in the study reported feeling more interested, inspired, and

challenged from an involved instructor who attempted to reduce physical and

psychological distance. This is important in the CD-ROM context, where one could

certainly expect these perceived distances to be greater. However, with more and

more students utilizing various forms of electronic communication such as black-

board, email, and chat rooms, it is not surprising these students felt less distance

between themselves and the virtual instructor. The naturalness of the NVI behaviors

was adequately conveyed via the CD-ROM textbook to motivate students.

Humor, on the other hand, produced little effect (g2 ¼ .09), indicating the value of

further investigating this instructional format and the use of humor. Previous research

tells us instructor humor has positive effects on students in the traditional classroom

(Aylor & Opplinger, 2003; Gorham & Christophel, 1990), and there’s no reason to believe

it could not be more effective in the CD-ROM text after multiple exposures to the same

instructor. The humor orientation instrument (Booth-Butterfield & Booth-Butterfield,

1991), referenced to create instructor humor in the video script and used to measure high

vs. low humor in the manipulation checks, primarily measures an individual’s propensity

to tell jokes or funny stories and does not take into account other aspects of humor like

nonverbals (Wrench & Richmond, 2004). In addition, this scale is typically used to

measure an individual’s global humor orientation after many exposures. Because this

study only allowed the participants to view the instructor on one occasion, this could

be a possible study limitation and could also explain the lack of an interaction effect

between nonverbal immediacy and humor in this study.

Another explanation can be derived from the media naturalness hypothesis—that

instructor humor was not conveyed or observed through facial expressions, body lan-

guage, and speech accurately or effectively to induce motivation. The instructor in

the video used verbal humor such as telling jokes while standing behind a podium,

but the students were only able to view him one time. These humorous behaviors

would certainly seem more natural if the students could develop a relationship with

the instructor through multiple viewings. It seems implausible to suggest that stu-

dents do not appreciate instructor humor when presented in any format; thus, this

variable should continue to be evaluated in instructional arenas outside the tra-

ditional classroom to understand its effectiveness.

Communication Quarterly 33

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

CD-ROM textbooks, or non-interactive video learning tools, are being adopted

more and more by institutions of higher education, with most programs currently

using them to supplement classroom lectures (Adopting Schools, 2004; Herron,

1998; Unfred & Crooks, 2001). If the ‘‘virtual instructor’’ is expected to engage stu-

dents to the same degree as live instructors, communication scholars need to under-

stand what works or what is most ‘‘natural’’ to students. We know nonverbal

immediacy works, but it does not tell us everything we need to know. There is an

impending need to understand which instructional communication behaviors are

perceived by today’s technologically experienced students to exhibit media natural-

ness based on their learned communication instincts with new technology (Kock,

2005). Better understanding this may encourage students to like and pay attention

to this electronic method of instruction as well as reveal methods by which instruc-

tors can enhance student motivation and learning during supplemental classroom

discussions and activities.

Directions

This study only looked at students’ impressions and reactions to a CD-ROM instruc-

tor after one presentation. Investigating these impressions and reactions over several

lessons would create a clearer understanding of which instructor behaviors are truly

positive in this context as well as explain the lacking interaction between instructor

humor and instructor nonverbal immediacy. In addition, this study only looked at

two prominent and traditionally positive instructional variables. More should be

considered; the instructional context created in the CD-ROM text, for example,

should be investigated. As the material is delivered via computer and headphones,

perhaps the contextual components of the video itself should be focused upon more

heavily. The lights, sounds, and special effects could provide added stimulation to

encourage students’ recall of information and motivation to become involved with

the material. Just as nonverbal studies have examined environmental structuring

for their impact (Eaves & Leathers, 1991), the video environment needs to be exam-

ined in a similar fashion.

In addition, a greater focus on communicating with learners to understand their

experiences with technology affecting their learning styles within e-communication

could enhance the video and its communication elements—both for the instructor

and the video components. A strong link exists between context and learning styles.

For example, some learners prefer to learn with or without sound or in bright or dim

light (Dunn & Dunn, 1992, 1993; Dunn, Dunn, & Perrin, 1994), and this could cer-

tainly be a factor in developing the specific contextual elements in the CD-ROM text.

The degree of student knowledge and experience with technology (e.g., Blackboard,

email, chat room, video conferencing, video phone, etc.) may make them more or

less inclined to find CD-ROM texts an appropriate instructional tool. This could,

in turn, cause them to be more or less responsive to the communication techniques

of virtual instructors and perhaps even their actual classroom instructors. Thus, stu-

dent’s expectations of this technology should also be investigated.

34 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

From this study, we know more about student responsiveness to the media natu-

ralness of instructor communication in CD-ROM textbooks. Communication scho-

lars and classroom instructors should be pleased with the continued positive effects of

nonverbal immediacy as instructor credibility and student motivation play an invalu-

able role in learning. Humor is valued in this context, though certainly not as much

as in the traditional classroom. However, it is possible that humor effects would be

strengthened with multiple viewings and when combined with other variables. As

institutions of higher learning begin investing in this tool of ‘‘virtual instruction’’

in increasing numbers, there is more that communication scholars need to under-

stand. The instructor continues to exist in this medium, but the techniques that work

in the traditional classroom lecture may not exist, or may exist in another form or in

conjunction with different variables. In addition, the fact that the students have (in

effect) two instructors when this technology is used should also be considered. What

do students expect of a supplemental instructor in this high-tech environment? How

can communication be utilized to create a more natural medium for students? If

motivating students to learn continues to be a high priority, we must continue to

learn how to best communicate with them—in all contexts.

References

Adopting Schools. (2004). Thinkwell textbooks. Retrieved on December 1, 2004, from http:==www.thinkwell.com=marketing=adoptions.cfm.

Anderson, J. F. (1979). Teacher immediacy as a predictor of teaching effectiveness. Communication

Yearbook, 3, 543–559.

Aylor, B., & Opplinger, P. (2003). Out of class communication and student perceptions of instruc-

tor humor orientation and socio-communicative style. Communication Education, 52,

122–134.

Beatty, M. J., Behnke, R. R., & Froelich, D. L. (1980). Effects of achievement incentive and presen-

tation rate on listening comprehension. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 66, 193–200.

Beatty, M. J., & Zahn, C. J. (1990). Are student ratings of communication instructors due to ‘‘easy’’

grading practices?: An analysis of teacher credibility and student-reported performance

levels. Communication Education, 39, 275–282.

Booth-Butterfield, S., & Booth-Butterfield, M. (1991). Individual differences in the communication

of humorous messages. Southern Communication Journal, 56, 205–218.

Bork, A. (1991). Is technology-based learning effective? Contemporary Education, 63(1), 6–13.

Brooks, H. B., & Brooks, D. W. (1996). The emerging role of CD-ROMs in teaching chemistry.

Journal of Science Education and Technology, 5(3), 203–215.

Bryant, A. (2002). Thinkwell celebrates five years as next-generation textbook publisher. Retrieved

December 1, 2004, from http:==www.thinkwell.com=marketing=pressReleases.cfm?

pressReleaseID¼6.

Burgoon, J. K., Bonito, J. A., Ramirez, Jr., A., Dunbar, N. E., Kam, K., & Fischer, J. (2002). Testing

the interactivity principle: Effects of mediation, propinquity, and verbal and nonverbal mod-

alities in interpersonal interaction. Journal of Communication, 52, 657–677.

Burke, K., & Chidambaram, L. (1999). How much bandwidth is enough? A longitudinal examin-

ation of media characteristics and group outcomes. MIS Quarterly, 23, 557–579.

Carlson, J. R., & Zmud, R. W. (1999). Channel expansion theory and the experimental nature of

media richness perceptions. The Academy of Management Journal, 42, 153–170.

Communication Quarterly 35

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

Chesebro, J. L. (2003). Effects of teacher clarity and nonverbal immediacy on student learning,

receiver apprehension, and affect. Communication Education, 52, 135–147.

Chesebro, J. L., & McCroskey, J. C. (2001). The relationship of teacher clarity and immediacy with

student state receiver apprehension, affect, and cognitive learning. Communication

Education, 50, 59–68.

Christensen, L. J., & Menzel, K. E. (1998). The linear relationship between student reports of

teacher immediacy behaviors and perceptions of state motivation, and of cognitive, affective,

and behavioral learning. Communication Education, 47, 32–90.

Christophel, D. M. (1990). The relationships among teacher immediacy behaviors, student motiv-

ation, and learning. Communication Education, 39, 324–339.

Christophel, D. M., & Gorham, J. (1995). A test-retest analysis of student motivation, teacher

immediacy, and perceived sources of motivation and demotivation in college classes. Com-

munication Education, 44, 292–506.

Comeaux, P. (1995). The impact of an interactive distance-learning network on classroom com-

munication. Communication Education, 44, 353–361.

Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H. (1984). Information richness: A new approach to managerial behavior

and organizational design. In B. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational

behavior (vol. 6, pp. 191–233). Greenwich, Conn.: JAI.

Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H. (1986). Organizational information requirements: Media richness and

structural design. Management Science, 32, 554–571.

Davis, M. S. (1998). The electronic biology classroom: Implementation and student opinion. Kapiolani

Community College. Paper contributed to the Teaching in the Community Colleges Online

Conference. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED449976.

Dennis, A.R., & Kinney S.T. (1998). Testing media richness theory in the new media: The effects of

cues, feedback, and task equivocality. Information Systems Research, 9, 256–274.

Dunn, R., & Dunn, K. (1992). Teaching elementary students through their individual learning styles:

Practical approaches for grades 3–6. Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon.

Dunn, R., & Dunn, K. (1993). Teaching secondary students through their individual learning styles:

Practical approaches for grades 7–12. Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon.

Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Perrin, J. (1994). Teaching young children through their individual learning

styles K–2. Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon.

Eaves, M., & Leathers, D. G. (1991). Context as communication: McDonald’s versus Burger King.

Journal of Applied Communication, 19, 263–289.

Freitas, F. A., Myers, S. A., & Avtgis, T. A. (1998). Student perceptions of instructor immediacy in

conventional and distributed learning classrooms. Communication Education, 47, 366–372.

Frymier, A. B. (1994). A model of immediacy in the classroom. Communication Quarterly, 42,

133–144.

Frymier, A. B., & Shulman, G. M. (1995). ‘‘What’s in it for me?’’: Increasing content relevance to

enhance students’ motivation. Communication Education, 44, 40–49.

Frymier, A. B., & Thompson, C. A. (1992). Perceived teacher affinity-seeking in relation to per-

ceived teacher credibility. Communication Education, 41, 388–399.

Fulk, J. (1993). Social construction of communication technology. The Academy of Management

Journal, 36, 921–950.

Gorham, J. (1988). The relationship between verbal teacher immediacy and student learning. Com-

munication Education, 37, 40–53.

Gorham, J., & Christophel, D. M. (1990). The relationship of teachers’ use of humor in the class-

room to immediacy and student learning. Communication Education, 39, 46–62.

Hackman, M. Z., & Walker, K. B. (1990). Instructional communication in the televised classroom:

The effects of system design and teacher immediacy on student learning and satisfaction.

Communication Education, 39, 196–206.

Herron, T. L. (1998). Teaching with the internet. The Internet and Higher Education, 1(3), 217–222.

36 M. L. Houser et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

Johnson, S. D., & Miller, A. N. (2002). A cross-cultural study of immediacy, credibility, and learn-

ing in the U.S. and Kenya. Communication Education, 51, 280–292.

Jonassen, D. H., & Reeves, T. C. (1996). Learning with technology: Using computers as cognitive

tools. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and tech-

nology (pp. 693–719). New York: Macmillan.

Kearney, P., Plax, T. G., & Wendt-Wasco, N. J. (1985). Teacher immediacy for affective learning in

divergent college classes. Communication Quarterly, 33, 61–74.

Kent, T. W., & McNergney, R. F. (1999). Will technology really change education? From blackboard to

web. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press.

Kock, N. (1999). Process improvement and organizational learning: The role of collaboration technol-

ogies. Hershey, Pa.: Idea Group.

Kock, N. (2005). Media richness or media naturalness? The evolution of our biological communi-

cation apparatus and its influence on our behavior toward e-communication tools. IEEE

Transactions On Professional Communication, 48, 117–130.

Lowerison, G., Sclater, J., Schmid, R. F., & Abrami, P. C. (2006). Student perceived effectiveness of

computer technology use in post secondary classrooms. Computers & Education, 47, 465–489.

McCroskey, J. C., Hamilton, P. R., & Weiner, A. M. (1974). The effect of interaction behavior on

source credibility, homophily, and interpersonal attraction. Human Communication

Research, 1, 42–52.

McCroskey, J. C., Holdridge, W., & Toomb, J. K. (1974). An instrument for measuring the source

credibility of basic communication instructors. Speech Teacher, 23, 26–33.

Meyer, J. C. (2000). Humor as a double-edged sword: Four functions of humor in communication.

Communication Theory, 10, 310–331.

Milliken, J., & Barnes, L. P. (2002). Teaching and technology in higher education: Student percep-

tions and personal reflections. Computers & Education, 39, 223–235.

Mottet, T. P. (2000). Interactive television instructors’ perceptions of students’ nonverbal respon-

siveness and their influence on distance teaching. Communication Education, 49, 146–164.

Myers, S. A. (2001). Perceived instructor credibility and verbal aggressiveness in the college class-

room. Communication Research Reports, 18, 354–364.

Myers, S. A. (2004). The relationship between perceived instructor credibility and college student

in-class and out-of class communication. Communication Reports, 17, 129–137.

NCREL (2002). Technology in Education. Retrieved June 22, 2005, from http:==www.ncrel.org=tech=Pearson Education. (2005). Retrieved June 22, 2005, from http:www.pearsoned.com=Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York: Norton.

Richmond, V. P. (1990). Communication in the classroom: Power and motivation. Communication

Education, 39, 181–195.

Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., Plax, T. G., & Kearney, P. (1986). Teacher nonverbal immedi-

acy training and student affect. World Communication, 15, 181–194.

Roblyer, M. D. (2003). Integrating educational technology into teaching (3rd ed). Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Rodriguez, J. I., Plax, T. G., & Kearney, P. (1996). Clarifying the relationship between teacher non-

verbal immediacy and student cognitive learning: Affective learning as the central causal

mediator. Communication Education, 45, 293–305.

Russ, G. S., Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H. (1990). Media selection and managerial characteristics in

organizational communications. Management Communication Quarterly, 4, 151–175.

Schrodt, P. (2003). Students’ appraisals of instructors as a function of students’ perceptions of

instructors’ aggressive communication. Communication Education, 52, 106–121.

Scott, T. M. (1976). Humor in teaching. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 7, 10.

Sheer, V. C., & Chen, L. (2004). Improving media richness theory: A study of interaction goals,

message valence, and task complexity in manager-subordinate communication. Management

Communication Quarterly, 18, 76–93.

Communication Quarterly 37

Dow

nloa

ded

By: [

Hou

ser,

Mar

ian]

At:

20:3

4 26

Mar

ch 2

007

Shuell, T. J., & Farber, S. L. (2001). Students’ perceptions of technology use in college classrooms.

Journal of Educational Computing Research, 24, 119–138.

Silvernail, D. L, & Johnson, J. L. (1990). The impact interactive televised instruction on college stu-

dent achievement and attitudes: a controlled experiment. International Journal of Instruc-

tional Media, 17(1), 1–8.

Teven, J. J., & Hanson, T. L. (2004). The impact of teacher immediacy and perceived caring on

teacher competence and trustworthiness. Communication Quarterly, 52, 39–53.

Teven, J. J., & McCroskey, J. C. (1996). The relationship of perceived teacher caring with student

learning and teacher evaluation. Communication Education, 46, 1–9.

Thweatt, K. S., & McCroskey, J. C. (1998). The impact of teacher immediacy and misbehaviors on

teacher credibility. Communication Education, 47, 348–358.

Unfred, D., & Crooks, S. (2001). Learner self-efficacy, attitude, and utilization patterns for an elec-

tronic textbook. Orlando, Fla.: Proceedings of Society for Information Technology &

Teacher Education International Conference. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.

ED457832.

Wanzer, M. B., & Frymier, A. B. (1999). The relationship between student perceptions of instructor

humor and students’ reports of learning. Communication Education, 48, 48–62.

Welker, W. A. (1977). Humor in education: A foundation for wholesome living. College Student

Journal, 11, 252–254.

Witt, P. L., & Wheeless, L. R. (1999). Nonverbal communication expectancies about teachers and

enrollment behavior in distance learning. Communication Education, 80, 149–154.

Witt, P. L., & Wheeless, L. R. (2001). An experimental study of teachers’ verbal and nonverbal

immediacy and students’ affective and cognitive learning. Communication Education, 50,

327–342.

Wrench, J. S., & Richmond, V. P. (2004). Understanding the psychometric properties of the humor

assessment instrument through an analysis of the relationships between teacher humor

assessment and instructional communication variables in the college classroom. Communi-

cation Research Reports, 21, 92–103.

Zack, M. H. (1993). Interactivity and communication mode choice in ongoing management

groups. Information Systems Research, 4, 207–239.

Ziv, A. (1988). Teaching and learning with humor: Experiment and replication. Journal of Edu-

cational Psychology, 57, 5–15.

38 M. L. Houser et al.