Psychological approaches 3

Psycho- biological

Psycho/ biological approach

Study of biological sources of human behaviour/ individual differences GeneticsPhysiological differences Study of human brainBrain ‘abnormalities/ injuries and effect on behaviour

Acknowledges complex link between environment and geneticsBut little real focus on environment

Psycho/ biological approach to

Crime Genetic basis of crime – Idea that criminal tendencies are partly inherited

Effects of :Chromosome ‘abnormalities’, hormones, etc

Neurobiology of crime - links between brain functioning and criminal behaviour Brain damage, differences in brain structures etc

Psycho/ biological approach

Human Genome Project finished the reference sequence of the human genome 200399.99% human blueprint now discovered

Implications for discovery, treatment, prevention of human diseases and conditions

New cures for drug addiction, mental illness (Recer, 2001 in Helfgott, 2008) Aggression, violent crime? (Montgomery, 1995)

Psycho/ biological approach

Genes do not cause behaviourPredispose to particular conditionsChance and environment Genotype – genetic constitution encoded in DNA contained in chromosomes and other cellular structuresGenes determine who but not what we are Phenotype – observable product Of interaction between genotype and environment Criminal behaviour is a phenotypic expression

Is criminality inherited/ ‘caused’ by the biological

make up of the individual?

Current approaches explain crime in terms of interaction between Predisposition and environmental conditions on behavioural outcome

Complex interactionExtreme adversity can affect brain development However early research adopted more simplistic approach nature v nurture Are criminals born or made?

The Genetics of crime Controversial topic area

Social, political and ethical implications

Belief that criminality inherited has had great impact on how criminals are perceived

Statistics suggest intergenerational nature of crime

Criminals more likely to have come from criminal families

( Farrington et al, 1996)

Is criminality inherited/ ‘caused’ by

the biological make up of the individual?

Are criminals ‘different’ physically and mentally from non criminals? And is this difference inherited?

Negative stereotypes

Medieval English law

‘If two persons fell under suspicion of a crime, the uglier or more deformed was to be regarded as more probably guilty’

( Jones, 2001)

Is criminality inherited/ ‘caused’ by the biological make up

of the individual?

Lombroso Late 19th – early 20th C – attempts to link physical features with criminal tendenciesThe Criminal Man, 1876Early use of comparison groups and statistical techniques in the study of crime383 Sicilian criminals compared to control group Italian soldiers

Traits on continuum from born criminal - normal man Suggested criminals are regressions to a more primitive type / or have general inherited mental inferiority

Is criminality inherited/ ‘caused’ by the biological make up

of the individual?

Found much higher incidence of asymmetrical faces, unusual ears, fleshy lips, receding chins, excessively long arms, and too many fingers or toes (and tattoos !)

43% of the criminals had 5 or more of these features

Conclusion having 5 or more of these traits indicates a born criminal

Is criminality fixed at birth?England Goring 1913 Compared 3,000 recidivist prisoners with ‘non criminal’ pop for 8 years - physical traits and mental abilities Only differences criminals shorter and weighed less Less mental ability ( some of control group were Oxbridge undergraduates )Criminals not throwbacks but had a general inherited inferiority America Hooton 1939 Nearly 14,000 prisoners compare with 3, 000 control groupMurderers and robbers likely to be tall and thinHeavy short people commit assault rape other sexual offences Small people are often thieves or burglars

Is criminality inherited/ ‘caused’ by the biological make up of the individual?

Later research eg Shelton,1949: Gluecks (1956) attempts to link criminality with body shape Compared delinquents with college students

Endomorphs – round and tendency to fat, relaxed, extrovert Ectomorphs – introverted, sensitive, socially anxious Mesomorphs - much muscle, large, active, Assertive, aggressive

Any support for this finding?

Glueks (1956) 500 delinquents compared with matched non delinquents 60% delinquents compared to 31% non delinquents were mesomorphic types

Also showed stronger traits in aggression insensitivity more emotionally unstable More likely to come from homes where parents display few parenting skills

Hartlett 1982 findings still similar in terms of this body shapeWest 1982 Cambridge Study of Delinquent Development found no correlation

Nature or nurture ? Early research

focus Twin studies

Monozygotic (MZ) twins have same genetic structure Dizygotic (DZ) no closer genetic relationship than two siblings

Assumption - if MZ twins acted in similar ways – characteristics largely hereditaryIn particular MZ who have been separated at birth

NB small sample sizes Twins account for approx 1 in 80 of all births MZ account for 1 in 4 of these Issues with determining MZ

Twin studies Early studies consistently suggest MZ more matched criminal profile than DZ ( Lange 1931, Christiansen 1968:1977 Dalagaard & Kringlen 1976 ) Irrespective of gender Christiansen (1974) serious crime showed higher correlations

However also more psychological closeness between MZ than DZ twins We seek the most favourable environment in accordance with our genetically based characteristics MZ being more genetically similar more likely to seek similar environments (Rowe & Rodgers 1989)

Adoption studies Adopted child more likely to become criminal if natural parent criminal ( Hutchings & Mednick (1977 and 1987 )

Effect of both adopted and biological parent being criminal stronger than one being criminal But criminality of adoptive father less effect than of biological father Bohman (1982) also with female criminals Walters (1992) Analysed 38 twin and adoption studiesSmall relation between genes and crime A larger correlation based on shared environmentLargest when child was subjected to both environmental and genetic factors

Heritability studies – twin and adoption studies- suggest traits in childhood (Mik et al, 2007) linked to aggressive violent behaviour may be heritable

Personality disorders eg Attention deficit APD, histrionic etc( Fishbein, 2001)

However studies do not identify genetically influenced biological mechanisms Many issues with the methods of collecting data

Do chromosome abnormalities have a

relationship with criminal/ violent behaviour ?

Each human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes

Female sex chromosomes XX Male sex chromosomes XY

Rare cases individual may have an unusual number

An XYY set ( Klinefelter’s syndrome) associated with more ‘maleness’ and ‘ intellectual inferiority’ – 1.5 men in 1000

Do chromosome abnormalities have a relationship with criminal/ violent

behaviour ?Is this likely to lead to more violent behaviour?

Statistics suggest this group over represented in prison population – Why?

E.g Witkin (1976) 41% XYY compared to 9% XY males

Jacobs et al (1965) Carstairs maximum security hospital- 196 men 7 convicts had XYY set

Price & Whatmore (1967) 22% other inmates convicted for violence only 9% of the XYY men

Biochemical factors Hormones

Focus Testosterone and Androgens

Animal and human studies suggest male hormones associated with aggression in some individuals under some circumstances ( Fishbein, 2001)

Walsh ( 2002) surge testosterone in postpubertal males ( 10 times greater than in postpubertal females) Partially accounts for onset antisocial behaviour in most adolescent malesDifferences in offending rates by gender at any age

Widely held belief in link between aggressive

and sexual crimes and testosterone

Female monkeys implanted with testosterone become more physically aggressive and develop a greater interest in sex

Vold et al, (2002) –does aggression and other behaviours increase hormone levels or do hormone levels affect aggressive/ sexual behaviour

Biochemical factors Hormones

Biochemical factors Hormones

Olweus (1987) Distinction between provoked aggressive conduct and unprovoked aggressive conduct

Low frustration tolerance related to aspects of upbringing - parental aggression etc ?

In early childhood low frustration tolerance not linked to aggressive behaviour appears at puberty with onset of increased testosterone levels

Such boys become more touchy intolerant and easier to provoke

Pre menstrual tension - not a specific defence but can be used as mitigating factor in sentencing

Dalton ( 1961) 156 female prisoners - 49% committed the crime during the 8 days before menstruation Fishbein (1992) studied the research– small % of women become more hostile at this time

Fishbein (2001) influence of male hormones on criminal female behaviours – more ‘male’?However research on link between female crime and hormones scarce

Biochemical factors Hormones

Biochemical factors Hormones

Adrenalin Levels increase under stress – Reflected in psychological and physiological reaction

Hare (1982) – convicted offenders when faced with threat of pain show fewer physical and emotional signs stress than non offendersOlweus – aggressive behaviour in bullies not accompanied by an increase in adrenalin Lower levels in individual inclined to unprovoked aggression – (ibid)And hyper active boys – Magnusson (1988)

Neurotransmitters Convey information to brain structureRegulate emotion impulse control mood arousal of nervous system Some consistently linked with aggression and antisocial behaviour ( Fishbein, 2001)Much research on animals- human studies support findingsAggression is either instrumental/ predatory Planned emotionless purposefulExpressive/ affective Spontaneous reactive emotional

Types controlled by different sets neurotransmitters 4 correlate with behavioural displays of aggression Affective aggression associated with:Low levels serotonin High levels of noradrenaline , dopamine, acetylcholine

Predatory aggression with: Low levels of serotonin noradrenaline , dopamineHigh levels of acetylcholine

CNS and ANSNervous system - Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system ( contains autonomic nervous system)CNS – central processing system Involved in all psychological activity

ANS resides outside brainResponsible for core functions – regulation heart rate digestion temperature etc Activated under stress – major role in flight or fight response Anxious individuals higher levels ANS activity

CNS and ANS

CNS/ ANS activity genetically determined but affected by life experiences Much research suggests individuals prone to risk taking antisocial behaviours have unusually low levels CNS and ANS activity ( Raine, 1993) Measured by EEG ( electroencephalogram) - measures brain wave patterns ) and ERP’s- event related potentials – signal received by EEG recorder Analysis heart rate skin conductance activity, startle reflex etc Polygraph etc

CNS and ANS

Individuals with underactive CNS ANS activity Do not experience physiological and emotional discomfort to same degree Do not respond to punishment in same way

Many studies shown antisocial psychopathic violent offenders under-aroused ( Fishbein, 2001, Hare, 2001, Raine , 1998)

May be physiological result of neurotransmitter imbalance

CNS ANS Slow brain wave patterns patterns appear to be common feature of many criminal types

Early studies suggested 25% - 50% of offenders had abnormal patterns

Mednick et al (1982 ) Danish boys later convicted of violent offences gradual deterioration in: neurological and physical reports from pre birth to end of 1st year 80% had experienced complications at delivery Findings supported by Raine (2002)

Suggests slow brain wave patterns may be linked to increased risk of social problems in general

Brain dysfunction/ damage

Brain divided into cortex and subcortex Cerebral cortex split down middleContains 4 lobes frontal temporal parietal occipital Subcortex – contains limbic system includes amygdala hippocampus hypothalamusControls emotional behaviour Most research focused on left hemisphere – frontal and temporal lobes Frontal lobe area brain responsible for organization of action and reaction Links between damage here and aggressive behaviour? Dysfunction or damage to limbic regions contribute to aggressive/ violent behaviour ( Raine, 1993)

Brain ‘ dysfunction’ Buikhuisen (1987) review literature

Delinquents perform less well on tests for dysfunction than control group of non delinquentsRecall and organization information, planning etc Tendency to impulsivity lack self control increased sensitivity to alcohol Not as adversely affected by punishment so more likely to become recidivists

Mannuzza et al (1989)

Hyperactive children more likely to be imprisoned as young adults than ‘normal’ children

Cambridge study in delinquent development (1990)

Attention deficits and behavioural problems associated with high rates of offending

Noted not necessarily biological issue – social factors important

Brain ‘dysfunction’

Brain dysfunctionAmygdala – brain’s alarm system 3 basic survival mechanisms Fear / flightFightAppeasement Allows swift transition from one to another This area is relatively mature at birth Emotional responses mediated by the cortexThe thinking/ rational part of the brain This area develops gradually Development accelerated by use

Brain dysfunctionIf we do not activate this area often in childhood may become poorly controlled adults Have social and emotional problems Damage to the part of the cortex responsible for controlling emotions May reduce its ability to inhibit activity in the amygdala39 male and 2 female murderers brains scannedMajority showed reduced frontal lobe activity

Brain ‘dysfunction’ One in three killers claim to remember nothing about the attack (Restak) Even after sustained amounts of violence Suggested may in some cases be a result of epileptic seizures - often begin in amygdala

Case of Julie Developed dream like interludes in which she did not know what she was doing Knifed another woman through the heart Neurosurgeon inserted electrodes into the amygdala When one area was stimulated she became violently angry As soon as the electric current was stopped she became stillHad no recollection of the event ( In Carter,1998 )

Brain damage Phineas Gage 1848Blasting rock with gunpowder31/2 foot iron rod flew through Skull and frontal lobeStill able to speak and walk after accidentMade complete and rapid physical recoveryChanged personality completely From well balanced etc to antisocial unpredictable etc

Recent research damage to this area linked with drug/ alcohol abuse conduct disorder etc

Head injuries Effects of brain injury relatively predictable due to specialisation

Miller (1999a) offenders tend to have a history of head injuriesEEG readings tend to show higher rates of abnormal activity - particularly in left temporal lobe inBrains of aggressive/ violent offenders Small but consistent increase in offending post injury

Evans & Claycomb ( 1998) strong alpha type brain wave patterns found in frontal lobes ofPersistent violent offenders who denied their offences Those who claimed to have been guided by ‘voices’.

Issues Complex interaction between biological and social factors

Chicken and eggCan people with brain damage/ dysfunction be held responsible for actions ?

Is criminal behaviour a clinical disorder?Can we predict future behaviours by studying brain functioning of young people ?

What do we do about it?Can we ‘cure’ certain behaviours by medical intervention

Can we restructure the brain How ethical may this be?

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Barbaree, H.E. (1998). Denial and minimization amongst sex offenders: assessment and treatment outcome. Sex Offender Programming, 3 (4), pp 1-7

Carter, R (1998). Mapping the Mind. London, Phoenix. Farrington, D. P. Barnes, G.C. & Lambert, S. (1996) The

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Fishbein, D. (2001). Behavioural Perspectives in Criminology, Belmont CA, Wadsworth.

Hare, R. D. (2001). Psychopaths and their nature: Some implications for understanding human predatory violence. In A. Raine & J. Sandmartin (Eds.), Violence and Psychpathy , pp 5-34.

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