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1.1 Background

This study aims to investigate the impact of English literature in promoting students reading comprehension. Literature provides learners with new experiences, information and different cultural background that contribute to raise awareness of the students of the other countries. According to Langer (1995, p. 5): “Literature plays a critical role in our life, often without our notice. It helps us to explore both ourselves and others, to define and redefine who we are, who we might become, and how the world might be… In its best sense, literature is intellectually provocative as well as humanizing, allowing to use various angles of vision to examine thoughts, beliefs, and actions.” Students who study only English language, with its emphasis on reading skills, sometimes fail to see the point of studying English literature. English literature can introduce students to a range of aspect, not only English language, but also culture. Literature is a form of language that deeply influences the minds of people of all ages. Moreover, literature is also studied as a scientific language for various aspects. Literature is the mirror of society. Thus, a book written in a particular time defines people, their thoughts, and the influences of that era. The works of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci depict the era of Italian Renaissance, whereas Greek literature mostly comprises the accounts of Greek Gods and Goddesses. Romanticism is about nature and simplicity, while classicism defines complexity. A classic example is that of William Wordsworth who romanticized the Romantic era with his naturalistic writing. As time changed so did people and their work, and of course, literature. Today we're in the post-modernism era, where literary works include a mix of critical and artificial tone of language. Most of the skeptical elements like ambiguity, satire, parody, etc. are the most prominent features found in the current era. Oral and written literatures are the two major forms of literature. As we all know, almost all type of literature is available in written form. A lot of oral literature too has been made available in the form of books.

Reading literature helps us grow personally and intellectually Reading. It shapes our goal and values by clarifying our own identity both positively and negatively as it makes us human. Literature gives us a valuable chance to explore the nature

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of human being it enhances our understanding about culture of others as well as improves our Language proficiency

1.2 Definition of Literature

Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken material. Derived from the Latin litteratura meaning "writing formed with letters," literature most commonly refers to works of the creative imagination, including poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction, journalism, and in some instances, song. Literature represents the culture and tradition of a language or a people. It's difficult to precisely define, though many have tried, but it's clear that the accepted definition of literature is constantly changing and evolving. For many, the word literature suggests a higher art form, merely putting words on a page doesn't necessarily mean creating literature. A canon is the accepted body of works for a given author. Some works of literature are considered canonical, that is culturally representative of a particular genre. Literary texts can be studied in their original forms or in simplified or abridged versions. An increasing number of stories in English are written specifically for learners of other languages. The types of literary texts that can be studied inside and outside the ELT classroom include:

Literary texts provide opportunities for multi-sensorial classroom experiences and can appeal to learners with different learning styles. Texts can be supplemented by audio-texts, music CDs, film clips, podcasts, all of which enhance even further the richness of the sensory input that students receive.

Literary texts offer a rich source of linguistic input and can help learners to practice the four skills - speaking, listening, reading and writing - in addition to exemplifying grammatical structures and presenting new vocabulary. Literature can help learners to develop their understanding of other cultures, awareness of ‘differences' and to develop tolerance and understanding. At the same, time literary texts can deal with universal themes such as love, war and loss that are not always covered in the sanitized world of course books.

Thus, the use of literature in the ELT classroom is enjoying a revival for a number of reasons. Having formed part of traditional language teaching approaches, literature became less popular when language teaching and learning started to focus on the functional use of language. However, the role of literature in

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the ELT has been re-assessed and many now view literary texts as providing rich linguistic input, effective stimuli for students to express themselves in other languages and a potential source of learner motivation.

1.3 Statement of the problem

Sudanese students are poor in English language, because most of them do not read literature book that develop students’ reading comprehension. Students only study for the sake of exam, they think reading literature book is boring.

1.4 Objective of the study

1. To investigate the role of literature in developing language comprehension.

2. To evaluate how literature improves reading comprehension.

3. To analysis different technique of teaching literature.

1.5 Questions of the study

1. What is role of literature in comprehension language development?

2. How does literature improve reading comprehension?

3. What are the different technique of teaching literature?

1.6 Hypothesis of the study

1. Literature plays an important role in developing reading comprehension.

2. Literature improves students reading comprehension.

3. There are several techniques of teaching literature.

1.7 Importance of the study

The importance of literature on teaching lies in its ability to foster critical reading, build valuable skills, and expand students' worldviews.

Literature allows us to raise questions and give us a deep understanding of issues and situation. It is also providing insight into the minds of other human beings, the mind of the author and mind of the character he or she brings to life. Beside it provides one with the opportunity to further one’s education to continuously learn new things and be exposed to a plethora of ideas.

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Moreover, having a large and wide-ranging vocabulary is essential for a number of reasons. It helps with both writing and reading abilities, of course, but it also allows for more complex discourse. The larger your vocabulary is, the more in depth and thoughtful discussions you can have on important topics and issues, both in and outside of the classroom. When people speak they tend to use a fairly limited vocabulary, so the best way to become exposed to new words is to read. And reading literature is a great way to build and enhance vocabulary. Due to the descriptive nature of a story, any novel will include plenty of words students have likely never seen or heard before.Strong (1996, p. 291) also argues that literature should form an important part of any language teaching class because it offers a rich source for learning reading. Literature may form part of communicative pedagogy in three different ways: 1) providing a context for in which to develop students reading strategies and knowledge of non-fiction and literary texts; 2) forming the basis for an extensive reading program with the attendant acquisition of new vocabulary as well as grammatical forms; 3) offering the opportunity to explore cross-cultural values.

1.8 Methodology of the study

This research will examine university students in Khartoum state who are studying English language. The sample of the study consists of hundred students “29 male and 29 female”.

The research will make use of descriptive analytic method, questionnaire and test will be used by the researcher.

1.9 limit of the study

This study will be conducted at Comboni College of Science and Technology in February 2016 up to 2018.

This study is meant to study: Using literature in English language teaching, and how culture contributes in reading it.

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1.10 Organization of the study

This study consists of five chapters. At the very beginning of chapter one is about introduction and background of the study, while chapter two is mainly about literature review and previous studies of the study, whereas chapter three concerning research methodology. Chapter four focuses on the discussion and analysis, hence chapter five is a conclusion of the study.

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Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction Literature, in its broadest sense, is any single body of written works. More restrictively, literature is writing considered to be an art form, or any single writing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that differ from ordinary usage.

Its Latin root literatura/ litteratura (derived itself from littera : letter or handwriting) was used to refer to all written accounts, though contemporary definitions extend the term to include texts that are spoken or sung (oral literature). The concept has changed meaning over time: nowadays it can broaden to have non-written verbal art forms, and thus it is difficult to agree on its origin, which can be paired with that of language or writing itself. Developments in print technology have allowed an ever growing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in electronic literature.

Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction, and whether it is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre).

According to Boas (1931) “Literature is the record of experience interpreted by personality that behind every book which the race has preserved is a human being’s eager effort to give life meaning, or create beauty, to express vivid emotion and ideas, to make men aware of themselves and the life they lead”. The above extract presents an integrated meaning of the value and the importance of literature.

According to Dictionary.com: Noun:

1. writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest, are characteristic or essential features, as poetry, novels, history, biography, and essays.

2. the entire body of writings of a specific language, period, people, etc.:the literature of England.

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3. the writings dealing with a particular subject:the literature of ornithology. 4. the profession of a writer or author. 5. literary work or production. 6. any kind of printed material, such as circulars, leaflets, or

handbills:literature describing company products. 7. Archaic. polite learning; literary culture; appreciation of letters and books.

According to (Rosenblatt 1975, p. 106, as cited in Belsky, 2006, p. 15), to fully understand a written word would mean to recognize its implications in a context that is significant for human beings. Rosenblatt states that: It requires linking the word with what it points to in the human or natural world. This involves awareness of the sensations it symbolizes, experiences out of which it springs, the modes of feeling or practical situations with which it is associated, the actions it may imply. As Cullinan (1989, p. 7) pointed out, “literature is language, and children’s language grows through experience with literature”. Literature provides this experience and the context that nourishes understanding and triggers language and personal development. If all this is true, incorporating children’s literature into instruction should have been essential for curricular developers over time. Still, it took many years, more precisely centuries, for educators to realize the tremendous benefits of literature in education. The Collin Dictionary defines literature as: Noun:

1. written material such as poetry, novels, essays, etc., especially works of imagination characterized by excellence of style and expression and by themes of general of enduring interest.

2. the body of written work of a particular culture or people ⇒Scandinavian literature

3. written or printed matter of a particular type or on a particular subject ⇒scientific literature,⇒the literature of the violin

4. printed material giving a particular type of information ⇒sales literature 5. the art or profession of a writer The Merriam - Webster Dictionary defines literature as:

Noun: Written works (such as poems, plays, and novels) that are considered to be good and to have lasting importance

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Books, articles, etc., about a particular subject Printed materials (such as booklets, leaflets, and brochures) that provide information about something Full Definition: archaic: literary culture 2: the production of literary work especially as an occupation. 3 a (1): writings in prose or verse; specially: writings having excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal interest (2): an example of such writings <what came out, through rarely literature, was always a roaring good story—people> b: the body of written works produced in a particular language, country, or age c: the body of writings on a particular subject <scientific literature> d: printed matter(as leaflets or circulars) <campaign literature> 4: the aggregate of usually specified type of musical compositions Fowler (1965, p. 217) defines literature (as cited in Mohammed, 2014, p. 11) as follow: "Literature is the record of the attempt of writers to express and communicate their ideas about man's hopes, dreams, ideals, feelings, thoughts, and experience, and his relationship to society. Literature deals with the life of man in moments of crisis and anguish, with his most intimate relationships, with his innermost thoughts and his deepest loves and hates, with his courage, honor, hope, pride, compassion, pity, and sacrifice". In a widest sense, literature is just about anything written Kennedy, (1979). It means that any kinds of written texts such as newspaper, article, gossips, Mathematics, History, Biology books, leaflet, food labels, recipe and ticket can be called as literature. In addition, Shaw (1997, p. 201) states that literature is writing products which expression and form, in connection with ideas and concerns of universal and permanent interest, are its essential features. From this definition, it can be concluded that not all of the writings are literature. Furthermore, Tjahjono (2007, p. 34) mentions that literary language has some characteristics that are different from writing. Literary language is connotative, multi-interpretable and has musicality effect. It means that literature is writing products which are different from scientific writing such as fiction story, poem, drama, etc. Traditionally, literature is defined by genre (novels, plays, short stories, poetry, essays,) by modes of discourse (narrative, expository, argumentative,

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descriptive), by time periods (Elizabethan, Restoration, Victorian, Twentieth Century), by nationalities (British, Canadian, American), or by quality (traditional, classic).It is often regarded as an art and always has form.( Hall, 1961, p. 121, cited in Talif, 1991, p. 23) indicates that "like any form of art, literature involves communication of some type of meaning, through a particular medium, in this instance language" In his definition of literature from a language teaching point of view, Alexander Baird states that “literature is the use of language effectively in suitable conditions” Turker,1990,(cited in Mohamed ,2014,p.11). This underlines the fact that literature makes use of language , so teachers of English are supposed to exploit this “use of language” in order to promote ,develop and improve the students’ standard of language.

Mc Rea, 1994, (cited in Mohamed, 2014, p.12) distinguishes between literature with capital “L” which refers to the classical canon, for example, that by Shakespeare, Dickens and so on, and literature with small “l” which refers to popular fiction, fables, myth, songs and lyrics. This means that literature which is used in language classrooms today is no longer restricted to classical texts from Britain or America, but it includes the works of writers from different countries, and it includes translated works from the native language to English. To conclusion, according to these definitions, literature refers to a body of written texts produced by a certain culture and it is highly valued within that culture over a period of time as part of its literary heritage. Accordingly; it can be said that English literature in schools and colleges includes selected works by different writers such as Jane Austen, William Shakespeare, Dickens and a host of many famous poets, novelists and dramatists. Eagleton (2006) says by definition literature is imaginative writing in the sense of fiction – writing which is not literally true. He explains that literature is a special kind of language in contrast to the ordinary language we commonly use. He believes literature has become a whole alternative ideology and the imagination itself, as with Blake and Shelley, becomes a political force. He feels the task of literature is to transform society in the sense of those energies and values which art embodies.

Wellek & Warren (1977) say that the term "literature" seems best if we limit it to the art of literature, that is, to imaginative literature. They believe the simplest

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way of solving the question is by distinguishing the particular use of language in literature.

Definitions of literature have varied over time: it is a "culturally relative definition". In Western Europe prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing. A more restricted sense of the term emerged during the Romantic period, in which it began to demarcate "imaginative" writing. Contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to older, more inclusive notions; Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject of analysis both popular and minority genres, in addition to canonical works.

The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that possess high quality or distinction, forming part of the so-called belles-lettres ('fine writing') tradition. This sort of definition is that used in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–11) when it classifies literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing." Problematic in this view is that there is no objective definition of what constitutes "literature": anything can be literature, and anything which is universally regarded as literature has the potential to be excluded, since value judgments can change over time.

2.1.1 The Concept of Literature Literature is understood in a multiplicity of ways. Milner, (1996):p.1represents that,

“It is a body of written or oral works, such as novels, poetry, or drama that use words to stimulate the imagination and confront the reader with a unique vision of life. The underlying assumption here is that a work of literature is a creative, universal form of expression that addresses the emotional, spiritual, or intellectual concerns of humanity”.

However, this idea about literature is no more than the fourteenth century idea that literature is writing. In the eighteenth century literature was viewed as(William, 1976, p.152) adds that “well-written books of an imaginative or creative kind”. Beasley, 2003 says that,“Good literature is said to demonstrate craft and artistry and has the power to raise questions, provide fresh points of view, and expand the

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understanding of self and the world, stimulate the imagination, and renew the spirit”. A good anthology of literature as fiction, poetry, and drama can be found in the six editions of 'Compact Bedford Introduction to Literature' with very readable explanations of the elements of all the forms of writing and excellent chapters on critical thinking and writing (Meyer, 2003). To us Literature is any creative, factual and imaginative work about people and what they have done, believe, and have created or are willing to create. Literature is a multitude of works; written in books, journals, newspapers and magazines; spoken; acted; sung; filmed; drawn as cartoons or shown on television. Literature should not only portray the positive side of human activities but the negative consequences with the view to command a reversal for the better. This implies a balanced representation of the realities of human existence. it can be experienced through a variety of media; oral, audio, audiovisual and so on. It is an expression of culture because it documents human knowledge, belief and behavior. 2.1.2 Types of literature Literature is a broad term that encompasses almost everything we read, see, and hear. It helps to be able to break it down into categories, for ease of understanding and analysis. Back in ancient Greece, literature was divided into two main categories: tragedy and comedy. Nowadays the list of possible types and genres of literature can seem endless. But it is still possible to narrow down the vast amount of literature available into a few basic groups. The five genres of literature learners should be familiar with are Poetry, Drama, Prose, Nonfiction, and Media each of which is explained in more detail below. You’ll see some overlap between genres; for example prose is a broader term that includes both drama and non-fiction. At the end of this article we’ll also touch on a couple of narrower but still important literary categories.

a. Poetry This is often considered the oldest form of literature. Before writing was invented, oral stories were commonly put into some sort of poetic form to make them easier to remember and recite. Poetry today is usually written down, but is still sometimes performed.

A lot of people think of rhymes and counting syllables and lines when they think of poetry, and some poems certainly follow strict forms. But other types of poetry are so free-form that they lack any rhymes or common patterns. There are even kinds of poetry that cross genre lines, such as prose poetry. In general, though, a text is a poem when it has some sort of meter or rhythm, and when it focuses on the way

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the syllables, words, and phrases sound when put together. Poems are heavy in imagery and metaphor, and are often made up of fragments and phrases rather than complete, grammatically correct sentences. And poetry is nearly always written in stanzas and lines, creating a unique look on the page. Poetry as experienced in the classroom is usually one of three types. There are the shorter, more modern poems, spanning anything from a few lines to a few pages. Often these are collected in books of poems by a single author or by a variety of writers. Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven," is one of the most commonly taught poems of this type. Then there are the classical, formulaic poems of Shakespeare’s time, such as the blank verse and the sonnet. And finally there are the ancient, epic poems transcribed from oral stories. These long, complex poems resemble novels, such as Homer’s The Iliad andThe Odyssey.

b. Prose Once you know what poetry is, it’s easy to define prose. Prose can be defined as any kind of written text that isn’t poetry (which means drama, discussed below, is technically a type of prose). The most typical varieties of prose are novels and short stories, while other types include letters, diaries, journals, and non-fiction (also discussed below). Prose is written in complete sentences and organized in paragraphs. Instead of focusing on sound, which is what poetry does, prose tends to focus on plot and characters.

Prose is the type of literature read most often in English classrooms. Any novel or short story falls into this category, from Jane Eyre to Twilight and from “A Sound of Thunder" to “The Crucible." Like poetry, prose is broken down into a large number of other sub-genres. Some of these genres revolve around the structure of the text, such as novellas, biographies, and memoirs, and others are based on the subject matter, like romances, fantasies, and mysteries.

c. Drama Any text meant to be performed rather than read can be considered drama (unless it’s a poem meant to be performed, of course). In layman’s terms, dramas are usually called plays. When written down the bulk of a drama is dialogue, with periodic stage directions such as “he looks away angrily." Of all the genres of literature discussed in this article, drama is the one given the least time in most classrooms. And often when drama is taught, it’s only read the same way you might read a novel. Since dramas are meant to be acted out in front of an audience, it’s hard to fully appreciate them when looking only at pages of text. Students

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respond best to dramas, and grasp their mechanics more fully, when exposed to film or theater versions or encouraged to read aloud or act out scenes during class. The dramas most commonly taught in classrooms are definitely those written by the bard. Shakespeare’s plays are challenging, but rewarding when approached with a little effort and a critical mindset. Popular choices from his repertoire include Hamlet, Taming of the Shrew, and Romeo and Juliet, among others. Older Greek plays are also taught fairly often, especially Sophocles’ Antigone. And any good drama unit should include more modern plays for comparison, such as Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman.

d. Non-Fiction Poetry and drama both belong to the broader category of fiction texts that feature events and characters that have been made up. Then there is non-fiction, a vast category that is a type of prose and includes many different sub-genres. Non-fiction can be creative, such as the personal essay, or factual, such as the scientific paper. Sometimes the purpose of non-fiction is to tell a story (hence the autobiography), but most of the time the purpose is to pass on information and educate the reader about certain facts, ideas, and/or issues. Some genres of non-fiction include histories, textbooks, travel books, newspapers, self-help books, and literary criticism. A full list of non-fiction types would be at least as long as this entire article. But the varieties most often used in the classroom are textbooks, literary criticism, and essays of various sorts. Most of what students practice writing in the classroom is the non-fiction essay, from factual to personal to persuasive. And non-fiction is often used to support and expand students’ understanding of fiction texts after reading Hamlet students might read critical articles about the play and historical information about the time period and/or the life of Shakespeare.

e. Media The newest type of literature that has been defined as a distinct genre is media. This categorization was created to encompass the many new and important kinds of texts in our society today, such as movies and films, websites, commercials, billboards, and radio programs. Any work that doesn’t exist primarily as a written text can probably be considered media, particularly if it relies on recently developed technologies. Media literature can serve a wide variety of purposes—among other things it can educate, entertain, advertise, and/or persuade.

More and more educators are coming to recognize the importance of teaching media in the classroom. Students are likely to be exposed to far more of this type

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of literature than anything else throughout their lives, so it makes sense to teach them how to be critical and active consumers of media. Internet literacy is a growing field, for example, since the skills required to understand and use online information differ in important ways from the skills required to analyze printed information. Teaching media literacy is also a great way for educators to help students become participants in their own culture, through lessons on creating their own websites or home movies or commercials.

f. Other Types of Literature These are far from the only important genres of literature. Here are a few more that are sometimes used in classrooms:

g. Oral Literature: The oldest type of literature, and the foundation on which culture was built. Now most oral texts have been written down, of course, and are usually taught in the form of epic poems or plays or folk tales.

h. Folklore/Folk Tales/Fables: A distinction is often made between regular prose and folklore. Most folk tales were originally oral literature, and are short stories meant to pass on a particular lesson or moral. They often have a timeless quality, dealing with common human concerns that are just as relevant to us today, while still being products of a very specific culture and time period.

i. Graphic Novels and Comic Books: It used to be that most educators saw comic books as the lowest form of literature, not suitable or valuable for children. But times have changed, and many teachers have come to realize that comic books and the more modern graphic novels are both appealing to kids and are a valid form of literature in their own right.

2.1.3 The Concept of Culture Like literature, culture is a contested phenomenon which is understood to mean different things by different groups. (DMFA,2002 p.26) notes that, “Culture is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. it embodies languages, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals and so on”. Culture consists of shared values, beliefs, knowledge, skills and practices that underpin behavior by members of a social group at a particular point in time. It is creative expression, skills, traditional knowledge and resources. These include, craft and design, oral and written history and literature, music, drama, dance, visual

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arts, celebrations, indigenous knowledge of botanical properties and medicinal applications, architectural forms, historic sites.

2.1.4 Understanding the meaning of culture

Culture is the social behavior and norms found in human societies. it is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human societies. Some aspects of human behavior, social practices such as culture, expressive forms such as art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies such as tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing are said to be cultural universals, found in all human societies. The concept of material culturecovers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization (including practices of political organization andsocial institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature(both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is "the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time." Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as "person[s] of worth within the world of meaning"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.

The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago, and is often thought to be unique to humans, although some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complex, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that is transmitted through social interaction and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.

2.1.5 Elements of culture

Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that are part of any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of culture: ideas and symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first type, called nonmaterial culture, includes the values,

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beliefs, symbols, and language that define a society. The second type, called material culture, includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation. These elements of culture are discussed next.

2.1.5.1 Symbols

Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication, while other symbols are in fact material objects. As the symbolic interactionist perspective discussed in emphasizes, shared symbols make social interaction possible. Considering symbols first. A common one is shaking hands, which is done in some societies but not in others. It commonly conveys friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and departure. Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we callgestures, movements of the hands, arms, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions. However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one society and something quite different in another society (Axtell, 1998). In the United States, for example, if we nod our head up and down, we mean yes, and if we shake it back and forth, we mean no. In Bulgaria, however, nodding means no, while shaking our head back and forth means yes! In the United States, if we make an “O” by putting our thumb and forefinger together, we mean “OK,” but the same gesture in certain parts of Europe signifies an obscenity. “Thumbs up” in the United States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in Australia it means the same thing as extending the middle finger in the United States. Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia would be offended if they saw you using your left hand to eat, because they use their left hand for bathroom hygiene. Some of our most important symbols are objects. Here the U.S. flag is a prime example. For most Americans, the flag is not just a piece of cloth with red and white stripes and white stars against a field of blue. Instead, it is a symbol of freedom, democracy, and other American values and, accordingly, inspires pride and patriotism. During the Vietnam War, however, the flag became to many Americans a symbol of war and imperialism. Some burned the flag in protest, prompting angry attacks by bystanders and negative coverage by the news media.

Other objects have symbolic value for religious reasons. Three of the most familiar religious symbols in many nations are the cross, the Star of David, and the crescent

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moon, which are widely understood to represent Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, respectively. Whereas many cultures attach no religious significance to these shapes, for many people across the world they evoke very strong feelings of religious faith. Recognizing this, hate groups have often desecrated these symbols.

As these examples indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal communication and tangible objects, are an important part of any culture but also can lead to misunderstandings and even hostility. These problems underscore the significance of symbols for social interaction and meaning.

2.1.5.2 Language

Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English, the word chair means something we sit on. In Spanish, the word silla means the same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these words, a shared language and thus society are possible. By the same token, differences in languages can make it quite difficult to communicate. In the United States, some people consider a common language so important that they advocate making English the official language of certain cities or states or even the whole country and banning bilingual education in the public schools (Ray, 2007).

Critics acknowledge the importance of English but allege that this movement smacks of anti-immigrant prejudice and would help destroy ethnic subcultures. In 2009, voters in Nashville, Tennessee, rejected a proposal that would have made English the city’s official language and required all city workers to speak in English rather than their native language.

Language, of course, can be spoken or written. One of the most important developments in the evolution of society was the creation of written language. Some of the preindustrial societies that anthropologists have studied have written language, while others do not, and in the remaining societies the “written” language consists mainly of pictures, not words. illustrates this variation with data from societies called the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCCS), a famous data set compiled several decades ago by anthropologist George Murdock and colleagues from information that had been gathered on hundreds of preindustrial societies around the world (Murdock & White, 1969). In , we see that only about

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one-fourth of the SCCS societies have a written language, while about equal proportions have no language at all or only pictures.

Accordingly, Language influences how we think the famous but controversial Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, named after two linguistic anthropologists, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, argues that people cannot easily understand concepts and objects unless their language contains words for these items (Whorf, 1956). Language thus influences how we understand the world around us. Another illustration of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is seen in sexist language, in which the use of male nouns and pronouns shapes how we think about the world (Miles, 2008). In older children’s books, words like fireman and mailman are common, along with pictures of men in these jobs, and critics say they send a message to children that these are male jobs, not female jobs. If a teacher tells a second-grade class, “Every student should put his books under his desk,” the teacher obviously means students of both sexes but may be sending a subtle message that boys matter more than girls. For these reasons, several guidebooks promote the use of nonsexist language (Maggio, 1998). The use of racist language also illustrates the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. An old saying goes, “Sticks and stones may break my bones, but names will never hurt me.” That may be true in theory but not in reality. Names can hurt, especially names that are racial slurs, which African Americans growing up before the era of the civil rights movement routinely heard. According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, the use of these words would have affected how whites perceived African Americans. More generally, the use of racist terms may reinforce racial prejudice and racial stereotypes.

2.1.5. 3 Norms

Norms are often divided into two types, formal norms and informal norms. Formal norms, also called mores and laws, refer to the standards of behavior considered the most important in any society. Examples in the United States include traffic laws, criminal codes, and, in a college context, student behavior codes addressing such things as cheating and hate speech. Informal norms, also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behavior that are considered less important but still influence how we behave. Table manners are a common

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example of informal norms, as are such everyday behaviors as how we interact with a cashier and how we ride in an elevator. Other evidence for cultural variation in norms comes from the study of how men and women are expected to behave in various societies. For example, many traditional societies are simple hunting-and-gathering societies. In most of these, men tend to hunt and women tend to gather. Many observers attribute this gender difference to at least two biological differences between the sexes.

Some of the most interesting norms that differ by culture govern how people stand apart when they talk with each other (Hall & Hall, 2007). In the United States, people who are not intimates usually stand about three to four feet apart when they talk. If someone stands more closely to us, especially if we are of northern European heritage, we feel uncomfortable. Yet people in other countries especially Italy, France, Spain, and many of the nations of Latin America and the Middle East would feel uncomfortable if they were standing three to four feet apart. To them, this distance is too great and indicates that the people talking dislike each other. If a U.S. native of British or Scandinavian heritage were talking with a member of one of these societies, they might well have trouble interacting, because at least one of them will be uncomfortable with the physical distance separating them.

2.1.5.4 Rituals

Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures and ceremonies that often mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other elements from one generation to the next. Graduation ceremonies in colleges and universities are familiar examples of time-honored rituals. This is one among many rituals people do across the world.

2.1.5.5 Values

Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values shape its norms. In Japan, for example, a central value is group harmony. The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social relationships and dislike interpersonal conflict. Individuals are fairly unassertive by American standards, lest they be perceived as trying to force their will on others (Schneider & Silverman, 2010).

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When interpersonal disputes do arise, Japanese do their best to minimize conflict by trying to resolve the disputes amicably. Lawsuits are thus uncommon; in one case involving disease and death from a mercury-polluted river, some Japanese who dared to sue the company responsible for the mercury poisoning were considered bad citizens (Upham, 1976). In the United States, of course, the situation is quite different. The American culture extols the rights of the individual and promotes competition in the business and sports worlds and in other areas of life. Lawsuits over the most frivolous of issues are quite common and even expected. Phrases like “Look out for number one!” abound. If the Japanese value harmony and group feeling, Americans value competition and individualism. Because the Japanese value harmony, their norms frown on self-assertion in interpersonal relationships and on lawsuits to correct perceived wrongs. Because Americans value and even thrive on competition, our norms promote assertion in relationships and certainly promote the use of the law to address all kinds of problems.

The Japanese value system is a bit of an anomaly, because Japan is an industrial nation with very traditional influences. Its emphasis on group harmony and community is more usually thought of as a value found in traditional societies, while the U.S. emphasis on individuality is more usually thought of as a value found in industrial cultures.

Anthropologist David Maybury-Lewis (1998, p. 8) describes this difference as follows:

“The heart of the difference between the modern world and the traditional one is that in traditional societies people are a valuable resource and the interrelations between them are carefully tended; in modern society things are the valuables and people are all too often treated as disposable.”

In industrial societies, continues Maybury-Lewis, individualism and the rights of the individual are celebrated and any one person’s obligations to the larger community are weakened. Individual achievement becomes more important than values such as kindness, compassion, and generosity.

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2.1.5.6 Artifacts

The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a society’s material culture. In the most simple societies, artifacts are largely limited to a few tools, the huts people live in, and the clothing they wear. One of the most important inventions in the evolution of society was the wheel. shows that very few of the societies use wheels to move heavy loads over land, while the majority use human power and about one-third use pack animals. Sometimes people in one society may find it difficult to understand the artifacts that are an important part of another society’s culture. If a member of a tribal society who had never seen a cell phone, or who had never even used batteries or electricity, were somehow to visit the United States, she or he would obviously have no idea of what a cell phone was or of its importance in almost everything we do these days. Conversely, if we were to visit that person’s society, we might not appreciate the importance of some of its artifacts.

Anthropologist Marvin Harris (1974) advanced a practical explanation for India’s cow worship. Millions of Indians are peasants who rely on their farms for their food and thus their existence. Oxen and water buffalo, not tractors, are the way they plow their fields. If their ox falls sick or dies, farmers may lose their farms. Because, as Harris observes, oxen are made by cows, it thus becomes essential to preserve cows at all costs. In India, cows also act as an essential source of fertilizer, to the tune of 700 million tons of manure annually, about half of which is used for fertilizer and the other half of which is used as fuel for cooking.

2.1.6 Cultural changes

(David Knott and et, al 2008) illustrate that, the term culture can have various meanings to different audiences. In public policy circles it is most commonly used to refer to the set of influences on how individuals, groups and society see the world and react to it. Cultural values comprise ideas about what seems important in life. At the societal level these are often manifested as social norms, which are the rules and guidelines that steer human behavior.

These can vary from informal norms to those supported by more formal sanctions or rewards. At the individual level the cultural values that people hold determine their attitudes to specific ideas and activities. In turn these influence the decisions about actions and behavior that people take.

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Cultural attitudes and values are important because they are a key determinant of behavior along with the incentives and information we face in any given situation. The effect of our attitudes and values is often the key bridge between what we should do to achieve positive outcomes and what we actually do. Whether that outcome be in relation to climate change, obesity, personal aspiration or community cohesion our attitudes clearly manifest themselves in our behavior.

2.1.6.1 Culture and literature

Literature is a slice of life; it holds a mirror to life. Literature, they say, is a seismograph of the society it portrays. George Bernard Shaw was perhaps one of the best advocates of the ‘literature for life’ camp. His plays were professedly propaganda plays, which aimed at exposing and correcting social follies and foibles. Charles Dickens’ novels depicted the contemporary social realities. Thomas Hardy’s novels are yet another example. His fiction reflects the conditions prevalent during its production. These conditions include climatic conditions as well. In fact, weather is an important character in Hardy’s novels. As we know, sunny weather being a rare condition in Britain, it is a dominant topic of British conversations. Therefore, there are many words to refer to sunlight – shine, gleam, glisten, glitter, glimmer, shimmer, etc. Summer in India gives you a scorching experience whereas summer in Britain offers you a pleasant experience. That is why in one of his sonnets Shakespeare says to his ‘dark lady’: “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” In the context of British weather, this line will be interpreted as a positive rhetorical question, as a compliment; but in the context of Indian weather, it will be construed as a question carrying negative connotations. Thus literature is loaded with cultural connotations and assumptions. An important feature of the speech act of coaxing is its cultural relativity. Languages and dialects of the same language differ in their interaction-structuring strategies. It is these socio-cultural differences of organizing process that cause problems of comprehensibility in international communication (cf. Loveday, 1983).

As Tannen (1984) remarks, all aspects of the content and form or matter and manner of human communication are culture-specific. Cultural relativity is an intrinsic feature of communication. People learn to communicate meanings in their specific social networks, which by their very nature cannot be global but only local. One wonders with Wierzbicka (1985) that in spite of this obviously ‘local’

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nature of communication it is wrongly claimed that there exist identical strategies across languages and cultures.

Wolfson (1986) observes that comments which are accepted as compliments by Americans are often interpreted as insults by some other societies. Speech acts differ from culture to culture in a variety of ways: in their content, in their linguistic realization, their distribution, their frequency, and their functions. For instance, compliments in Indian languages including Indian English display a dual feature of addresser-lowering and addressee-raising; compliments in American English do not show this feature.

2.1.7 Literary Theory and Schools of Criticism A very basic way of thinking about literary theory is that these ideas act as different lenses critics use to view and talk about art, literature, and even culture. These different lenses allow critics to consider works of art based on certain assumptions within that school of theory. The different lenses also allow critics to focus on particular aspects of a work they consider important. For example, if a critic is working with certain Marxist theories, he might focus on how the characters in a story interact based on their economic situation. If a critic is working with post-colonial theories, she might consider the same story but look at how characters from colonial powers (Britain, France, and even America) treat characters from, say, Africa or the Caribbean. 2.1.7.1 Moral Criticism and Dramatically Construction (c.360-present) Plato In Book X of his Republic, Plato may have given us the first volley of detailed and lengthy literary criticism. The dialogue between Socrates and two of his associates shows the participants of this discussion concluding that art must play a limited and very strict role in the perfect Greek Republic. Richter provides a nice summary of this point: "Poets may stay as servants of the state if they teach piety and virtue, but the pleasures of art are condemned as inherently corrupting to citizens" (Richter 19). One reason Plato included these ideas in his Socratic dialog is because he believed that art was a mediocre reproduction of nature: "What artists do … is hold the mirror up to nature: They copy the appearances of men, animals, and objects in the physical world … and the intelligence that went into its creation need involve

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nothing more than conjecture" (19). So in short, if art does not teach morality and ethics, then it is damaging to its audience, and for Plato this damaged his Republic. Given this controversial approach to art, it's easy to see why Plato's position has an impact on literature and literary criticism even today (though scholars who critique work based on whether or not the story teaches a moral are few - virtue may have an impact on children's literature, however).

2.1.7.2 Formalism (1930s-present) Form Follows Function: Russian Formalism, Neo-Aristotelianism Form a lists disagreed about what specific elements make a literary work "good" or "bad"; but, generally, Formalism maintains that a literary work contains certain intrinsic features, and the theory “defined and addressed the specifically literary qualities in the text" (Richter 699). Therefore, it's easy to see Formalism's relation to Aristotle's theories of dramatic construction. Formalism attempts to treat each work as its own distinct piece, free from its environment, era, and even author. This point of view developed in reaction to “forms of 'extrinsic' criticism that viewed the text as either the product of social and historical forces or a document making an ethical statement" (699). Formalists assume that the keys to understanding a text exist within "the text itself," ("the battle cry of the New Critical effort") and thus focus a great deal on – you guessed it form (Tyson 118). For the most part, Formalism is no longer used in the academy. However, New Critical theories are still used in college-level instruction in literature and even writing . 2.1.7.3 Freudian Criticism (1930s-present) The Unconscious, the Desire and the Defenses Sigmund Freud began his psychoanalytic work in the 1880s while attempting to treat behavioral disorders in his Viennese patients. He dubbed the disorders hysteria and began treating them by listening to his patients talk through their problems. Based on this work, Freud asserted that people's behavior is affected by their unconscious: "the notion that human beings are motivated, even driven, by desires, fears, needs, and conflicts of which they are unaware" (Tyson 14-15). Freud believed that one’s unconscious was influenced by childhood events. Freud organized these events into developmental stages involving relationships with

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parents and drives of desire and pleasure where children focus "on different parts of the body ... starting with the mouth ... shifting to the oral, anal, and phallic phases" (Richter 1015). These stages reflect base levels of desire, but they also involve fear of loss (loss of genitals, loss of affection from parents, loss of life) and repression: "the expunging from consciousness of these unhappy psychological events" (Tyson 15). Tyson reminds us, however, that "repression doesn’t eliminate our painful experiences and emotions ... We unconsciously behave in ways that will allow us to 'play out' ... our conflicted feelings about the painful experiences and emotions we repress" (15). To keep all of this conflict buried in our unconscious, Freud argued that we develop defenses: selective perception, selective memory, denial, displacement, projection, regression, fear of intimacy, and fear of death, among others. Freud maintained that our desires and our unconscious conflicts give rise to three areas of the mind that wrestle for dominance as we grow from infancy, to childhood, to adulthood. 2.1.7.4 Jungian Criticism (1930s-present) Jungian criticism attempts to explore the connection between literature and what Carl Jung (a student of Freud) called the “collective unconscious” of the human race: "racial memory, through which the spirit of the whole human species manifests itself" (Richter 504). Jungian criticism, closely related to Freudian theory because of its connection to psychoanalysis, assumes that all stories and symbols are based on mythic models from mankind’s past. Based on these commonalities, Jung developed archetypal myths, the Syzygy: "a quaternion composing a whole, the unified self of which people are in search" (505). These archetypes are the Shadow, the Anima, the Animus, and the Spirit: "beneath [the Shadow] is the Anima, the feminine side of the male Self, and the Animus, the corresponding masculine side of the female Self" (505). The Self is the regulating center of the psyche and facilitator of individuation - the representative of "that wholeness which the introspective philosophy of all times and climes has characterized with an inexhaustible variety of symbols, names and concepts". It represents all that is unique within a human being. Although a person is a collection of all the archetypes and what they learn from the collective unconscious, the self is what makes that person an I. The self cannot exist without

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the other archetypes and the other archetypes cannot exist without the self; Jung makes this very clear. The self is also the part which grows and changes as a person goes throughout life. The self can be summed up as the ideal form a person wishes to be. The Shadow represents the traits which lie deep within ourselves. The traits that are hidden from day to day life and are in some cases the opposite of the self is a simple way to state these traits. The shadow is a very important trait because for one to truly know themselves, one must know all their traits, including those which lie beneath the common, i.e., the shadow. If one chooses to know the shadow, there is a chance they give in to its motivation. The Anima is sometimes seen as the feminine side within a man, but Jung did not fully intend this to be viewed in this way. The Anima is beyond generalization of society's views and stereotypes. Anima represents what femininity truly represents it in all its mysteries. It is what allows a man to be in touch with a woman. The anima is commonly represented within dreams as a method to communicate with a person. It contains all female encounters with men to help the relationship between the two improve better. The Animus is similar to the anima except for the fact that the animus allows a female to understand and communicate with a man. Just like the anima, it is commonly represented in dreams of a woman to help them understand themselves and relationships with men It can be known as part of the collective unconscious' connection with all of the encounters of males with females, like the anima, to improve relationship with males and females. The Persona is to Jung a mere "functional complex by no means identical to the individuality", the way we present to the world - a mask which protects the Ego from negative images, and which by post-Jungians is sometimes considered an "archetype as a dynamic/structural component of the psyche". Some view this as the opposite of the shadow which is not entirely true, this is just the face that is put on for the world, not our deepest internal secrets and desires; that is the self. In literary analysis, a Jungian critic would look for archetypes in creative works: "Jungian criticism is generally involved with a search for the embodiment of these symbols within particular works of art." (Richter 505). When dealing with this sort of criticism, it is often useful to keep a handbook of mythology and a dictionary of symbols on hand.

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2.1.7.5 Marxist Criticism (1930s-present) Based on the theories of Karl Marx (and so influenced by philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel), this school concerns itself with class differences, economic and otherwise, as well as the implications and complications of the capitalist system: "Marxism attempts to reveal the ways in which our socioeconomic system is the ultimate source of our experience" (Tyson 277). Theorists working in the Marxist tradition, therefore, are interested in answering the overarching question: Whom does it [the work, the effort, the policy, the road, etc.] benefit? The elite? The middle class? And Marxists critics are also interested in how the lower or working classes are oppressed: in everyday life and in literature. The Marxist school follows a process of thinking called the material dialectic. This belief system maintains that "what drives historical change are the material realities of the economic base of society, rather than the ideological superstructure of politics, law, philosophy, religion, and art that is built upon that economic base" (Richter 1088). Marx asserts that "stable societies develop sites of resistance: contradictions build into the social system that ultimately lead to social revolution and the development of a new society upon the old" (1088). This cycle of contradiction, tension, and revolution must continue: there will always be conflict between the upper, middle, and lower (working) classes and this conflict will be reflected in literature and other forms of expression - art, music, movies, etc. The continuing conflict between the classes will lead to upheaval and revolution by oppressed peoples and form the groundwork for a new order of society and economics where capitalism is abolished. According to Marx, the revolution will be led by the working class (others think peasants will lead the uprising) under the guidance of intellectuals. Once the elite and middle class are overthrown, the intellectuals will compose an equal society where everyone owns everything (socialism - not to be confused with Soviet or Maoist Communism). 2.1.7.6 Reader-Response Criticism (1960s-present) At its most basic level, reader response criticism considers readers' reactions to literature as vital to interpreting the meaning of the text. However, reader-response criticism can take a number of different approaches. A critic deploying reader-response theory can use a psychoanalytic lens, a feminist lens, or even a structuralist lens. What these different lenses have in common when using a reader

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response approach is they maintain "that what a text is cannot be separated from what it does" (Tyson 154). Tyson explains that "reader-response theorists share two beliefs: that the role of the reader cannot be omitted from our understanding of literature and that readers do not passively consume the meaning presented to them by an objective literary text (rather they actively make the meaning they find in literature)" (154). In this way, reader-response theory shares common ground with some of the deconstructionists discussed in the Post-structural area when they talk about "the death of the author," or her displacement as the authoritarian figure in the text. 2.1.7.7 Structuralism and Semiotics (1920s-present)

The structuralist school emerges from theories of language and linguistics, and it looks for underlying elements in culture and literature that can be connected so that critics can develop general conclusions about the individual works and the systems from which they emerge. In fact, structuralism maintains that "practically everything we do that is specifically human is expressed in language" (Richter 809). Structuralists believe that these language symbols extend far beyond written or oral communication. For example, codes that represent all sorts of things permeate everything we do: "the performance of music requires complex notation … Our economic life rests upon the exchange of labor and goods for symbols, such as cash, checks, stock, and certificates … Social life depends on the meaningful gestures and signals of 'body language' and revolves around the exchange of small, symbolic favors: drinks, parties, dinners" (Richter .p.809). Structuralists assert that, since language exists in patterns, certain underlying elements are common to all human experiences. Structuralists believe we can observe these experiences through patterns: "If you examine the physical structures of all buildings built in urban America in 1850 to discover the underlying principles that govern their composition, for example, principles of mechanical construction or of artistic form" you are using a structuralist lens (Tyson 197). Moreover, "you are also engaged in structuralist activity if you examine the structure of a single building to discover how its composition demonstrates underlying principles of a structural system. In the first example...you're generating a structural system of classification; in the second, you're demonstrating that an individual item belongs to a particular structural class" (197).

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2.1.7.8 Structuralism in Literary Theory Structuralism is used in literary theory; for example, "if you examine the structure of a large number of short stories to discover the underlying principles that govern their composition principles of narrative progression or of characterization … you are also engaged in structuralist activity if you describe the structure of a single literary work to discover how its composition demonstrates the underlying principles of a given structural system. Northrop Frye, however, takes a different approach to structuralism by exploring ways in which genres of Western literature fall into his four mythoi:

1. theory of modes, or historical criticism (tragic, comic, and thematic);

2. theory of symbols, or ethical criticism (literal/descriptive, formal, mythical, anagogic);

3. theory of myths, or archetypal criticism (comedy, romance, tragedy, irony/satire);

4. theory of genres, or rhetorical criticism (epos, prose, drama, lyric). Sign Systems The discipline of semiotics plays an important role in structuralist literary theory and cultural studies. Semioticians apply "apply structuralist insights to the study of … sign systems ... a non-linguistic object or behavior … that can be analyzed as if it were a language" (Tyson,p. 205). Specifically, "... semiotics examines the ways non-linguistic objects and behaviors ‘tell’ us something. For example, the [advertisement featuring] the reclining blonde beauty in the skin-tight, black velvet dress on the billboard … 'tells' us that those who drink this whiskey - presumably male - will be attractive to … beautiful women like the one displayed here" (205). Lastly, Richter states, "semiotics takes off from Peirce - for whom language is one of numerous sign systems - and structuralism takes off from Saussure, for whom language was the sign system par excellence" (810). 2.1.7.9 Post-Structuralism, Deconstruction, Postmodernism (1966-present) This approach concerns itself with the ways and places where systems, frameworks, definitions, and certainties break down. Post-structuralism maintains that frameworks and systems, for example the structuralist systems explained in the Structuralist area, are merely fictitious constructs and that they cannot be

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trusted to develop meaning or to give order. In fact, the very act of seeking order or a singular Truth (with a capital T) is absurd because there exists no unified truth. Post-structuralism holds that there are many truths, that frameworks must bleed, and that structures must become unstable or decentered. Moreover, post-structuralism is also concerned with the power structures or hegemonies and power and how these elements contribute to and/or maintain structures to enforce hierarchy. Therefore, post-structural theory carries implications far beyond literary criticism. Post-structural theory can be tied to a move against Modernist/Enlightenment ideas (philosophers: Immanuel Kant, Réne Descartes, John Locke, etc.) and Western religious beliefs (neo-Platonism, Catholicism, etc.). An early pioneer of this resistance was philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. In his essay, “On Truth and Lies in an Extra-moral Sense, Nietzsche rejects even the very basis of our knowledge making, language, as a reliable system of communication:The various languages, juxtaposed, show that words are never concerned with truth, never with adequate expression. So, post-structuralists assert that if we cannot trust language systems to convey truth, the very bases of truth are unreliable and the universe - or at least the universe we have constructed - becomes unraveled or de-centered. Nietzsche uses language slip as a base to move into the slip and shift of truth as a whole: “What is truth? …truths are an illusion about which it has been forgotten that they are illusions...” (On Truth and Lies 250). This returns us to the discussion in the Structuralist area regarding signs, signifiers, and signified. Essentially, post-structuralism holds that we cannot trust the sign = signifier + signified formula, that there is a breakdown of certainty between sign/signifier, which leaves language systems hopelessly inadequate for relaying meaning so that we are (returning to Derrida) in eternal free play or instability. Important to note, however, is that deconstruction is not just about tearing down - this is a common misconception. Derrida, in "Signature Event Context," addressed this limited view of post-structural theory: "Deconstruction cannot limit or proceed immediately to a neutralization: it must…practice an overturning of the classical opposition and a general displacement of the system. It is only on this condition that deconstruction will provide itself the means with which to intervene in the field of oppositions that it criticizes, which is also a field of nondiscursive forces" (328).

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Derrida reminds us that through deconstruction we can identify the in-betweens and the marginalized to begin interstitial knowledge building. 2.1.7.10 Modernism vs. Postmodernism With the resistance to traditional forms of knowledge making (science, religion, language), inquiry, communication, and building meaning take on different forms to the post-structuralist. We can look at this difference as a split between Modernism and Postmodernism. The table below, excerpted from theorist Ihab Hassan's The Dismemberment of Orpheus (1998), offers us a way to make sense of some differences between modernism, dominated by Enlightenment ideas, and postmodernism, a space of free play and discourse. 2.1.7.11 New Historicism, Cultural Studies (1980s-present) This school, influenced by structuralist and post-structuralist theories, seeks to reconnect a work with the time period in which it was produced and identify it with the cultural and political movements of the time (Michel Foucault's concept of épistème). New Historicism assumes that every work is a product of the historic moment that created it. Specifically, New Historicism is "...a practice that has developed out of contemporary theory, particularly the structuralist realization that all human systems are symbolic and subject to the rules of language, and the deconstructive realization that there is no way of positioning oneself as an observer outside the closed circle of textuality" (Richter 1205). A helpful way of considering New Historical theory, Tyson explains, is to think about the retelling of history itself: "...questions asked by traditional historians and by new historicists are quite different...traditional historians ask, 'What happened?' and 'What does the event tell us about history?' In contrast, new historicists ask, 'How has the event been interpreted?' and 'What do the interpretations tell us about the interpreters?'" (278). So New Historicism resists the notion that "history is a series of events that have a linear, causal relationship: event A caused event B; event B caused event C; and so on" (Tyson 278). New historicists do not believe that we can look at history objectively, but rather that we interpret events as products of our time and culture and that "we don't have clear access to any but the most basic facts of history ... Our understanding of what such facts mean [is] strictly a matter of interpretation, not fact" (279). Moreover, New Historicism holds that we are hopelessly subjective interpreters of what we observe.

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2.1.7.12 Post-Colonial Criticism (1990s-present) History is Written by the Victors Post-colonial criticism is similar to cultural studies, but it assumes a unique perspective on literature and politics that warrants a separate discussion. Specifically, post-colonial critics are concerned with literature produced by colonial powers and works produced by those who were/are colonized. Post-colonial theory looks at issues of power, economics, politics, religion, and culture and how these elements work in relation to colonial hegemony (western colonizers controlling the colonized). Therefore, a post-colonial critic might be interested in works such as Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe where colonial "ideology [is] manifest in Crusoe's colonialist attitude toward the land upon which he's shipwrecked and toward the black man he 'colonizes' and names Friday" (Tyson 377). In addition, post-colonial theory might point out that "despite Heart of Darkness's (Joseph Conrad) obvious anti-colonist agenda, the novel points to the colonized population as the standard of savagery to which Europeans are contrasted" (375). Post-colonial criticism also takes the form of literature composed by authors that critique Euro-centric hegemony. Power, Hegemony, and Literature Post-colonial criticism also questions the role of the western literary canon and western history as dominant forms of knowledge making. The terms "first-world," "second world," "third world" and "fourth world" nations are critiqued by post-colonial critics because they reinforce the dominant positions of western cultures populating first world status. This critique includes the literary canon and histories written from the perspective of first-world cultures. So, for example, a post-colonial critic might question the works included in "the canon" because the canon does not contain works by authors outside western culture. Moreover, the authors included in the canon often reinforce colonial hegemonic ideology, such as Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. Western critics might consider Heart of Darkness an effective critique of colonial behavior. But post-colonial theorists and authors might disagree with this perspective: "As Chinua Achebe observes, the novel's condemnation of European is based on a definition of Africans as savages: beneath their veneer of civilization, the Europeans are, the novel tells us, as barbaric as the Africans. And indeed, Achebe notes, the novel

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portrays Africans as a pre-historic mass of frenzied, howling, incomprehensible barbarians" (Tyson 374-375).

2.1.7.13 Feminist Criticism (1960s-present) Feminist criticism is concerned with "...the ways in which literature (and other cultural productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social, and psychological oppression of women" (Tyson 83). This school of theory looks at how aspects of our culture are inherently patriarchal (male dominated) and "...this critique strives to expose the explicit and implicit misogyny in male writing about women" (Richter 1346). This misogyny, Tyson reminds us, can extend into diverse areas of our culture: "Perhaps the most chilling example...is found in the world of modern medicine, where drugs prescribed for both sexes often have been tested on male subjects only" (Tyson p.83). Feminist criticism is also concerned with less obvious forms of marginalization such as the exclusion of women writers from the traditional literary canon: "...unless the critical or historical point of view is feminist, there is a tendency to under-represent the contribution of women writers" ( p.82-83). Feminist criticism has, in many ways, followed what some theorists call the three waves of feminism: First Wave Feminism - late 1700s-early 1900's: writers like Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792) highlight the inequalities between the sexes. Activists like Susan B. Anthony and Victoria Woodhull contribute to the women's suffrage movement, which leads to National Universal Suffrage in 1920 with the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment Second Wave Feminism - early 1960s-late 1970s: building on more equal working conditions necessary in America during World War II, movements such as the National Organization for Women (NOW), formed in 1966, cohere feminist political activism. Writers like Simone de Beauvoir (Le deuxièmesexe, 1972) and Elaine Showalter established the groundwork for the dissemination of feminist theories dove-tailed with the American Civil Rights movement

Third Wave Feminism - early 1990s-present: resisting the perceived essentialist (over generalized, over simplified) ideologies and a white, heterosexual, middle class focus of second wave feminism, third wave feminism borrows from post-structural and contemporary gender and race theories (see below) to expand on marginalized populations' experiences. Writers like Alice Walker work to

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"...reconcile it [feminism] with the concerns of the black community...[and] the survival and wholeness of her people, men and women both, and for the promotion of dialog and community as well as for the valorization of women and of all the varieties of work women perform" (Tyson 97). 2.1.7.14 Gender Studies and Queer Theory (1970s-present) Gender(s), Power, and Marginalization Gender studies and queer theory explore issues of sexuality, power, and marginalized populations (woman as other) in literature and culture. Much of the work in gender studies and queer theory, while influenced by feminist criticism, emerges from post-structural interest in fragmented, de-centered knowledge building (Nietzsche, Derrida, Foucault), language (the breakdown of sign-signifier), and psychoanalysis (Lacan). A primary concern in gender studies and queer theory is the manner in which gender and sexuality is discussed: Richter 1432 notes that, "Effective as this work [feminism] was in changing what teachers taught and what the students read, there was a sense on the part of some feminist critics that it was still the old game that was being played, when what it needed was a new game entirely. The argument posed was that in order to counter patriarchy, it was necessary not merely to think about new texts, but to think about them in radically new ways". Therefore, a critic working in gender studies and queer theory might even be uncomfortable with the binary established by many feminist scholars between masculine and feminine: "Cixous 1433-1434 (following Derrida in Of Grammatology) sets up a series of binary oppositions (active/passive, sun/moon father/mother, logos/pathos). Each pair can be analyzed as a hierarchy in which the former term represents the positive and masculine and the latter the negative and feminine principle".

2.1.8 language and literature In our daily speech we generally take language and literature as a same thing. For us both of them has the same meaning. If you ask any teacher of English, "what do you teach?", he would say "language and literature". When he says this, he does not make any difference between language and literature. He takes them as one thing as a compound word. In fact, we use language and literature as a single compound word having the one meaning. But it is not so in reality. If we go deep

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into the meaning of the words, language and literature, we find a great difference between them. We also find that language is primary and literature is secondary. The Free Encyclopedia defines language as "the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communications." (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). In fact, the word, language, has been originally derived from Latin word, 'Lingua' which means 'tongue'. When we use language in general, it refers to the cognitive faculty which enables us to learn and use systems of complex communication. 2.1.8.1 Differences between Language and Literature Firstly, Language is a set of words to express our ideas to others. This is a means through which we express our thoughts. Without means we cannot express our thoughts. On the other hand, literature is the thought which is expressed with the help of language. Thus it is clear that without language there is no existence of literature because without language we cannot express our thoughts. Language is the fundamental unit of literature. It can be said that language makes literature. Secondly, Literature is produced by the creation of works in a particular language by the writer of the language. On the other hand, language is a mode of expression of thoughts by means of articulate sound. There can be as many literature as there are languages. Thirdly, A language comprises of sounds, words and sentences. While literature is made up of the thoughts expressed in any given language. Fourthly, Thus, it can be said that literature has several forms which are called literary forms like prose, poetry, drama, novel, epic, short stories etc. All these literary forms are laden with language in which it is written. In short it can be said that the entire literature is constructed by the language in which it is written. Fifthly, Language is the method of expression whereas literature is the collection of such expression in the said forms mentioned above. Any literature can be said to be rich or poor depending upon the correctness of the language in which it is created. 2.1.8.2 Literary Language Literary language is that language which is used in literary criticism and general discussion on some literary works. English has been used as a literary language in countries that were ruled by the British Empire such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Nigeria etc. where English is official language even today. Before the 18th century the language of literature was totally different from the language which was used by the common man in spoken or written. So

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literature was not easy to understand for a common man. Only highly qualified and educated people could enjoy the reading of literature. So literature was far away from the reach of the common people. Shakespear's language was not easy to understand for common Elizabethans. Similarly, Samuel Johnson's prose was not easy for common people because it was full of rhetoric with antecedent models in Greek and Latin. It was only Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) who wrote the major works of literature in the ordinary English language. Since then the language of literature has changed a lot. In the modern time we find literature written in the languages which are really used by common people in their daily life. This is the reason why literature has become popular in our time. Now every literate person can enjoy the reading of literature of his or her choice because it is written in the language which he or she uses in daily life. So nowadays literature has become close to the people and so its readership has increased. On the part of writers it has now become a style to write in ordinary and common language. 2.1.8.3 Scope of literature The scope of literature is very wide. It can cover everything which is on the earth. Literature has the capacity to incorporate within itself the entire universe of discourses. In fact, the scope of literature is everything which can come into the human mind. It includes everything from Mathematics to Philosophy and to the other intricate sciences. Since literature reflects life, so the scope of literature covers the whole life of every man. It can be best understand in the context of what Leo-Tolstoy, the Russian writer said while defining literature. He said that literature fails if it cannot answer the two fundamental questions: who we are and how shall we live. If literature does not teach us how to live and does tell our identification as human beings, then it is something else, not literature in a true sense. Tolstoy's this statement defines literature, tells us about the function and aim of literature as well as its scope. Tolstoy believes that these two questions drive all literature and should be guiding principles upon which all literature is based. These are the two questions which also deal with the scope of literature. The point here is that all literature should answer these two fundamental questions. Literature tells us who we are and how should we live in this world. It means that the literature has completely encompassed our life, since our birth to our death. This very idea shows how wide the scope of literature is.

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2.1.9 The power of literature in enhancing reading comprehension Incorporating literature in language classes had many ups and down. In hay days of Grammar Translation Method, literature was the core source of foreign language learning. However, by the emergence of Direct Method literature has been generally out of favor. In recent years, literature came back to language classes. Premawardhena, 2005 says that, “Literature has been discovered as a valuable and interesting material for improving students’ language ability”. Sell, (2005, p. 92) mentions that, “It has been found that if appropriate literary texts are chosen it would be an effective tool for stimulating and achieving language learning and equipping learners with relevant linguistic and socio-cultural competences”.

2.1.9.1 Reading Comprehension Effective reading is essential factor of success in learning another language. Reading is the most important instrument for academic settings (Anderson, 1994). Celce-Murcia et al. (1995) believe that the ability to read in a second language is the most important way for autonomous language learning. Alptekin (2006, p. 494) defines reading:

“as an interaction of the reader’s text-based and knowledge-based processes. In processing texts, readers combine literal comprehension, based on lower-level cognitive processes of reading such as lexical access and syntactic parsing, with inferential comprehension, based on higher-level cognitive processes such as the text base of comprehension (to understand what the text says) and the situation model of interpretation (to understand what it is about)”.

Traditionally as Chastain (1988) mentions that, “reading was viewed as a passive skills because readers do not produce anything; however readers are in constant interaction with reading passage and their background knowledge”. Traditional approaches to reading deal with the meaning of words as isolated concepts and have nothing to do with the social dimension of reading. The view towards teaching reading comprehension has dramatically changed in the past decades. Uso-Juan and Martinez-Flor (2006) discussed the following significant views regarding teaching reading comprehension. In 1960’s where environmentalist ideas were dominated decoding skills were emphasized, and learners’ reading skills were only limited to making sense of printed words. With the emergence of Chomskyan theories which explain language learning on a cognitive basis, reading skills were not limited to the decoding skills. Reading

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comprehension research focused on reading as a thinking process where the reader reconstructs the intended meaning of the author. Readers are not treated as passive one, but they are cognitively engaged in processing the author’s intended meaning. Howeverinteractivist view not only pay attention to the role of cognition in comprehending a reading passage, but also believed that readers construct the meaning of the texts within a culture. So learners with different socio-cultural beliefs would interpret a text differently. However, as Williams (2006) mentioned the dependence of L2 reading on L1 reading can easily be rejected by referring to minority groups or immigrants who learned to read in their L2 for the first time. So, poor reading ability cannot be related to L1 bad reading habits. Researchers believe differences in reading comprehension are due to two important factors: L2 language knowledge and metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (Guo and Roehring, 2011). Many studies have shown the importance of L2 vocabulary knowledge in improving reading comprehension ability in foreign language learners (Qian, 1999; 2002). L2 syntactic awareness is also claimed to affect reading comprehension at two levels: low-level syntactic awareness and high-level syntactic awareness. Low-level syntactic awareness refers to the ability to understand the grammatical structures of language within sentences. High-level syntactic awareness refers to greater conscious awareness of language which encompasses two different abilities: (1) the ability to identify and formulate the rules of syntax and (2) the ability to control knowledge of syntactic rules (Layton et al., 1998). Studies on metacognition and reading comprehension reveal the strong relation between the use of metacognition and reading comprehension. In a study conducted by Sen (2009) in turkey revealed that the reading skills of the students who used metacognitive strategies are improved to a greater extent than those who did not used these strategies. Metacognition according to Sen (2009) refers to “awareness in the individual of his/her systematic thinking about his/her own learning process” (p. 2301). According to Bernhardt and Kamil (1995) metacognitive awareness is transferrable from L1 to L2 reading. As mentioned by Pressley et al. (1995) metacognitive strategies enable readers to pay attention to controlling, monitoring, and evaluating the reading process. Cubukco (2008) referred to different studies which demonstrated the use of metacognitive strategies in expert readers. In fact, metacognitive strategies seem to be an essential factor in successful comprehension.

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2.1.9.2 Literature and Reading Reading is one of the most important skills for mastery of a foreign language. Some scholars believe that ability to read is the prerequisite for autonomous learning (Celce-Murcia et al. 1995). Most learners in EFL contexts have little or no opportunity to contact with native speakers, so reading literary text will give them the opportunity to have a better interaction with foreign culture and people. Besides literary texts are too amusing that keeps learners to continue reading and the more learners read the more input they receive. In fact, literary texts can be used as a valid and authentic source for increasing the amount of comprehensible input students receive. According to Krashen (1982) students should be provided with enough comprehensible input which is also interesting so that reduces students’ anxiety. And since literature is rarely used for pedagogical purposes it can be a good authentic source for language learners. Sage (1987 as cited in Hismanoglu, 2005) called the use of short stories as a useful technique in language classes. He pointed out that since short stories are short; it helps both teachers and students to easily cover it. Besides, since stories are about universal problem, it may relate to students’ own situation, in this case students would definitely get more involved in the story and try to put more time and effort to comprehend it. In addition, as mentioned by Hismanoglu (2005) class discussions about the story will help students to think critically. 2.1.10 The Intersection of Language and Culture Through the study of other languages, students gain a knowledge and understanding of the cultures that use the language. In fact, students cannot truly master the language until they have also mastered the cultural context in which the language occurs. ~ Standards for Foreign Language Learning (National Standards, 1999). More than fifty years ago, a linguist hypothesized that the grammar and lexicon of a language help to shape the ideas of those who use the language (Whorf, 1956, pp. 212-214). In other words, Whorf claimed that the impressions we have of the world are shaped by the linguistic systems in our minds. He argued, for example, that since English has one word for snow while the Inuit languages have seven, English speakers think differently from Inuits about snow. The issue of whether language influences thought (and hence, a learner’s world view) or whether thought influences language has practical relevance for the language classroom teacher. Some language teachers might say that in order for learners to understand words, phrases, and routines in

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a given language and culture, they need to figure out the mindset behind them. Others would argue that in acquiring language forms in that culture, learners also acquire a mindset or different mental perspective, without necessarily being aware of it. While there has been a relatively long-standing tradition in foreign language education of simply assuming that language learning implies the acquisition of a new world view as well, these claims have faced increasing skepticism in recent years. Evidence, in fact, has emerged that while language and culture definitely interact, the effects of one on the other are not so extreme. In recent decades many language educators have come to endorse a more “moderate” version of the Whorf hypothesis—namely, that while a language does not determine how its users will think, some concepts may be more easier to express in one language than in another (Wardhaugh, 1976, p. 4). For example, there is no word for “integrity” in Hebrew. By the same token, English has no phrase to wish someone good luck with their new house or office (be-sha’atova, “in a good hour,” in Hebrew). Brown (2000, p. 200) points out that while some aspects of language do seem to provide us with potential cognitive mindsets, there are still numerous universal properties of language. So the good news is that although learning to think in another language may require a considerable degree of mastery of that language, it does not mean having to learn how to think all over again! The challenge that second language learners have is to identify what can be retained from their native language and culture as valid in speaking the second language and functioning within that culture, as well as what needs to be learned. 1 Francine Klein and Andrew Cohen are co-authors of this chapter, some of which have been adapted from Klein’s dissertation (forthcoming). (Byram& Fleming, 1998) state that, given the direct link between language and culture, both teachers and learners need to be mindful of those culture-specific meanings reflected by the language, as well as being attuned to the culture of a specific social group in a particular time and space. 1. Language denotes culture Those who believe that language denotes culture say that using a foreign language necessitates an understanding of the values behind the language (Byram& Morgan, 1994, pp. 22-23). For example, if you use the communicative approach to teaching, you would need to make students aware of the degree of formality needed in a given situation, which would

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of course require specific language forms. Yet, as you know, reliably determining the appropriate degree of formality means not only taking into account who is speaking to whom, where, and for what purpose, but also calls for at least some knowledge of the social context in which the language is needed. It may also be useful and sometimes imperative to teach students something about the power relationship that exists between the speakers and whether this relationship is negotiable or not. Supporters of the “language denotes culture” perspective believe that teaching a language implies teaching both the collectively shared meanings and the personal meanings of a given culture, since members of different cultures differ in the interpretations and inferences that they draw from perceptual cues (Kramsch, Cain, & Murphy-Lejeune; 1996). It is this required imaginative leap that complicates understanding because “the more abstract the words, the more intangible the signified, the less empirically perceptible the event or issue, the more the mind supplies from the cultural data bank” (Fisher, 1983, p. 18). In addition, foreign language teachers need to be on their guard to avoid taking one set of cultural values as universal, but rather to note the plurality of any given culture with its multiplicity of discourses and cultural values (Morgan & Cain, 2000). 2. Language creates cultural categories Those who believe that language can create cultural categories point out that communicating through language is necessarily dependent on the meanings attached to and created by the words used (Fantini, 1995). Language, acting as a primary classification system, functions like a filtering system (Bruner, 1974) and may even hinder rather than support students’ understanding of concepts that lie outside their cultural frame of reference (Morgan & Cain, 2000). Language teachers need to remember that teaching second language and culture requires teaching both new lexical items and alternative conceptual categories (Kramsch, Cain, & Murphy-Lejeune; 1996). Fortunately, learners are able to encode many of their existing cultural constructs in another language, but as noted above, they will also have to learn new constructs as well (Byram& Morgan, 1994). 3. Culture shapes language Many language teachers and theorists believe that cultural norms may prescribe the language that is to be used. A common source of miscommunication for language learners is their unawareness of what constitutes appropriate language for a given routinized social situation such as thanking, apologizing, or making a request. For instance, though it may seem simple to your students to thank someone for a gift, the reality is that there are both language routines and cultural patterns associated

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with the act of thanking. In some cultures the ritual can be most elaborate, as described by DuFon (2003), where she contrasts the American approach with that used among Japanese and Indonesians. She notes that while Americans accept and may open the gift in the presence of the gift giver, Japanese will decline the gift several times before accepting it and open it at a later time, while Indonesians will accept it but also open it afterwards. There are also an abundance of examples of foreigners making blunders in another language, commonly by using the wrong form of address toward native speakers of that language. You may have some of your own embarrassing experiences to add to the list. These examples show how “culture ‘polices’ language” though you may find as Morgan and Cain point out that this issue is often sidestepped in the foreign language classroom (Morgan & Cain, 2000, p. 7). A related issue, also rarely addressed in foreign language education in general, is that of cultural empowerment through language. Many sociologists and sociolinguists have exposed the gatekeeper role played by language. For instanceHymes (1973) argued that while languages may be superficially equal in linguistic terms, in reality speech forms may be given differential value in terms of how well they harmonize or clash with the cultural order established by their community’s values and beliefs. Bruner (1974) went a step further and described how access may be denied to those who lack the appropriate mastery of language nuances within a given culture. You can help your students develop this more global language awareness by analyzing the relationship between language and culture in your language curriculum. The next chapter of this section deals specifically with teaching speech acts, which can be a valuable tool for demonstrating just how intertwined language and culture can be.

2.1.11 Intercultural in language learning Intercultural language learning (IcLL) provides knowledge, skills and values for our students that will enable them to use language in culturally aware and sensitive ways. They will understand that their cultures and languages are not static, and that the languages and cultures of others are not static either. They will be able to use these skills, values and knowledge to extend their capacities as second language users for useful, productive and meaningful engagement with other people and other cultures.

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Intercultural language learning, IcLL, is a significant development from some traditional and current pedagogies for teaching languages. It connects the study of culture to language and linguistics learning and sees them as integrated and holistic. IcLL requires students to reflect on the knowledge and assumptions they make about their own cultures as well as of those of the target language. They also reflect on the ways that languages embody cultures and manifest culturally significant attitudes and behaviors. It enables greater student participation in the direction the learning takes as well as in advising on its content and processes. It may require a significant pedagogical shift for some Languages teachers in Australia. The use of English as well as the target language is more evident in IcLL classrooms to support processes such as analyzing, making connections between and reflecting on one’s own and others’ cultures. Its purpose is to support target language learning and the extent of its use varies with different levels of language acquisition. Intercultural language learning involves the fusing of language, culture and learning into a single educative approach. It begins with the idea that language, culture and learning are fundamentally interrelated and places this interrelationship at the centre of the learning process. This not only reformulates what it means to teach a language, but also provides new and richer ways of linking Languages to other learning areas. The concepts of ‘language’, ‘culture’ and ‘learning’ are therefore, central to the design of the Languages curriculum, and importantly, of the curriculum as a whole. Intercultural language learning involves developing with learners an understanding of their own language(s) and culture(s) in relation to an additional language and culture. It is a dialogue that allows for reaching a common ground for negotiation to take place, and where variable points of view are recognized, mediated and accepted. (Liddicoat, A.J., Scarino, A., Papademetre, L. & Kohler, M. 2003, p.43).

2.1.12 Intercultural competence With increasing global diversity, intercultural competence is a topic of immediate relevance. While some would question the use of the term “competence” as a Western concept, the ability to understand and interact with people of different cultures in authentic and positive ways is a topic worth discussing. Though several parts of the world do remain culturally homogenous, many major cities across the world have undergone significant transformation in their cultural and demographic landscape due to immigration. Advances in communication technologies have also

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facilitated intercultural communication without the prerequisite of geographic proximity. Hence educational, business, and other projects involving culturally diverse workgroups have become increasingly common. In such contexts the success of a group in accomplishing its goals might not depend only on the group members’ expertise in a particular topic or ability to work in a virtual environment but also on their intercultural competence (Zakaria, Amelinckx, &Wilemon, 2004). Cultural diversity in populations continues to keep intercultural competence (or cultural competence, as it is known in some disciplines)

2.1.12.1 Theories of Intercultural Competence

Many theories of intercultural (communication) competence have been proposed over the years. While it is fair to say that there is no single leading theory of intercultural competence, some of the well-known theories are worth noting.

There are a couple of theories of ICC that are identified as covering laws theories (Wiseman, 2002), namely Anxiety Uncertainty Management (AUM) theory and Face Negotiation theory. Finding its origins in Berger and Calabrese (1975), AUM theory (Gudykunst, 1993, 2005) proposes that the ability to be mindful and the effective management of anxiety caused by the uncertainty in intercultural interactions are key factors in achieving ICC. Gudykunst conceptualizes ICC as intercultural communication that has the least amount of misunderstandings. While AUM theory is not without its critics (for example, Yoshitake, 2002), it has been used in a number of empirical studies over the years (examples include Duronto, Nishida, & Nakayama, 2005; Ni & Wang, 2011), including studies that have extended the theory further (see Neuliep, 2012).

Though primarily focused on intercultural conflict rather than intercultural competence, Face Negotiation theory (Ting-Toomey, 1988) proposes that all people try to maintain a favorable social self-image and engage in a number of communicative behaviours designed to achieve this goal. Competence is identified as being part of the concept of “face,” and it is achieved through the integration of knowledge, mindfulness, and skills in communication (relevant to managing one’s own face as well as that of others). Face Negotiation theory has been used predominantly in intercultural conflict studies (see Oetzel, Meares, Myers, & Lara, 2003). As previously noted, it is not primarily a theory of intercultural competence, but it does address competence in intercultural settings.

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From a systems point of view, Spitzberg’s (2000) model of ICC and Kim’s (1995) cultural adaptation theory are also well-known. Spitzberg identifies three levels of analysis that must be considered in ICC, namely the individual system, the episodic system, and the relational system. The factors that contribute to competence are delineated in terms of characteristics that belong to an individual (individual system), features that are particular to a specific interaction (episodic system), and variables that contribute to one’s competence across interactions with multiple others (relational system). Kim’s cultural adaptation theory recognizes ICC as an internal capacity within an individual; it proposes that each individual (being an open system) has the goal of adapting to one’s environment and identifies cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions of ICC.

Wiseman’s (2002) chapter on intercultural communication competence, in the Handbook of International and Intercultural Communication provides further descriptions of theories in ICC. While there have been several models of ICC developed since then, well-formed and widely tested theories of ICC remain few.

2.1.12.2 Variables Associated with Intercultural Competence:

A number of variables have been identified as contributors to intercultural competence. Among these are mindfulness (Gudykunst, 1993), self and other awareness (Deardorff, 2006), listening skills (Ting-Toomey &Kurogi, 1998), positive attitude toward other cultures, and empathy (Arasaratnam&Doerfel, 2005), to name a few. Further, flexibility, tolerance for ambiguity, capacity for complexity, and language proficiency are also relevant. There is evidence to suggest that personal spiritual wellbeing plays a positive role in intercultural competence (Sandage& Jankowski, 2013). Additionally, there is an interesting link between intercultural competence and a biological variable, namely sensation seeking. Evidence suggests that, in the presence of a positive attitude towards other cultures and motivation to interact with people from other cultures, there is a positive relationship between sensation seeking and intercultural competence (Arasaratnam& Banerjee, 2011). Sensation seeking has also been associated with intercultural friendships (Morgan &Arasaratnam, 2003; Smith & Downs, 2004).

Cognitive complexity has also been identified with intercultural competence (Gudykunst& Kim, 2003). Cognitive complexity refers to an individual’s ability to form multiple nuanced perceptual categories (Bieri, 1955). A cognitively complex person relies less on stereotypical generalizations and is more perceptive to subtle

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racism (Reid & Foels,2010). Gudykunst (1995) proposed that cognitive complexity is directly related to effective management of uncertainty and anxiety in intercultural communication, which in turn leads to ICC (according to AUM theory).

Not all variables are positively associated with intercultural competence. One of the variables that notably hinder intercultural competence is ethnocentrism. Neuliep(2002) characterizes ethnocentrism as, “an individual psychological disposition where the values, attitudes, and behaviors of one’s ingroup are used as the standard for judging and evaluating another group’s values, attitudes, and behaviors” (p. 201). Arasaratnam and Banerjee (2011) found that introducing ethnocentrism into a model of ICC weakened all positive relationships between the variables that otherwise contribute to ICC. Neuliep (2012) further discovered that ethnocentrism and intercultural communication apprehension debilitate intercultural communication. As Neuliep observed, ethnocentrism hinders mindfulness because a mindful communicator is receptive to new information, while the worldview of an ethnocentric person is rigidly centered on his or her own culture.

This is, by no means, an exhaustive list of variables that influence intercultural competence, but it is representative of the many individual-centered variables that influence the extent to which one is effective and appropriate in intercultural communication. Contextual variables, as noted in the next section, also play a role in ICC. It must further be noted that many of the ICC models do not identify language proficiency as a key variable; however, the importance of language proficiency has not been ignored (Fantini, 2009). Various models of intercultural competence portray the way in which (and, in some cases, the extent to which) these variables contribute to intercultural competence. For an expansive discussion of models of intercultural competence, see Spitzberg and Chagnoun (2009).

If one were to broadly summarize what we know thus far about an interculturally competent person, one could say that she or he is mindful, empathetic, motivated to interact with people of other cultures, open to new schemata, adaptable, flexible, able to cope with complexity and ambiguity. Language skills and culture-specific knowledge undoubtedly serve as assets to such an individual. Further, she or he is neither ethnocentric nor defined by cultural prejudices. This description does not, however, take into account the contextual variables that influence intercultural

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competence; highlighting the fact that the majority of intercultural competence research has been focused on the individual.

The identification of variables associated with intercultural competence raises a number of further questions. For example, is intercultural competence culture-general or culture-specific; can it be measured; and can it be taught or learned? These questions merit further exploration.

2.1.12.3 Culture General or Culture Specific:

A person who is an effective and appropriate intercultural communicator in one context might not be so in another cultural context. The pertinent question is whether there are variables that facilitate intercultural competence across multiple cultural contexts. There is evidence to suggest that there are indeed culture-general variables that contribute to intercultural competence. This means there are variables that, regardless of cultural perspective, contribute to perception of intercultural competence. Arasaratnam and Doerfel (2005), for example, identified five such variables, namely empathy, experience, motivation, positive attitude toward other cultures, and listening. The rationale behind their approach is to look for commonalities in emic descriptions of intercultural competence by participants who represent a variety of cultural perspectives. Some of the variables identified by Arasaratnam and Doerfel’s research are replicated in others’ findings. For example, empathy has been found to be a contributor to intercultural competence in a number of other studies (Gibson &Zhong, 2005; Nesdale, De VriesRobbé, & Van Oudenhoven, 2012). This does not mean, however, that context has no role to play in perception of ICC. Contextual variables, such as the relationship between the interactants, the values of the cultural context in which the interaction unfolds, the emotional state of the interactants, and a number of other such variables no doubt influence effectiveness and appropriateness. Perception of competence in a particular situation is arguably a combination of culture-general and contextual variables. However, the aforementioned “culture-general” variables have been consistently associated with perceived ICC by people of different cultures. Hence they are noteworthy. The culture-general nature of some of the variables that contribute to intercultural competence provides an optimistic perspective that, even in the absence of culture-specific knowledge, it is possible for one to engage in effective and appropriate intercultural communication. Witteborn (2003) observed that the majority of models of intercultural competence take a culture-general

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approach. What is lacking at present, however, is extensive testing of these models to verify their culture-general nature.

The extent to which the culture-general nature of intercultural competence can be empirically verified depends on our ability to assess the variables identified in these models, and assessing intercultural competence itself.

2.1.13 Intercultural performance the term "performance" has two senses: (1) a technique used in phonetics whereby aspiring practitioners of the subject are trained to control the use of their vocal organs; and (2) a term used in the linguistic theory of transformational generative grammar, to refer to language seen as a set of specific utterances produced by native speakers, as encountered in a corpus. The distinction between performance and competence in the transformational generative grammar, however, has been severely criticised as being not that clear-cut, and there are problems, often in deciding whether a particular speech feature, such as intonation or discourse, is a matter of competence or performance (Crystal, 1985,p. 59).

The utterances of performance will contain features irrelevant to the abstract rule system, such as hesitation and unfinished structures, arising from the various psychological and social difficulties acting upon the speaker (e.g. lapses of memory, or biological limitations such as pauses being introduced through the need to breathe). These features must be discounted in a grammar of the language which deals with the systematic processes of sentence construction (Crystal, 1985: 224-5).

2.1.13.1 A Theory of Linguistic Performance

Although linguistic competence lies at the heart of the knowledge of a language, it is clear that speakers of that language know more than just the grammar of that language. A grammar specifies the rules that the speaker knows but it does not state how they can make use of that knowledge. In other words, grammar does not say how this knowledge enables the speakers to produce utterances and to understand them. Nor does it tell him/her how to acquire that knowledge. Thus, the grammar which the linguists try to construct characterises only one part of the speakers knowledge.

Other additional parts of the linguistic knowledge are accounted for in terms of the theory of linguistic performance: it describes the psychological process involved in

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using the linguistic competence in all ways that the speaker can actually use it. These psychological processes include: producing utterances, understanding them, making judgments about them and acquiring the ability to do these things, etc.

Developing such a theory of psychological processes involving language is the task, which is not easy, of the psycholinguist who attempts to develop a theory. What has been noticed is that utterances which speakers actually produce contain errors. The utterances do not always reflect the speaker’s intention. Some errors are described by Crystal (1985) as an outcome of non- linguistic factors such as chewing a gum, short in memory, tiredness, etc. Some hearers, sometimes, misunderstand or fail to understand the utterances they hear. Because of such factors, performance does not always accurately reflect competence.

2.1.13.2 Performance as a Reflection of Competence Competence which is the fluent native speaker’s knowledge of his language is contrasted with performance which refers to what people actually say or understand by what someone else say on a given occasion. Very often, performance is an imperfect reflection of competence, e.g. the fact that people make occasional slips of the tongue in everyday conversation does not mean that they do not know their language or do not have fluency (i.e. competence) in it. Slips of the tongue and similar phenomena are, for Chomsky, performance errors attributable to a variety of performance factors like tiredness, boredom, drunkenness, drugs, external distraction and so forth (Radford, 1981: 2; Gleason and Ratner, 1993: 206). These phenomena are attributed by Yule (1996: 165) to the difficulty in getting the brain and speech production to work together smoothly.

2.1.14 Modals of literature competence Competence is a term used in linguistic theory, especially in generative grammar, to refer to person’s knowledge of his language, the system of rules which a language user has mastered so that it would be possible for that user to be able to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.

Competence is said to be an idealized conception of language, which is seen in opposition to the notion of performance which refers to the specific utterances of speech. Competence, according to Chomsky, has been used as a reaction to the linguistic era before generative grammars, which was highly occupied with performance in forms of corpus of data. The aim set by the transformationalists to their work is higher than that explicitly set by any previous group of linguists. It

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amounts to nothing less than presenting a description of a language, everything implied by the linguistic competence of a native speaker.

The transformation lists objectives are to be attained by forming linguistic descriptions in terms of rules that embody the creative capacity of a native speaker to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences that are all and only grammatical (Robins, 1979: 228).

Competence, according to McNeil (1966: 77), is the knowledge of linguistic rules, categories, etc., that accounts for native speakers intuitions about his language; the expression of such competence in talking and listening is performance. Robins (1980: 37) states that Chomsky defines competence as what a speaker intuitively knows about his language. In these terms, speech production and speech comprehension are both categories of linguistic performance; both involve the expression of competence, the one in producing or encoding speech, the other in receiving or decoding speech.

2.1.14.1 Types of Competence Talking about the native speaker’s linguistic knowledge, Chomsky uses the term „linguistic competence’. At the outset, linguistic knowledge could have been thought of as one entity that could best be described in terms of the grammatical rules of a language. This, in fact, has been a general tendency of language description at the sentence level before the development of language analysis at higher levels such as text analysis and conversational analysis by both discourse analysts and speech ethnographers respectively. Thus, linguistic competence is the first version of competence which has met a strong line of criticism.

2.1.14.2 Communicative Competence A particularly strong line of criticism emerged in the notion of "communicative competence". This type of competence is different from the linguistic one in the sense that communicative competence focuses on the native speaker’s ability to produce and understand sentences which are appropriate to the context in which they occur, i.e., what that speaker really needs to know in order to communicate effectively in socially distinctive settings. In other words, this view of competence differs from the linguistic one in the idea that the latter concentrates much on the formal terms of linguistic knowledge while the former is concerned with terms like, context, setting, the relation between the speaker and hearer, and any other environmental factors that are believed to be systematic within a certain community. It, then, subsumes the social determinants of linguistic behaviour,

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including, such environmental matters as the relationship between speaker and hearer, and the pressures that stem from the time and place of speaking, etc. If speakers have a tacit awareness of such communicative constraints, it is argued, then a linguistic theory ought to aim at providing an explicit account of these factors, insofar as these are systematic within a community, and not restrict itself to the analysis of structure in purely formal terms.

“Communicative competence” is used to refer to the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form correct utterances, but also to know when to use these utterances appropriately. Hymes (1972) coins it as a reaction to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance. Hymes believes that such a distinction was inadequate as it limits itself to one kind of competence called „linguistic competence. Since Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance in terms of linguistic knowledge and Hymes first use of the term communicative competence, various definitions have been given.

Another useful model is developed by Van Ek (1986 and 1987). He thinks that the communicative ability of a speaker consists of six components: linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, socio-cultural competence and social competence. In comparison to Canales classification, Van Ek separates socio-cultural competence from sociolinguistic competence and adds social competence as a different component. For Van Ek, social competence includes “motivation, attitude and self-confidence” or “empathy and the ability to handle social situations” which are involved in the will or skill to interact (Yoshida, 2003: 4).

2.1.14.3 Literary Competence Literary Competence has also been proposed by the French theorist Ronald Barthes to refer to the native speaker’s ability to handle the special properties of literary language. It comes in a way similar to Chomsky’s emphasis on the creative abilities of the speaker (Crystal, 1987: 79). In answering a question like: where can the meaning of the literary text be found? a number of controversial issues has emerged or re-emerged to be capable of handling the special properties of literary language. In this regard, a special emphasis has been put on the notion that the meaning of any literary text is not to be found in the language of that text itself. Instead it is the reader himself who can construct the text’s meaning. A text then, according to this viewpoint has no separate identity outside the intuition of its

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reader. A comprehensive understanding of a text could be deduced from a set of factors: some of which are of linguistic cohesion and others are of the-world-of-text coherence. Thus, the text unity in ideas is achieved by the reader’s ability to deduce the internal relationships between the fragments of that text.

2.1.14.4 A Theory of Linguistic Competence The tacit rules of a language can be viewed as specifying the set of sentences that could occur in the language. Thus, the rules that one knows determine the set of possible sentences for him to produce. These rules are said to compose or to make up the linguistic competence possessed by the speaker of a particular language. Accordingly, one of the major tasks of the psycholinguist is to discover and state the nature of these rules, to develop a theory of linguistic competence of speakers of the language. This theory is called grammar of the language. Such a theory should be able to state the rules that are tacitly known as the knowledge that permits the speaker to make judgments about whether or not utterances are grammatical. This knowledge, moreover, permits to make other judgments as well: individuals, for instance, who know language can judge whether or not an utterance is ambiguous

2.1.15 The Role of Literature in Helping Students Acquire English Literary texts serve to develop the linguistic and literary skills. It is important that any SL students build up the four competences: reading, listening, speaking and writing. In their native language, people are unaware of having acquired these competences since it is a complex innate process. Firstly, the reading competence helps build and extend the vocabulary and improve understanding during listening and writing. Secondly, the reading competence includes some sub-skills such as:

a. Comprehending the lexis, b. Determining the key words, c. Speculating the meaning of unknown words from context, d. Identifying the grammatical categories of nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc… e. Understanding the denotations and connotations of the material f. Using generic knowledge and the lexical and grammatical cohesive means

to link the topic and the focus g. Identifying the key message and the gist.

If literature were used as a source material while studying a foreign language, students must be equipped with the necessary information to understand and

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analyze its key principles. They ought to learn to recognize its particular indications in a literary text and find a meaning from the diverse use of language. The first skill is known as “communicative consciousness” and the second as “linguistic consciousness” and they both rely on the comparative and contrastive principles. Therefore, it is fundamental that students enjoy the communicative skills and competence to comprehend and interpret the literary masterpieces and this ability is known as the literary competence. Traditional education does not observe the experiences young people may have ,nor does it match their abilities and needs since it imposes its rules and facts on the learning process where the students are in a complete state of receptivity and obedience .This process should be viewed as an experience , a free activity and a development of the individuality in a way that utilizes the opportunities of present life to acquaint the young generation with what is going on in the world and prepare it for the future as well . LylaEssa(1988,p.149).Studying ,memorizing and applying rules of grammar of a certain language may elicit a learner’s loss of identity viewing the fact that capacity for self-expression is likely to be halted or invariably obliterated . This is what Young hints at when he comments on the consequences of relying merely on what is exactly stated in the textbooks : “This feeling of loss of self might be further exaggerated in the process of acquiring a properly academic voice” Young Moriya (1988,p.24). Literature classes, as Mainland (2013, p.145) puts it, help students find their voice. In this way, getting students talk in another language and assisting them express themselves have a lot in common. Literature can be a tool rather than an end in teaching English as a second or foreign language (Murat, 2005, p. 53). The major four reasons why literature should be used in ESL / EFL classes are: authentic, cultural and language enrichment, in addition to personal involvement (Murat, 2005, p. 54). The part which a novel or a poem plays is to take the learner to vaster or larger area of huge bulk of language utterances, based on of lifelike, situational, authentic experiences which characters have in the literary work. Likewise reading works of different literary genres offers students familiarity with many various linguistic form, communicative functions and meanings. The words which such written texts as novels, short stories ,poems ,and drama offer helps in learners’ understanding of how communication in that country takes place as they present situations of characters from various social / regional background. Murat (2005, p. 54). Writing could be an important task in teaching literature, since it affects the students’ proficiency and helps students to organize their ideas clearly. However,

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Isaacs (2009, p. 119) claims that there is no place for writing in many English classes; alternatively, even there is, it is the exclusive area in English department .Moreover, Mainland (2013, p. 146) describes the role of criticality in literature, emphasizing that critical ideas need a good language for utterance. Interestingly, the process of language learning draws a connection between texts and ideas to keep on the path. According to Murat (2005,p.55),through literature learners become familiar with “a substantial and contextualized body of texts” In addition ,what add to their writing skills in their increasing awareness of the variety of the ways by virtue of which ideas can be connected .Using literature also brings about the learners’ personal involvement .That is ,they begin to react emotionally to the story that is being unfolded ,which has a beneficial effects on the whole language-learning process. Literature can serve as the source of correlation between the students’ proficiency and language use. Relevantly, Adesuyi (1991: 38) explains that both language and literature are inseparable parts of English, and each is described as one side of a coin. Both are serving people's communications and activities. Furthermore, language is the system of communication that is used to express different thoughts. Precisely, different types of literature may affect language acquisition in accordance with culture, society, and area .Reading and studying a novel, a play, or a poem in the target language may help in introducing learners to the culture through which that language passed. It is through reading a literary work written in a certain dialect of a language that a student may be aware of the varieties of that language. The value of literature essentially comes from its capacity to develop learners’ sociolinguistic knowledge of the target language, providing them with a wide range of language varieties. Language changes from one social group and profession to author. Similarly, a person speaks differently in more than social contexts, using formal or informal speech styles (Murat, 2005, p. 56). In the light of the above, literature exposes the learners to other languages and cultures. Moreover, the interrelation between literature and language could be seen through expressing ideas. It shows how people of different cultures can share their ideas simply through language. Besides, a subsequent advantages of studying literature will be the enrichment of the learners’ vocabulary and reading skills. As Rosenkjar (2007, p. 19) claims, non-native students of English translate poetic terms directly without understanding the context, which will not help in their language development. In effect, studying literary material may function as a

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catalyst that facilitates the intellectual growth of a student while interacting, sharing, and exchanging views or opinions among his or her classmates. 2.1.15.1 Literature and Reading ESL / EFL teachers should adopt a dynamic, student-centered approach towards comprehension of literary work. In reading lesson, discussion begins at the literary level with direct question of fact reading settings, characters, and plot which can be answered by specific reference to the text .When student masters literal understanding, they move to the inferential level where they must make speculations and interpretations concerning the characters, setting, and theme, and where they produce the author’s point of view .After comprehending a literary selection at the literal and inferential levels , students are ready to do a collaborative work. That is to state that they share their evaluations of the work and their personal reaction to it- to its characters, its theme(s), and the author’s point of view. This is also the suitable time for them to share their reactions to the work’s natural cultural issues and themes. The third level, the personal / evaluative level stimulates students to think imaginatively about the work and provokes their problem-solving abilities. Discussion deriving from such questions can be the foundation for oral and written activities. Stern (1991, p. 332).

2.1.16 Developing Reading Comprehension in Literature Reading comprehension is the process of making meaning from text. The goal, therefore, is to gain an overall understanding of what is described in the text rather than to obtain meaning from isolated words or sentences. In understanding read text information children developmental models, or representations of meaning of the text ideas during the reading process. There are two classes of mental models: a text-based model, which is a mental representation of the propositions of the text and a situation model consisting of what the text is perceived to be about (Kintsch 1998; van Dijk and Kintsch 1983). 2.1.16.1 Mental Modeling While reading, skilled readers normally develop a text-based model, which is a mental representation of the actual text discourse. The text-based model incorporates propositions extracted from the reading of successive sentences that are sometimes supplemented by inferences that are necessary to make the text more coherent. At a local level, comprehension of written text involves the processing of the symbolic representations of parts of words, phrases, and sentences. At the same time, at a more global level, a reader must link ideas across

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sentences and form a mental model that incorporates complex themes and story plots. In contrast, situation models include elaborative inferences that integrate prior knowledge with text-based information. Unlike the text-based models, situation models do not normally retain the verbatim text information but support a more flexible knowledge structure that can enable the integration of both visual and verbal representations (Pearson and Johnson 1978; Snow 2002; Stull and Mayer 2007). Thus, the construction of a situation model is a dynamic constructive process that is determined by the interaction of the reader, the text structures, and the semantic content. It is a cohesive representation of the meaning of the text ideas (Kintsch 1998). In constructing a situation model the reader is required to search for coherence at the local and global levels and to infer meanings that are often implied by drawing from their existing background knowledge. While doing this, the reader actively constructs the situation model by using information within the text and also information from stored prior knowledge. Thus, the main difference between text-based and the situation model is assumed to be one of inference making, the text-based model is inferentially light while the situation model is inferentially dense. In building coherent mental representations readers must also process meaning at literal, inferential, and problem solving levels of thinking. For these operations to be effective the reader must set reading goals, monitor meaning and reflect upon their own understanding (Cain and Oakhill 2007). Thus, reading comprehension is a complex interactive set of operations requiring complex cognitive functioning at a number of levels simultaneously.

2.1.16.2 Reading Comprehension Strategies Numerous studies on reading comprehension conducted over the decades have highlighted the importance of reading comprehension strategies. Studies finding also seemed to indicate a linear relationship between strategy use and reading comprehension performance. Students using strategies applied by efficient readers had performed better than those who did not (Fauziah, 2003).A strategy is viewed as a flexible plan or technique used by readers in the attempt to get information or make meaning from a text (Pearson, Roehler, Dole & Duffy, 1992). Graves et al. (2007) opined that efficient readers will use selective strategies intentionally to represent the reading process, develop comprehension and facilitate in achieving its objectives (Gunning, 2008; Fauziah, 2008).Yopp and

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Yopp (2006) reported on several researches resulted in comprehension increment when students are engaged with reading strategies used by efficient students. These strategies need to be learned, trained and gradually become a reading habit. Generally, thereading comprehension strategies could be divided into three main categories; metacognitive, cognitive and affective. This paper, however, only focuses on cognitive strategies, parallel to constructivism approach. 2.1.16.3 Cognitive Strategies Williams and Burden (1997) described cognitive strategies as mental processes concerned with processing information applied for obtainment, storage, retrieval or use of information while Chamot and O’Malley (1996) defined such strategies as strategies that aided students in accomplishing the reading task. Oxford (1999) further explained that the strategies are note taking, summarizing, inferencing, using prior knowledge, predicting, analyzing and using context clues.Dymock and Nicholson (2010) found that efficient readers utilize between five to nine cognitive strategies. The five major strategies are activating schemata, constructing and asking questions (prior and during reading), analyzing text structure or story structure, visualizing and summarizing. Simultaneously, research findings by Reading Panel of America revealed seven major strategies employed by efficient readers are; using graphic organizers (GO), monitoring comprehension (a metacognitive strategy), inferencing, identifying text structure (for expository text) and story structure (for narrative text), constructing and answering questions (for expository text), synthesizing, and finally summarizing (retelling/rewriting the ideas precisely) (Cooper, 2006; Pressley, 2000). Parallel to constructivism emphasis on cognition, we chose five cognitive reading strategies and five stages of cognitive activities to be embedded in the reading comprehension process. The Story Structure Strategy was chosen as the main cognitive strategy because a narrative text was used for the comprehension process. This strategy was integrated with the Graphic Strategy via Graphic Organizer (GO) called The Story Structure Map which contained story elements such as setting, characters, plots and themes as the subtopics. Based on the skeletal framework and the subtopics given, students are to complete the GO. Story elements or also known as story structure are defined as a set of rules developed for each story in which it creates a hierarchy and help students comprehend better (Dymock, 2007). Rajeswary (1998) also found that students with story structure knowledge are able to understand a story better despite of the story lacking ideal structure. Therefore, teaching story structure is an important

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aspect of narrative text comprehension (Reutzel&Cooter,2004). Second cognitive strategy employed is Questioning Strategy, upon completion of Story Structure Strategy and GO construction by students. Teachers are encouraged to ask questions to facilitate students’ mastery of basic story elements, implicitly teaching the students to generate questions via information integration(Cooper, 2006).These are the first stage questions and are to be answered in one sentence, similar to Question Answer Relationship(QAR) method (Bursck&Damer, 2007). The third cognitive strategy, synthesizing, a high cognitive level strategy, needs to be employed simultaneously with the previous two. This strategy helps readers to have an in-depth understanding on the story structure namely the setting, characters, characters’ issues, resolutions and the ending of the story (Cooper, 2006). Synthesizing strategy aids reader to evaluate information from the text and thus helps students achieve the third cognitive level in Barret’s Taxonomy. The next strategy, Visualization Strategy, is used to achieve comprehensive understanding and global coherence of the text. This is parallel to Cooper’s view where he believed thatthis technique is able to assist students’ mental image development (visualizing strategy) based on their schemata and text information extract. Visualization becomes the medium for ideas representation in both narrative and expository texts (Pressley, 2000). This strategy involves assessment, summarizing and drawing conclusion from the text. Finally, the fifth strategy employed is Inferencing Strategy. Inferencing, the second thinking level in Barret’s Taxonomy is also regarded as a high thinking level. This strategy is significant in the meaning making process as it helps support information required by students in text understanding. Inferential comprehension occurs when a reader is able to read between the lines (the ability to blend the text literal content with prior knowledge, intuition and imagination for conjecture or to make hypotheses)(Pennel, 2002). Prior to this, Barret (1974) had identified 8 types of inferences; a) supporting details, b) the main idea, c) sequence, d) comparisons, e) cause-and-effect relationships, f) character traits, g) predicting outcomes and h) figurative language. Grasser et al. (1994) also founded twelve inference types evolve from the meaning making (reading comprehension) process using constructivism approach. The steps are making references, the role of structural case, cause, goal, themes, reaction towards character’s emotions, consequences, pronoun initializers, instrumentation, the goal motives, situation and reader’s emotion. Types 1 to 6 of the inferences were sparked during the reading comprehension process. The remaining six are generated after the process.

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2.1.16.4 Graphic Strategy Since this study uses narrative text which comes in hierarchal point, GO is the most appropriate material that can aid in hierarchical concept understanding. The use of this Graphic Strategy (through Graphic Organizer-GO) is integrated with the main cognitive strategy, the Story Structure Strategy. GO is a text information spatial display that can be used as students study aids. GO communicates both vertical and hierarchical concept relations (Robinson, Katayama, Dubois, &Devaney, 1998) and it also uses two dimensional spaces to communicate conceptual relation and words’ relative spatial locus (Katayama & Robinson, 2000).Graphic Strategy application means integrating visual-illustrated concept with information from text where GO’susage gives reader a clearer and substantial understanding. The nature of GO graphic illustration that co-appears with the text contributes to macrostructure understanding of text and enables easy retaining and retrieving information (Van Dijk&Kintsch, 1983; Chang, Sung & Chen, 2002;Xiangjing&Grabe, 2007). This also shows shift of approaches from traditional linear text presentation to graphical concept (Chang, Sung & Chen, 2002). Researches on reading comprehension and memorization reported significant findings on GO in aiding readers text comprehension (Robinson et. al, 1998); Robinson& Skinner, 1996). Robinson, Katayama, Odom, Hsieh and Vanderveen (2006) also reported on several researches revealing students’ better performance when they studied spatial display text information (GO notes) compared to linear text. GO notes not only assist students by directing their attention to important information, but, rather, help them notice important cross-concept relations that are vague when viewing linear notes. Several research reports concluded that self-constructed GO is more effective in the comprehension process (Xiangjing&Grabe, 2007) due to promotion of autonomous learning and enhancing learning depth (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2001; Katayama & Robinson, 2000). However, GO used on different reading task produce different result (post-reading GO is more effective). The treatment duration and participants’ education level also determine the effectiveness. Those studies reported GO’s strong point in representing the discourse structure of the text and therefore helps facilitate comprehension. Additionally, the research results indicated that students comprehend better with the help of GO, as demonstrated byseveral studies that used GO for pre-reading and a few more that utilized it for post-reading task. However, in our study, GO is used as during reading task and applied simultaneously with the Story Structure Strategy.

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Thus, the objective of this study is not to measure the effect of using GO alone, but also the effectiveness of all the five cognitive strategies and activities given as an intervention. The effectiveness will be measured through the pre and post-test results of Reading Comprehension Test among the students in experimental group, compared to the control group who did not receive any intervention.

2.1.17 Elements and characteristics of using literature to enhance reading comprehension

2.1.17.1 Theme This refers to the central idea of a literary work. Normally, it reflects areas of concern to society like life, death, reality, fate, madness, sanity, love, education, etc. It also serves as the foundation on which the rest of the elements are built in the literary world. For instance, a TV drama on education as the theme features people (characters) talking about (dialogue) education. One literary work may contain many themes, depending on how an individual analyzes it. For example, a story of love theme may contain sub-themes of jealousy, betrayal, and hypocrisy. 2.1.17.2 Plot This is a storyline: a plan of action that centres on a conflict and that is brought to a kind of resolution. In other words, Plot is the serial arrangement of incidents, ideas or events in a story. It encompasses all the incidents and provides aesthetic pleasure. The story of a novel progresses through various plots and conflicts. Plots of drama are divided into Acts and Scenes, and those of fiction (are divided) into Chapters. 2.1.17.3 Characters Characters are the people or sometimes animals playing various roles in a story. Characters can be fictional or based on real, historic entities. They can be supernatural, mythical, and divine. They can also be personifications of abstractions. Many stories have two kinds of characters: major and minor. Major characters carry the burden of the Plot and take part in most of the actions. One of the major characters may be a PROTAGONIST, someone who has a problem to solve or a conflict to resolve before there can be a satisfactory ending. The protagonist’s problem may be caused by an ANTAGONIST, someone against whom the protagonist struggles to resolve the conflict. Minor characters enrich a story or a play by providing the major characters with further complications. They also reflect character traits that amuse, puzzle and inform readers or viewers about the main idea of the literary piece. Characters,

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major or minor, can be round or flat. A round character is dynamic – capable of change and growth – and a flat character is static in the story. Writers describe characters either directly or indirectly. When the description is direct, writers tell how the characters look and act, and when indirect, writers allow the characters to describe one another. For instance, in a 30-minute TV drama on Girl-child Education (Marzuq, 2004), a husband continually describes his wife as arrogant, while a brother describes her sister as disrespectful. 2.1.17.4 Setting Setting refers to the location, time, daily lifestyle of the characters, and climate of the story. Settings of literary forms have been changing according to the themes of the literary pieces. For example, Shakespeare's tragedies and comedies have the settings of palaces, castles, whereas modern and post-modern dramas have settings of houses of common people. A Setting can be a house, school, castle, forest, hospital or anywhere writers want to tell their stories. 2.1.17.5 Conflict Conflict is simply the element of struggle between two or among many opposing forces in a piece of literature. Be it a short story, drama or novel, Conflict plays an essential role. A Plot becomes intriguing when it has its share of inbuilt conflicts and twists. Conflict can be internal or external. It can take place between two persons, between the character and his or her psychology, between the character and circumstances or between the character and society. When conflict exists between two persons, it is described as MAN AGAINST MAN; between man and himself: MAN AGAINST HIMSELF; and between man and society or anything natural: MAN AGAINST NATURE. It is significant to mention that the MAN as used in this context is generic – representing both man and woman. This explanation is to prevent the charge of SEXIST LANGUAGE, which is undesirable to advocates of gender equality. 2.1.17.6 Structure Structure is the arrangement of a literary piece into meaningful units of coherence. A story's Structure can be examined in relation to its Plot. As the Plot is the sequence of unfolding action, the Structure is the design or form of the completed action. In examining Plot, we consider causality – how one action leads to or ties with another. But in examining Structure, we look for the shape that the story as a whole possesses. It stands to reason that both Plot and Structure are about coherent arrangement. However, Plot directs us to the story in motion, and Structure to the story at rest. Plot and Structure together reveal aspects of the story's artistic design.

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2.1.17.7 Diction This refers to the choice of words by a writer. It is another essential element of a literary work. A playwright exhibits the thoughts of characters through dialogue. According to the Oxford Dictionary, "dialogue" is from the Greek word "dialogos" which, among other things, means "conversation." Shakespeare used dialogue to portray the thoughts, emotions and feelings of characters in his works. Dialogue provides clues to the backgrounds of characters and helps in advancing the plot. Fellow students should, therefore, note that dialogue plays an important role in CHARACTER APPRECIATION, an assignment often given to students of Literature at the Senior High and Tertiary levels. Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Plato used dialogue as the best way to instruct their students. 2.1.18 Different Models of teaching Literature Carter and Long (1991) state, there are three models of teaching literature:

1. The Cultural Model: which is a traditional approach of teaching literature where learners need to discover and infer the social, political, literary, and historical context of a specific text. It reveals the universality of thoughts and ideas and learners are encouraged to understand different cultures and ideologies in relation to their own. This model views literature as a source of facts and it is teacher centered where the teacher passes knowledge and information to the students.

2. The Language Model: which is an approach that offers learners an opportunities to access a text in a systematic and methodical way. This approach allows teachers to apply strategies used in language teaching such as cloze procedure, prediction exercises, jumbled sentences, summary writing, creative writing and role play to deconstruct literary texts in order to serve specific linguistic goals. Savvidou (2004) asserts that students engage with the text purely for linguistic practice and literature is used mechanistically to provide a series of language activities.

3. The Personal Growth Model: which is an approach that focus on the personal development of the students including emotions and personal characteristics. It requires the students to relate and respond to the themes and issues by connecting them to their personal life experiences .It is influenced by both cultural model and the language model where the focus is on the particular use of language in a text in a specific cultural context.

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There are various models proposed for teaching literature to students in Asian Countries (Carter and Long, 1991; and Gillian Lazar, 1993). The teacher can take literature content according to the type of model they select.

1. Cultural model takes literary content as a product, i.e., input information of the culture focused. It is the classical method, usually applied in university courses about literature. The cultural model looks for the social, political and historical background of a content, literary movements and genres. But content specific language work has not been done so far. This method would be completely teacher-centric. 2. The language model was meant to be highly learner-centric. While going through the content, learners tend to give importance to the pattern of language usage and the meaning through which they understand English. This model lets the teacher focus on general grammar and vocabulary (for example as given in the course books) or go for stylistic analysis in which the students would be able to elucidate the content with the knowledge on linguistic characteristics of the content. This improves the reading and studying ability of the learners. 3. The personal growth model is a process-based method and tends to be learner-centric. In this model, learners can portray their own views, thoughts and experiences. It tries to provide the content and the reader interactions to build the language thereby making it unforgettable. Learners are promoted to “make the text their own”. This model identifies the strength of literature which can make the learners implement their learning in the classroom.

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Theoretical Framework

2.2 Previous studies The 1st study:

This study was carried out by (Venetis, A., cited in WigdanYagoub Mohamed, 2014, p: 43-44). It is an MA research project which she conducted at Kean University, under the title “Teaching Vocabulary: Within the Context of Literature and Reading or Through Isolated Word Lists.” The study attempted to determine the most useful method of vocabulary teaching, and whether it would be through the context of literary texts or through isolated word lists. The subjects were 45 high school fresh students who studied “Great Expectations” by Charles Dickens. They were divided into two group; “A” and “B”. Group “A”, learned words through isolated word lists, they were asked to look them up in a dictionary. Io the other hand, group “B” learned the same word lists while reading the novel. They stopped to examine the words within the context of the literary text. The results showed that the two groups were alike at the end of the study. In the pre- test there were no great difference and even in the post-test, there was no great significant difference. Thus, the hypothesis that those who learned new words in context understand them better than comprehending them through isolated word list.

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2nd study This study carried in (1992) by Anastas. The researcher investigated the

possibility of any negative or positive influence on learning the English language through teaching English literature. The study carried out in public and private schools .The researcher compared public schools, where the curriculum developers put no separate English literary text books in the English language curriculum and private schools, where the curriculum developers put separate English literary texts in the English language curriculum. The researcher also considered the results of the Entrance Exam of Beir-Zeit University and Bethlehem University in 1987. The researcher submitted a questionnaire and gave it to the English language teachers in these different schools so as to detect the method they are using, the literary texts they are teaching, and their goals for teaching English literature. The results of the study show that 95% of students in private and public schools are interested in movies, comics, and television .Also they liked reading literature especially the stories that dealt with humor, adventure stories, travel and exploration. The researcher recommends that literature should be included in teaching the English language .All the institutions concerned with the teaching of literature should investigate recent developments in tape, films and other aids. Teacher should be trained to be able to use the suitable literary texts through teaching the English language and there should be clear criteria for selecting literary texts in terms of suitability for the level, culture and authenticity.

This study is relevant to the present study in that it investigated the possibility of any negative or positive influence on learning the English language through teaching English literature. But it differs from the present study in terms of that the researcher used only one tool to obtain the data.

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Third study

This study was carried in 2000 by AL-Asmar .The researcher examined the reading comprehension strategies that are employed by the English majors while reading literature texts. The study was carried out at An-Najah National University .The population of the study consisted of all third year students registered in “Eighteenth century Literature” course at An-Najah National University .The sample of the study consisted of (57)male and female students. The study results showed that the most widely used strategy for the reading comprehension was the vocal one that is employed during the reading comprehension process with (87.95 %).The least one used was the post reading strategy with (1.78%).However, the pre reading strategy was used a little better with (10.26%).In the light of the findings of the study, it was recommended that English majors should be given the opportunity to choose between two major specializations ,literature or language ,and that English Department should hold a compulsory reading course for those who want to go through with English literature as a major specialization.

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4th study This study was carried out in 1999 by Hawamdeh. The researcher

investigated the effect of using figures of speech in English104(Language Through Literature .The study was carried out at Yarmouk University .The researcher examined students’ ability of understanding and interpreting figurative language on their natural use in the foreign language in classroom interaction. The sample consisted of all the population of the study that is the 100 freshmen English major .He came up with the results that the instruction of figures of speech had improved students’ ability of understanding, interpretation and use of figurative language. In the light of the findings of the study, the researcher recommended that instructors should concentrate on figurative aspect of the language, leaving other components of the language to grammar course deal with figurative language as an important part of everyday communication, not just as a feature of literary texts, be careful in selecting materials that contain figurative language to train students to use this aspect of the language.

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5th study

This a PHD study. It was carried in 2014 by WigdanYagoubMohammed .The researcher examined the possibility of using literary texts as a spring for the development of English language via activities from the literary texts. The study was carried out at Sudan University of Science and Technology .The population of the study consisted of all third year students at Sudan University of Science and Technology and all university teachers in Khartoum State. The sample of the study consisted of (60) students and (30) university teachers. The researcher used pre-test and post-test” and questionnaire to collect data. Having finished analyzing the data statistically, the study results showed that teachers have a positive attitude towards, teacher of English benefit from teaching English Language through literary texts, teachers agreed on the suggested strategies to enhance the teaching of English through literary texts, finally students' responses have shown that they endeavor to use literary texts to improve their level in English Language. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that:

1. Teachers of English in general and of literature in particular are recommended to teach English through literary texts.

2. There is urgent need for training programs and courses in the teaching of English through literature.

3. Teachers of literature are advised to allocate part of their classes to revising and fostering some language items.

4. Literature examinations are to include language items. 5. Students must be involved in selection of literary texts and they should be

given freedom to set/design activities from the text. 6. Sudan Certificate-English Language- exam should include a literary page.

This study is similar to the present study, but it differs from it in different aspects such as: the researcher is applied on university students and the questionnaire distributed for university teachers only. In this chapter the researcher is divided into part. Part one is concerning theoretical framework and part two concerning previous studies.

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Chapter Three

Methodology

3.1 Introduction:

This chapter describes all the methods and techniques adopted such as the instruments and their validity and reliability, the population of the study, the samples, the procedures of data analysis and the setting. The data will be analyzed by using a recent statistical package (IBM SPSS Statistics 20) and by utilizing Independent Samples of a test and a questionnaire to answer the questions of the study which reflect the study hypotheses that assume literature plays a significant role in enhancing reading comprehension. 3.2 The methodology

The method used in this study is descriptive analytical method with a questionnaire

and a test designed specifically to serve the nature of this research.

3.3 Population of the Study

The population of the study consists of English Language students of fourth year at Comboni College of Science and Technology English Department, the first term of the academic year 2018 – 2019.Joan joseph Castillo (2009) defined population sampling as the process of taking a subset of subjects that is representative of the entire population.

The sample of the study has been drawn randomly from the population of the study. The researcher has decided the size of the sample of the study approximately according to the total size of the population of the study.

3.4 Samples of the Study (Test)

The sample of the study consists of (29) students chosen randomly for the test from the overall population which is (60) students. They have been studying English for more than three years. The researcher has chosen them purposefully because they study poetry at third level and exposed to English literature at first year as well. However, the sample of the questionnaire has chosen randomly according to their experiences.

The questions of the test which about poetry has multiple choice, each one of them consists of four answers, students have to choose the correct ones among them.

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The sample of the study includes the following:

(1) English language students according to the gender(male – female). (2) English language students according to the age.

Below is a detailed description of the individuals of the sample according to the above mentioned variability.

Table (1) and Graph (1) show the frequency distribution of the respondents in the study sample according to the variable of gender.

gender Frequency Percent

Male 19 63.3

Female 10 33.3

Total 29 96.7

System 1 3.3

Total 30 100.0

Table (3.1)

Table (2) and Graph (2) show the percentage of age between (20-30) years is 90% and age between (31-40) years is 6.7% from population study.

Age Frequency Percent

20-30 years 27 90.0

31-40 years 2 6.7

Total 29 96.7

System 1 3.3

Total 30 100.0

Table (3.2)

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3.5 Questionnaire Graph (1): Gender:

The questionnaire was only designed for the teachers who teach English Language at comboni college and some other universities.

Table (1) and Graph (1) show the percentage of male is 70% and female is 26.7% from population study.

Gender Frequency Percent Male 21 70.0 Female 8 26.7 Total 29 96.7 System 1 3.3 Total 30 100.0

Table (3.3) gender

Graph (2): age:

Table (2) and Graph (2) show the percentage of they age up 19 is 4.1%, age between (20-30) is 63.3%, age between (31-40) is 26.7%, and age above than (40+) is 6.7% of the population of the study.

Age Frequency Percent 20-30 19 63.3 31-40 8 26.7 More 2 6.7 Total 29 96.7 System 1 3.3 Total 30 100.0

Table (3.4) age

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Graph (3): qualification:

Table (3) and Graph (3) show the qualification where (60%) of sample of the study whose have B.A, (30%) of the sample those who have M.A and (6.7%) of the sample whose have PhD.

Qualification Frequency Percent B.A 18 60.0 M.A 9 30.0 PhD 2 6.7 Total 29 96.7 System 1 3.3 Total 30 100.0

Table (3.5) qualification

Graph (4): Experiences

Table (4) and Graph (4) show (36.7%) of sample have experience (3-5) years, (16.7%) have experience (6-10) years and the individuals whose have experience above 10 years is (13.3%) of population study.

Experiences Frequency Percent

3-5 11 36.7 6-10 5 16.7 More 4 13.3 Total 20 66.7 System 10 33.3 Total 30 100.0

Table (3.6) experiences

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3.6 Samples of the Study(Questionnaire)

The questionnaire consists of five factors “domains” each one of them consists of five questions. Factor one concerning ‘education’, then factor two concerning language and culture, third factor goes through language and literature, as factor four tackles culture and literature, finally competence and performance.

The respondents are asked in this part to indicate their responses according to the five degrees Liker’s scale: (strongly agree- agree – neutral – disagree- strongly disagree).

The reliability and the validity of the instrument of the study.

Reliability:

Reliability refers to whether the instrument can produce the same or very similar results if it is conducted again under the same or very similar conditions. There are two types of reliability:

Internal reliability refers to the consistence of data collection. External reliability on the other hand, refers to whether replicating a questionnaire by other researchers produces similar results of those obtained in the original one.

External reliability is affected by the degree of the data collected.

Validity:

For measuring the validity of the instrument of the questionnaire of the study, the researcher sent the questionnaire of the study to several experts in the field of the study. The questionnaire was seen by academic experts in universities, English language lecturers.

Those experts have checked each item of the statements against the objectives and the variables of the research. Some statements were deleted or modified.

3.7 Statistical analysis.

To achieve the objectives of the study and to test the hypotheses the following statistical methods have been used:

1. Graphs. 2. Frequency distribution.

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3. Percentages. 4. Chi-square test. 5. Sig

In order to reach precise results, the statistical program, Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) has been used for the statistical treatment of the answers of the questionnaire. The (Excel) program has been used to execute the graphical figures of the study.

3.8 Administration of the instrument:

After checking the reliability of the test and the questionnaire of the study, the researcher administered the test and the questionnaire of the study, 29 copies for the test and 29 copies for the questionnaires were handed over to the sample of the study by the researcher himself, and all copies were returned. The sample study was very cooperative and expressed great interest in subject matter.

In this chapter the researcher showed the method and the way he presented an concerted the data. the researcher his test and questionnaire to many expert for the judgment

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Chapter Four

Data Analysis and Discussion

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter the researcher is going to analyze the data and the population of the study and to come out with significant result related to Investigating English Literature Cultural Impact on Teaching Reading Comprehension.

4.1 Data Analysis and Discussion

4.1.1 Test

gender Frequency Percent

Male 19 63.3

female 10 33.3

Total 29 96.7

System 1 3.3

Total 30 100.0

Table (4.1)

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Table (4.1) and Graph (1) show the percentage of male is 63.3% and female is 33.3% from population study.

age Frequency Percent

20-30 years 27 90.0

31-40 years 2 6.7

Total 29 96.7

System 1 3.3

Total 30 100.0

Table (4.2)

63.3

33.3

gender

male

female

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Table (4.2) and Graph (2) show the percentage of age between (20-30) years is 90% and age between (31-40) years is 6.7% from population study.

Item Stander True Nearly true

false Completely false

The poet reveals the speakers feeling mainly by

Frequency 6 19 1 4

Percent 20.0 63.3 3.3 13.3 The repetition of the word "like" emphasizes the speakers desire to

Frequency 26 0 4 0

Percent 86.7 0 13.3 0 Which line best communicates the speakers feeling of what happens to a dream deferred

Frequency 30 0 0 0

Percent 100.0

0 0 0

What is the best summery of a Frequency 12 6 6 5

20-30 years 31-40 years

90.0

6.7

age

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dream deferred Percent 40.0 20.0 20.0 16.7

The poet helps the reader understand how it felt to

Frequency 7 7 13 1

Percent 23.3 23.3 43.3 3.3 Based on the first stanza, the reader can conclude that the speaker

Frequency 13 3 3 11

Percent 43.3 10.0 10.0 36.7 Dividing the poem into three stanzas allows the poet to

Frequency 6 5 15 3 Percent 20 16.7 50.0 10.0

The imagery in line 1 through 8 helps the reader understand

Frequency 8 2 13 6

Percent 26.7 6.7 43.3 20.0 How does the poet use figurative language

Frequency 9 4 4 13

Percent 30.0 13.3 13.3 43.3 What does the speaker suggests in both stanzas

Frequency 3 7 17 2

Percent 10.0 23.3 56.7 6.7 Table (3)

Table (3) above, shows the frequency and percentage of Questions in factor two as follow:

Question one the high percent was 63.3% (Nearly true) and low percent was 3.3% (false)

Question two the high percent was 86.7% (true) and low percent was 0% (Nearly true, Completely false)

Question three the high percent was 100% (true) and low percent was 0% (Nearly true, Completely false, false).

Question four the high percent was 40.0% (true) and low percent was 16.7% (Completely false).

Question five the high percent was 43.3% (false) and low percent was 3.3% (Completely false).

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Question six the high percent was 43.3% for (true) and 10.0% for (Nearly true, false).

Question seven the high percent was 50.0% for (false) and 10.0% for (Completely false).

Question eight the high percent was 43.3% for (false) and 6.7% for (Nearly true).

Question nine the percent was 43.3% for (Completely false) and 13.3% for (Nearly true, false).

Question ten the percent was 56.7% for (false) and 6.7% for (Completely false)

4.2 Questionnaire

The analysis

1- Frequency tables and Graphs.

2- Crosstable between the parts.

3- Analysis of hypotheses

4- The result of analysis

1-Gender:

gender Frequency Percent male 21 70.0

female 8 26.7 Total 29 96.7

System 1 3.3 Total 30 100.0

Table (4.1) gender

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Graph (1): Gender:

Table (4.1) and Graph (1) show the percentage of male is 70% and female is 26.7% from population study.

2\ age:

age Frequency Percent 20-30 19 63.3 31-40 8 26.7 more 2 6.7 Total 29 96.7

System 1 3.3 Total 30 100.0

Table (4.2) age

70.0

26.7

gender

male

female

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Graph (2): age:

Table (4.2) and Graph (2) show the percentage of they age up 19 is 4.1%, age between (20-30) is 63.3%, age between (31-40) is 26.7%, and age above than (40+) is 6.7% of the population of the study. 3\ Qualification

qualification Frequency Percent

B.A 18 60.0 M.A 9 30.0 PhD 2 6.7 Total 29 96.7

System 1 3.3 Total 30 100.0

Table (4.3) qualification

63.3

26.7

6.7

age

20-30

31-40

more

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Graph (3): qualification:

Table (4.3) and Graph (3) show the qualification where (60%) of sample of the study whose have B.A, (30%) of the sample those who have M.A and (6.7%) of the sample whose have PhD. 4\ Experiences

experiences Frequency Percent 3-5 11 36.7 6-10 5 16.7 More 4 13.3 Total 20 66.7

System 10 33.3 Total 30 100.0

Table (4.4) experiences

60.0

30.0

6.7

qualification

B.A

M.A

PhD

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Graph (4): experiences:

Table (4.4) and Graph (4) show (36.7%) of sample have experience (3-5) years, (16.7%) have experience (6-10) years and the individuals whose have experience above 10 years is (13.3%) of population study.

36.716.7

13.3

experiences

3-5

6-10

more

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2- The Frequency tables and Percentages:

Factor one Standard strongly agree

Agree

neutral Disagree strongly disagree

education uses short stories to send messages to young learners

Frequency 11 11 5 3 0

Percent 36.7%

36.7% 16.7% 10% 0

novels and drama at university level address issues in real life situation

Frequency

11 8 7 3 1

Percent 36.7% 26.7

% 23.3% 10% 3.3%

education introduces poetry to enhance language rhythm and melody

Frequency 8 12 2 7 0 Percent 26.7% 40% 6.7% 23.3% 0

science fiction stories are used to enhance learning and boost imagination

Frequency 2 12 8 7 2 Percent 6.7% 40% 26.7% 23.3% 6.7%

drama enhances and develops human intellectual thinking through using different themes

Frequency 11 11 3 4 1 Percent 36.7% 36.7

% 10% 13.3% 3.3%

Result factor one

Frequency 8 14 8 0 0

Percent 26.7%

46.7%

26.7% 0 0

Table (5)

Table (5) above, show the frequency and percentage for Questions in factor one as follow:

Question one the high percent was 36.7% (strongly agree, Agree) and low percent was 0% (strongly disagree)

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Question two the high percent it was 36.7% (strongly agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree)

Question three the high percent was 40% (Agree) and low percent was 0% (strongly disagree).

Question four the high percent was 40% (Agree) and low percent was 6.7% (strongly disagree, strongly agree).

Question five the high percent was 36.7% (strongly agree , Agree) and low percent it was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

The result of factor one is 46.7% for (Agree) and 0% for (strongly disagree, neutral).

The table confirms that, short stories, novels, poetry, drama and science fiction play an important role in developing reading comprehension as Milner( 1996,p.1) asserts that, “the work of literature is creative, universal from expression that addresses the emotional, spiritual or intellectual concerns of humanity”.

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Factor two Standard strongly agree

Agree

neutral Disagree strongly disagree

it is fairly difficult to master language without its cultural context

Frequency 5 14 4 4 3

Percent 16.7% 46.7

% 13.3% 13.3% 10

culture is essential for language learning

Frequency 11 10 3 4 2

Percent 36.7%

33.3%

10% 13.3% 6.7%

intercultural provides values and skills to enhance language

Frequency 10 11 5 3 1 Percent

33.3% 36.7% 16.7% 10% 3.3

intercultural competence assists foreign language learners

Frequency 6 13 5 4 1 Percent 20% 43.3

% 16.7% 13.3% 3.3%

cultural general enhances intercultural competence

Frequency 4 13 4 8 1 Percent 13.3% 43.3

% 13.3% 26.7% 3.3%

Result factor two

Frequency 5 10 8 1 1

Percent 16.7%

33.3%

26.7% 3.3% 3.3%

Table (6)

Table (6) above, shows the frequency and percentage for Questions in factor two as follow:

Question one the high percent was 46.7% (Agree) and low percent was 10% (strongly disagree)

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Question two the high percent was 36.7% (strongly agree) and low percent was 6.7% (strongly disagree)

Question three the high percent was 36.7% (Agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

Question four the high percent was 43.3% (Agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

Question five the high percent was 43.3% (Agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

The result of factor two is 33.3% for (Agree) and 3.3% for (strongly disagree, neutral).

The result indicates that culture plays a crucial role in acquiring language and it is significantly important as it affects adequate group of learners. Like literature, culture is a contested phenomenon which is understood to mean

different things by different groups. (DMFA,2002 p.26) notes that, “Culture is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. it embodies languages, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals and so on”.

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Factor three Standard strongly agree

Agree

neutral Disagree strongly disagree

there is a strong link between language and literature

Frequency 18 9 1 1 1

Percent 60% 30% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3%

it can be said that language makes literature

Frequency 10 13 4 2 1

Percent 33.3%

43.3%

13.3% 6.7% 3.3%

literature plays significant role in promoting reading comprehension

Frequency 7 15 4 2 1 Percent 23.3% 50% 13.3% 6.7% 3.3%

literature plays an important role in enriching language

Frequency 10 7 3 6 4 Percent 33.3% 23.3

% 10% 20% 13.3%

literature promoting critical thinking or literacy

Frequency 6 11 4 7 1 Percent 20% 36.7

% 13.3% 23.3% 3.3%

Result factor three

Frequency 11 14 3 1 1

Percent 36.7%

46.7%

10% 3.3% 3.3%

Table (7)

Table (7) above, shows the frequency and percentage for Questions in factor three as follow:

Question one the high percent was 60% (strongly agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral)

Question two the high percent it was 43.3% (agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree)

Question three the high percent was 50% (Agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

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Question four the high percent was 33.3% (strongly agree) and low percent was 10% (neutral).

Question five the high percent was 36.7% (Agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

The result of factor three is 46.7% for (Agree) and 3.3% for (strongly disagree, disagree).

The result of factor three is 46.7% for (Agree) and 3.3% for (strongly disagree, disagree). It also shows that the strong bond as language and literature can never be separated; know the language leads to know the literature best.

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Factor four Standard strongly agree

Agree

neutral Disagree strongly disagree

cultural modal helps learners to discover literature universal theme

Frequency 8 18 1 3 0

Percent 26.7% 60% 3.3% 10% 0

literature encourages become writers Frequency 18 7 1 3 1

Percent 60%

23.3%

3.3% 10% 3.3%

teaching literature requires several techniques

Frequency 6 12 9 2 1 Percent 20% 40% 30% 6.7% 3.3%

linking learners personal life with literary text

Frequency 5 13 7 2 2 Percent 16.7% 43.3

% 23.3% 6.7% 6.7%

promoting social and political perspective

Frequency 4 14 6 3 1 Percent 13.3% 46.7

% 20% 10% 3.3%

Result factor four

Frequency 11 12 6 1 0

Percent 36.7% 40% 20% 3.3% 0

Table (8)

Table (8) above, shows the frequency and percentage for Questions in factor four as follow:

Question one the high percent was 60% (agree) and low percent was 0% (strongly disagree)

Question two the high percent was 60% (strongly agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree, neutral)

Question three the high percent was 40% (Agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

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Question four the high percent was 43.3% (agree) and low percent was 6.7% (strongly disagree, disagree).

Question five the high percent was 46.7% (Agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

The result of factor four is 40% for (Agree) and 0% for (strongly disagree, disagree).

The result of factor four is 40% for (Agree) and 0% for (strongly disagree, disagree). It confirms that, teaching literature is a part of teaching culture as ‘Tennen,1984’ states: “all aspects of the content and form or matter and manner of human communication are culture-specific”

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Factor five Standard strongly agree

Agree

neutral Disagree strongly disagree

linguistics performance is actually used of spoken language

Frequency 7 12 2 5 2

Percent 23.3% 40% 6.7% 16.7% 6.7%

performance in spoken from reflects competence

Frequency 9 13 4 2 1

Percent 30%

43.3%

13.3% 6.7% 3.3%

linguistics performance does not specify how the speaker uses language knowledge

Frequency 3 11 4 8 2 Percent

10% 36.7% 13.3% 26.7% 6.7%

linguistics performance describes the psychological process involved in language use

Frequency 7 12 6 3 1 Percent 23.3% 40% 20% 10% 3.3%

competence is the recognition of language in human brain

Frequency 6 15 5 3 0 Percent 20% 50% 16.7% 13.3% 0

Result factor five

Frequency 5 17 6 2 0

Percent 16.7%

56.7% 20% 6.7% 0

Table (9)

Table (9) above, shows the frequency and percentage for Questions in factor five as follow:

Question one the high percent was 40% (agree) and low percent was 6.7% (neutral, strongly disagree)

Question two the high percent was 43.3% (agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree)

Question three the high percent was 36.7% (Agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

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Question four the high percent was 40% (agree) and low percent was 3.3% (strongly disagree).

Question five the high percent was 50% (Agree) and low percent was 0% (strongly disagree).

The result of factor five is 56.7% for (Agree) and 0% for (strongly disagree).

The result of factor five is 56.7% for (Agree) and 0% for (strongly disagree). Clearly, performance plays a key factor in reflecting competence as the majority of the targeted group agreed, as ‘Crystal, 1982, p. 59’ remarks “the distinction between performance and competence in transformation generative grammar, however, have been severely criticized as being not the clear-cut matter of competence and performance concerning intonation”.

6\Correlation between the parts:

Pearson Correlation Factor one Factor tow Factor three Factor four Factor five

Factor one 1 .346 .290 .165 .293 Factor tow .346 1 .581 .467 .434

Factor three .290 .581 1 .455 .295 Factor four .195 .467 .455 1 .490 Factor five .293 .434 .295 .490 1

Table (10)

Table (8) above shows Person’s correlation value for all the factors Clearly it is positive between (0.165 and 0.581) it also justified existence of lower correlation between all the factors.

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7-reliability and validation: Validation Reliability Number of term FACTOR

0.521 0.272 5 Education

0.784 0.616 5 Culture and intercultural

0.760 0.579 5

Language and literature

0.740 0.548 5 Teaching literature

0.02 0.040 5 Linguistics performance

0.821 0.675 25 Total Table (11)

Table (9) justified reliability and validation for each factor We found that there is a reliability for the first factor (Education)is (0.272) this reliability is low but the validation value (0.521) is above average ,the reliability for the second factor (Culture and intercultural) is (0.616) and the validation value is (0.784) it also high, the reliability for third factor (Language and literature) is (0.579) and validation value (0.760) it also low, the reliability for fourth factor (Teaching literature) is (0.548) and validation value (0.740) it also above average, the reliability for the second factor (Linguistics performance) is (0.040) and the validation value is (0.02) it also low on the other hand side the reliability and validation value of all factors are (0.675) (0.821) where the reliability and validation are above average.

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8- Chi-Square independent test between factors and demographic:

Education and Gender:

Gender Education

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree Agree Neutral

Male 8 9 4 21

2.400 0.301 Female 0 4 4 8

Total 8 13 8 29

Table (12)

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Table (12) and Graph (5) justified Chi-Square independent test between Gender and Education. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (2.400) and Sig value is (0.301) and it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Gender and Education.

Gender and Culture and intercultural

Gender Culture and intercultural

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree Agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Male 5 8 4 1 1 19

13.200 0.010 Female 0 2 3 0 0 5

Total 5 10 7 1 1 24

Table (13)

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Table (13) and Graph (6) justified Chi-Square independent test between Gender and Culture and intercultural. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (13.200) and Sig value is (0. 01) and it is less than (0.05) hence that the two variables are dependent, that means there are relationship between Gender and Culture and intercultural.

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Gender and Language and literature:

Gender Language and literature

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree

Male 9 9 1 1 1 21

24.667 0.000 Female 2 4 2 0 0 8

Total 11 13 3 1 1 29

Table (14)

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Table (14) and Graph (7) justified Chi-Square independent test between Gender and Language and literature. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (24.667) and Sig value is (0.000) and it is less than (0.05) hence that the two variables are dependent, that means there are relationship between Gender and Language and literature.

Gender and Teaching literature:

Gender Teaching literature

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral Disagree

Male 10 7 3 1 21

10.267 0.016 Female 1 5 2 0 8

Total 11 12 5 1 29

Table (15)

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Table (15) and Graph (8) justified Chi-Square independent test between Gender and Teaching literature. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (10.267) and Sig value is (0.016) and it is less than (0.05) hence that the two variables are dependent, that means there are relationship between Gender and Teaching literature.

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Gender and Linguistics performance:

Gender Linguistics performance

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral Disagree

Male 5 10 5 1 21

17.200 0.001 Female 0 7 1 0 8

Total 5 17 6 1 29

Table (16)

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Table (16) and Graph (9) justified Chi-Square independent test between Gender and Linguistics performance. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (17.200) and Sig value is (0.001) and it is less than (0.05) hence that the two variables are dependent, that means there are relationship between Gender and Linguistics performance.

Age and Education:

age Education

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree Agree neutral

20-30 2 10 7 19

8.677 0.07 31-40 5 2 1 8

more 1 1 0 2

Total 8 13 8 29

Table (17)

103

Table (17) and Graph (10) justified Chi-Square independent test between Age and Education The calculated value of Chi-Square is (8.677) and significant value is (0.07) and it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Age and Education.

104

Age and Culture and intercultural:

age Culture and intercultural

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

20-30 0 7 6 1 0 14

0.070 0.120 31-40 4 2 1 0 1 8

more 1 1 0 0 0 2

Total 5 10 7 1 1 24

Table (18)

105

Table (18) and Graph (11) justified Chi-Square independent test between Age and Culture and intercultural The calculated value of Chi-Square is (12.756) and significant value is (0.120) and it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Age and Culture and intercultural.

Age and Language and literature:

age Language and literature

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

20-30 5 10 3 1 0 19

8.995 0.343 31-40 4 3 0 0 1 8

more 2 0 0 0 0 2

Total 11 13 3 1 1 29

Table (19)

106

Table (19) and Graph (12) justified Chi-Square independent test between Age and Language and literature The calculated value of Chi-Square is (8.995) and significant value is (0.343) and it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Age and Language and literature.

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Age and Teaching literature:

age Teaching literature

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree Agree neutral Disagree

20-30 7 8 4 0 19

6.466 0.373 31-40 3 4 0 1 8

more 1 0 1 0 2

Total 11 12 5 1 29

Table (20)

108

Table (20) and Graph (13) justified Chi-Square independent test between Age and Teaching literature The calculated value of Chi-Square is (6.466) and significant value is (0.373) and it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Age and Teaching literature.

Age and Linguistics performance:

age Linguistics performance

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral disagree

20-30 2 11 5 1 19

3.559 0.736 31-40 2 5 1 0 8

more 1 1 0 0 2

Total 5 17 6 1 29

Table (21)

109

Table (21) and Graph (14) justified Chi-Square independent test between Age and Linguistics performance The calculated value of Chi-Square is (3.559) and significant value is (0.736) and it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Age and Linguistics performance.

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Qualification and Education:

qualification Education

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral

B.A 2 10 6 18

7.049 0.133 M.A 5 2 2 9

PhD 1 1 0 2

Total 8 13 8 29

Table (22)

111

Table (22) and Graph (15) justified Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Education. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (7.049) and Sig value is (0.133) it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Qualification and Education.

Qualification and Culture and intercultural:

qualification

Culture and intercultural Total Chi-

Square Sig strongly agree Agree neutra

l disagree strongly disagree

B.A 0 9 5 0 0 14

16.465 0.036 M.A 4 1 2 1 1 9

PhD 1 0 0 0 0 1

Total 5 10 7 1 1 24

Table (23)

112

Table (23) and Graph (16) justified Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Culture and intercultural. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (16.465) and Sig value is (0.036) it is less than (0.05) hence that the two variables are dependent, that means there are relationship between Qualification and Culture and intercultural.

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Qualification and Language and literature:

qualification Language and literature

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral Disagree strongly disagree

B.A 6 8 3 1 0 18

7.887 0.445 M.A 5 3 0 0 1 9

PhD 0 2 0 0 0 2

Total 11 13 3 1 1 29

Table (24)

114

Table (24) and Graph (17) justified Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Language and literature. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (7.887) and Sig value is (0.445) it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Qualification and Language and literature.

Qualification and Teaching literature:

qualification Teaching literature

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral disagree

B.A 6 7 5 0 18

5.639 0.465 M.A 4 4 0 1 9

PhD 1 1 0 0 2

Total 11 12 5 1 29

Table (25)

115

Table (25) and Graph (18) justified Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Teaching literature. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (5.639) and Sig value is (0.465) it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Qualification and Teaching literature.

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Qualification and Linguistics performance:

qualification Linguistics performance

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral disagree

B.A 2 11 4 1 18

2.881 0.824 M.A 2 5 2 0 9

PhD 1 1 0 0 2

Total 5 17 6 1 29

Table (26)

117

Table (26) and Graph (19) justified Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Linguistics performance. The calculated value of Chi-Square is (2.881) and Sig value is (0.824) it is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there are no relationship between Qualification and Linguistics performance.

Experience of years and Education:

Experiences Education

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree Neutral

3-5 2 5 4 11

4.164 0.384 6-10 3 2 0 5

more 2 1 1 4

Total 7 8 5 20

Table (27)

118

Table (27) and Graph (20) justified Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Education, the calculated value of Chi-Square is (4.164) and Sig value (0.384) and is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there no relationship between Experience of years and Education.

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Experience of years and Culture and intercultural:

Experiences Culture and intercultural

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral strongly disagree

3-5 1 3 4 0 8

8.713 0.190 6-10 3 1 1 0 5

More 1 2 0 1 4

Total 5 6 5 1 17

Table (28)

120

Table (28) and Graph (21) justified Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Culture and intercultural, the calculated value of Chi-Square is (8.713) and Sig value (0.190) and is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there no relationship between Experience of years and Culture and intercultural.

Experience of years and Language and literature:

Experiences Language and literature

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree Agree neutral disagree strongly disagree

3-5 3 5 2 1 0 11

7.807 0.453 6-10 3 2 0 0 0 5

more 2 1 0 0 1 4

Total 8 8 2 1 1 20

Table (29)

121

Table (29) and Graph (22) justified Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Language and literature, the calculated value of Chi-Square is (7.807) and Sig value (0.453) and is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there no relationship between Experience of years and Language and literature.

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Experience years and Teaching literature

Experiences Teaching literature

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral Disagree

3-5 6 4 1 0 11

6.777 0.342 6-10 2 3 0 0 5

more 1 1 1 1 4

Total 9 8 2 1 20

Table (30)

123

Table (30) and Graph (23) justified Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Teaching literature, the calculated value of Chi-Square is (6.777) and Sig value (0.342) and is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there no relationship between Experience of years and Teaching literature.

Experience of years and Linguistics performance:

Experiences Linguistics performance

Total Chi-Square Sig strongly

agree agree neutral

3-5 3 6 2 11

1.618 0.806 6-10 1 4 0 5

more 1 2 1 4

Total 5 12 3 20

Table (31)

124

Table (31) and Graph (24) justified Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Linguistics performance, the calculated value of Chi-Square is (1.618) and Sig value (0.860) and is greater than (0.05) hence that the two variables are independent, that means there no relationship between Experience of years and Linguistics performance.

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Factor one Mean Std.

Deviation Chi-

Square Sig Result

education uses short stories to send messages to young learners 2.00 0.983 6.800 0.079 Agree

novels and drama at university level address issues in real life situation 2.2 1.147 10.667 0.031 agree

education introduces poetry to enhance language rhythm and melody 2.3 1.131 7.000 0.072 Agree

science fiction stories are used to enhance learning and boost imagination

2.9 1.074 10.333 0.35 neutral

drama enhances and develops human intellectual thinking through using different themes

2.1 1.155 14.667 0.005 agree

Result factor one 2.0 0.743 2.400 0.301 agree

Table (32) justified Analysis of first hypotheses:

Question one (education uses short stories to send messages to young learners) the mean of it is equal (2.0), stander deviation is (0.983), chi-Square value is (6.800), Sig (0.079) and it is greater than (0.05) justified that we have no significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question two (novels and drama at university level address issues in real life situation) it means it is equal (2.2), stander deviation is (0.983), chi-Square value is

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(6.800), Sig value is (0.031) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Analysis of question three factor three (education introduces poetry to enhance language rhythm and melody) we found the mean equal (2.3), stander deviation (1.131), chi-Square value (7.00), significant value (0.072) is greater than (0.05) justified that we have no significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question four (science fiction stories are used to enhance learning and boost imagination) it means it is equal (2.9), stander deviation is (1.074), chi-Square value is (10.33), Sig value (0.035) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question five (drama enhances and develops human intellectual thinking through using different themes) it means it is equal (2.1), stander deviation is (1.155), chi-Square value is (14.667), Sig value is (0.005) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Analysis of first hypotheses (to detect thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism in patients with MI using allele specific PCR) it means it is equal (2.0), stander deviation is (0.743), chi-Square value is (2.400), Sig value is (0.301) and it is greater than (0.05) justified that we have no significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

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Factor two Mean Std.

Deviation Chi-

Square Sig Result

it is fairly difficult to master language without its cultural context

2.5 1.224 13.667 0.003 Agree

culture is essential for language learning

2.2 1.270 11.667 0.020 Agree

intercultural provides values and skills to enhance language 2.1 1.106 12.667 0.013 Agree

intercultural competence assists foreign language learners 2.3 1.078 13.566 0.009 Agree

cultural general enhances intercultural competence 2.6 1.129 14.333 0.006 Agree

Result factor two 2.3 0.988 13.200 0.010 Agree

Table (33) justified Analysis of first hypotheses:

Question one (it is fairly difficult to master language without its cultural context) the mean of it is equal (2.5), stander deviation is (1.224), chi-Square value is (13.667), Sig (0.008) and it is less then (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question two (culture is essential for language learning) it means it is equal (2.2), stander deviation is (1.270), chi-Square value is (11.667), Sig value is (0.020) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

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question three (intercultural provides values and skills to enhance language) we found the mean equal (2.1), stander deviation (1.106), chi-Square value (12.667), significant value (0.013) is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question four (intercultural competence assists foreign language learners) it means it is equal (2.3), stander deviation is (1.078), chi-Square value is (13.566), Sig value (0.009) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question five (cultural general enhances intercultural competence) it means it is equal (2.6), stander deviation is (1.129), chi-Square value is (14.333), Sig value is (0.010) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Analysis of second hypotheses (to determine thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism (C,C T,T C,T) in patients with MI) it means it is equal (2.3), stander deviation is (0.988), chi-Square value is (13.200), Sig value is (0.010) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

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Factor three Mean Std.

Deviation Chi-

Square Sig Result

there is a strong link between language and literature

1.6 0.968 38.00 0.00 Strongly agree

it can be said that language makes literature 2.0 1.033 18.33 0.00 Agree

literature plays significant role in promoting reading comprehension 2.1 0.990 21.86 0.00 Agree

literature plays an important role in enriching language 2.6 1.478 5.00 0.29 Agree

literature promoting critical thinking or literacy 2.4 1.086 9.448 0.06 Agree

Result factor three 1.9 0.960 24.667 0.00 Agree

Table (34) justified Analysis of first hypotheses:

Question one (there is a strong link between language and literature) it means it is equal (1.6), stander deviation is (0.968), chi-Square value is (38.00), Sig (0.00) and it is less than(0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (Strongly agree).

Question two (it can be said that language makes literature) it means it is equal (2.0), stander deviation is (1.033), chi-Square value is (18.33), Sig value is (0.001) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

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Question three (literature plays significant role in promoting reading comprehension) we found the mean equal (2.1), stander deviation (0.990), chi-Square value (21.862), significant value (0.000) is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question four (literature plays an important role in enriching language) it means it is equal (2.6), stander deviation is (1.478), chi-Square value is (5.00), Sig value (0.287) and it is greater than (0.05) justified that we have no significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question five (literature promoting critical thinking or literacy) it means it is equal (2.4), stander deviation is (1.089), chi-Square value is (9.448), Sig value is (0.06) and it is greater than (0.05) justified that we have no significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Analysis of three hypotheses (to investigate the association between thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism and risk of MI ) it means it is equal (1.9), stander deviation is (0.960), chi-Square value is (24.667), Sig value is (0.00) and it is greater than (0.05) justified that we have no significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

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Factor four Mean Std.

Deviation Chi-

Square Sig Result

cultural modal helps learners to discover literature universal theme

1.9 0.850 23.06 0.079 Agree

literature encourages become writers 1.7 1.143 34.00 0.00 Strongly

Agree

teaching literture requires several techniques 2.3 0.994 14.33 0.00 Agree

linking learners personal life with literary text 2.4 1.086 14.276 0.00 Agree

promoting social and political perspective 2.4 0.994 18.071 0.00 Agree

Result factor four 1.9 0.845 10.267 0.01 Agree

Table (35) justified Analysis of first hypotheses:

Question one (cultural modal helps learners to discover literature universal theme) it means it is equal (1.9), stander deviation is (0.850), chi-Square value is (23.067), Sig (0.00) and it is less then (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question two (literature encourages become writers) it means it is equal (2.7), stander deviation is (1.143), chi-Square value is (34.00), Sig value is (0.00) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (strongly agree).

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Question three (teaching literature requires several techniques) we found the mean equal (2.3), stander deviation (0.994), chi-Square value (14.33), significant value (0.00) is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question four (linking learners personal life with literary text) it means it is equal (2.4), stander deviation is (1.086), chi-Square value is (14.276), Sig value (0.00) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question five (promoting social and political perspective) it means it is equal (2.3), stander deviation is (0.994), chi-Square value is (18.071), Sig value is (0.00) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have no significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Analysis of fourth hypotheses (to investigate the association between thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism and the gender and age of the patients with MI) it means it is equal (1.9), stander deviation is (0.845), chi-Square value is (10.267), Sig value is (0.01) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

133

Factor five Mean Std.

Deviation Chi-

Square Sig Result

linguistics performance is actually used of spoken language

2.4 1.257 12.357 0.01 Agree

performance in spoken from reflects competence 2.1 1.033 17.724 0.00 Agree

linguistics performance dose not specify how the speaker uses language knowledge

2.8 1.188 10.214 0.03 Neutral

linguistics performance describes the psychological process involved in language use 2.4 1.163 11.00 0.02 Agree

competence is the recognition of language in human brain 2.3 1.131 11.690 0.00 Agree

Result factor five 2.2 0.791 17.200 0.00 Agree

Table (36) justified Analysis of first hypotheses:

Question one (linguistics performance is actually used of spoken language) it means it is equal (2.4), stander deviation is (1.257), chi-Square value is (12.357), Sig (0.01) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question two (performance in spoken from reflects competence) it means it is equal (2.1), stander deviation is (1.033), chi-Square value is (17.724), Sig value is (0.00) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have no significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

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Question three (linguistics performance does not specify how the speaker uses language knowledge) we found that it means equal (2.8), stander deviation (1.188), chi-Square value (10.214), significant value (0.03) is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (neutral).

Question four (linguistics performance describes the psychological process involved in language use) it means it is equal (2.4), stander deviation is (1.163), chi-Square value is (11.00), Sig value (0.02) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Question five (competence is the recognition of language in human brain) it means it is equal (2.3), stander deviation is (1.131), chi-Square value is (11.690), Sig value is (0.00) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

Analysis of five hypotheses (to study the interaction of thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism with known MI risk factors) the mean of it is equal (2.2), stander deviation is (0.791), chi-Square value is (17.200), Sig value is (0.00) and it is less than (0.05) justified that we have significant different in the significant level (0.05) for whom answered (agree).

4.3 The result of analysis

1-we found the percentage of male is 70% and female is 26.7% from population study. 2-we found the higher percentage for age of sample whose age between (31-40) are 63.3%, and lower of the sample whose age about (20-30) are 4.1%. 3-we found also the higher percentage for qualification where (60%) of sample whose have B.A, and lower of the sample (6.7%) whose have PhD. 4- too we found the higher percentage36.7%) of sample have experience (3-5) years and lower of the sample above 10 years is (13.3%). 5-we found Person’s correlation value for all the factors Clearly it is positive and lower correlation between all the factors. 6- we show reliability and validation value of all factors are above average. 7- Chi-Square test independent for Gender and Education we have no relationship between Gender and Education 8- Chi-Square test independent for Gender and Culture intercultural we have

135

relationship between Gender and Culture and intercultural.

9- Chi-Square independent test between Gender and Language and literature we have relationship between Gender and Language and literature.

10- Chi-Square independent test between Gender and Teaching literature we have relationship between Gender and Teaching literature.

11- Chi-Square independent test between Gender and Linguistics performance we have relationship between Gender and Linguistics performance.

12- Chi-Square independent test between Age and Education we have not relationship between Age and Education.

13- Chi-Square independent test between Age and Culture and intercultural we have not relationship between Age and Culture and intercultural.

14- Chi-Square independent test between Age and Language and literature we have not relationship between Age and Language and literature.

15- Chi-Square independent test between Age and Teaching literature we have not relationship between Age and Teaching literature.

16- Chi-Square independent test between Age and Linguistics performance we have not relationship between Age and Linguistics performance.

17- Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Education we have not relationship between Qualification and Education.

18- Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Culture and intercultural we have relationship between Qualification and Culture and intercultural.

19- Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Language and literature we have not relationship between Qualification and Language and literature.

20- Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Teaching literature we have not relationship between Qualification and Teaching literature.

21- Chi-Square independent test between Qualification and Linguistics we have no relationship between Qualification and Linguistics performance.

136

22- Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and we have no relationship between Experience of years and Education.

23-Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Culture and intercultural, we have no relationship between Experience of years and Culture and intercultural.

24-Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Language and literature, we have no relationship between Experience of years and Language and literature.

25- Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Teaching literature, we have no relationship between Experience of years and Teaching literature. 26-Chi-Square independent test between Experience years and Linguistics performance, we have no relationship between Experience of years and Linguistics performance. 27- Analysis of the hypotheses (to detect thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism in patients with MI using allele specific PCR) we found sig value (0.30) is greater than (0.05) hence the null hypotheses it well be not reject 28- Analysis of the hypotheses (to determine thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism (C,C T,T C,T) in patients with MI) we found sig value (0.01) is less then (0.05) hence the null hypotheses it will not be rejected. 29- Analysis of the hypotheses (to investigate the association between thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism and risk of MI ) we found sig value (0.00) is less then (0.05) hence the null hypotheses it will be rejected. 30- Analysis of the hypotheses (to investigate the association between thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism and the gender and age of the patients with MI) we found sig value (0.01) is less then (0.05) hence the null hypotheses it will be rejected. 31- Analysis of the hypotheses (to study the interaction of thrombomodulin C1418c>T polymorphism with known MI risk factors) we found sig value (0.00) is less then (0.05) hence the null hypotheses it will be rejected. In this chapter the researcher find the result of the test and questionnaire are so

significant and almost similar, most of the students agree that teaching different

genre of literature promotes the students' ability reading comprehension.

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Chapter Five

Findings, Recommendations and Suggestions for Further Studies 5.1 Introduction This chapter will draw the threads of the study together by answering the research questions and verifying the hypotheses. Data from Chapter Four will be accumulated under each question and hypotheses. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of English literature in promoting students reading comprehension. The population of this study consists of English language students at comboni college of science and technology, as well as English Language teachers at some universities and colleges of the academic year (2018 – 2019). The sample of the study of the test consists of (29) students at comboni college of science and technology and (29) English Language teachers. In this study two basic tools were used to collect the data and they can be summed up as follows:

1- A test for English language students. It was designed by the researcher and it bases on understanding the meaning of the poet and what meaning behind the lines as well, this could be done by studying and reading the poem.

2-Aquestinniare for the English Language teachers, the instruments were shown to a jury of specialists and agreed that they are valid. The data were analyzed by using the SPSS package. 5.2 Findings

Based on the results of this study, the following findings are observed: 1. There are significant similarities that teaching different genres of literature

contribute in boosting reading comprehension to the students to know other cultures better.

2. The curriculum based on literature expands the capacity of students in improving reading comprehension.

3. Expose the students to the literature and target culture to improve reading comprehension.

5.3 Recommendations Based on the above, the researcher offers the following recommendations:

1. Curricula designers, educators, cultured and experts should adopt literature at the basic level to enhance and promote reading comprehension and language.

2. There is an urgent need for teaching literature to improve the students’ ability, reading, culture and language.

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3. English literature should be taught at basic levels. 5.4 Suggestions for Further Studies Suggestions for further studies were that:

1- Carry out further studies on investigating English literature cultural impact on teaching reading comprehension.

2- Other different genres of literature must be taught. 3- Literature should be taught at early levels at universities to promoting the

students' level in reading comprehension and English Language.

In this chapter the researcher shows his Findings, Recommendations and Suggestions for Further Studies about the his research and he is hoping other researchers will get benefit of this thesis.

139

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Research in Literature and Education.(Vol, 1 No. 1 09-Dec-2013).Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/10210731/The_Effect_of_Teaching_Literature_onlearningEnglish_Language_A_Study_on_EFS_English_as_a_Foreign_Students_and_EFL Classes

Ahmed, F.H. (2011) The Role of Literature in Developing Sudanese Secondary Schools Students Language Proficiency. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Sudan University of Science and Technology. AL-Asmar, K. A. (2000).Reading Comprehension Strategies of Literature Texts

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Appendix (A)

Students’ test

Dear students,

This test is going to be used for the purpose of a PHD research entitled: Investigating English Literature Cultural Impact on teaching Reading Comprehension You will be offering a significant contribution to the research intention by completing this test. I assure you that, your responses will be highly confidential and will not be disclosed to any third party. Your individual opinions will only be used for the purpose of this research and the results will be a viable to you if you ask them. Fawaz Ibrahim Argof Bodh

Sudan University of Science and Technology

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Appendix (B)

The test “poem” Read the following poem by Langston Hughes then answer the questions below:

Harlem What happens to a dream deferred?

Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun? Or fester like a sore— And then run? Does it stink like rotten meat? Or crust and sugar over— like a syrupy sweet? Maybe it just sags like a heavy load. Or does it explode?

Answer the following questions by choosing (a, b, c or d)

1. The poet reveals the speaker’s feelings mainly by… a. Using personification to show the characteristics of a dream b. Using similes to describe what happens to dreams c. Using metaphors to describe what happens to dreams d. None of the above 2. The repetition of the word "like" emphasizes the speakers desire to… a. Find out what happens to dreams b. See how dreams disappear c. Understand what a dream is d. Both A and B 3. Which line best communicates the speaker's feeling of what happens to

a dream deferred a. does it dry up b. fester like a sore c. May be it just sag d. all of the above

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4. What is the best summery of a dream deferred a. What happened to a dream deferred? b. What dreams are c. Why dream deferred d. Non above 5. The poet helps the reader understand how it felt to… a. Forget about dream b. Be a dried up raising c. Run away from a dream d. Have a dream 6. Based on the first stanza, the reader can conclude that the speaker… a. Hates having a dream b. Remembers all his dreams c. Is curious of what happened to dreams d. All of the above 7. Dividing the poem into three stanzas allows the poet to… a. Establish the message of the poem clearly b. Make stanzas so it is considered a poem c. Look good d. All of the above 8. The imagery in line 1 through 8 helps the reader understand… a. What the reader thinks happens to a dream deferred b. What a dream looks like c. What dreams do d. All of the above 9. How does the poet use figurative language…

a. To describe different dreams b. To make a point about different dreams c. To ask what different people’s dreams are d. To show where the speaker is while he dreams

10. What does the speaker suggests in both stanzas? a. Dreams can be harmful things to have b. Dreams help people live life to the fullest c. Dreams are not valued by everyone d. Dreams tend to disappoint people

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Appendix (C)

Teachers’ questionnaire

The close-ended questionnaire

Dear Colleagues

The researcher is working for the PhD in literature. He is undertaking a study on the Investigating English Literature Cultural Impact on Teaching Reading

Comprehension

For this purpose, the researcher has a questionnaire of five items reflecting the above mentioned problem.

You are kindly requested to answer all the items of the questionnaire by ticking ( ) before the item that represents your point of view.

Your answer to the questionnaire will be treated confidentially and for the purpose of the research.

Fawaz Ibrahim Argof Bodh

Sudan University of Science and Technology

Thank you for your cooperation

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Sudan University of Science and Technology

English Language Department

Questionnaire

Domains

Statements Strongly agree

agree Neutral Strongly disagree

Disagree

(a) Education

1. Education uses short stories to send messages to young learners

2. Novels and drama at university level address issues in real life situation.

3. Education introduces poetry to enhance language rhythm and melody.

4. Science fiction stories are used to enhance learning and boost imagination

5. Drama enhances and develops human intellectual thinking

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through using different themes.

(b) Culture and

intercultural

1. It is fairly difficult to master language without its cultural context.

2. Culture is essential for language learning .

3. Intercultural provides values and skills to enhance language.

4. Intercultural competence assists foreign language learners.

5. Cultural in general enhances intercultural competence.

(c) Language and Literature

1. There is a strong link between language and literature.

2. It can be said that language makes literature.

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3. Literature plays significant role in promoting reading comprehension.

4. Literature plays an important role in enriching language.

5. Literature promoting critical thinking or literacy.

(d) Teaching Literature

1. Cultural modal helps learners to discover literature universal theme

2. Literature encourages learners to become writers.

3. Teaching literature requires several techniques

4. Teaching literature Links learners personal life with literary text.

5. Promoting social and political perspective.

(e) Linguistics performance

1. Linguistics performance is

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actually used of spoken language.

2. Performance in spoken form reflects competence.

3. Linguistics performance does not specify how the speaker uses language knowledge.

4. Linguistics performance describes the psychological process involved in language use

5. Competence is the recognition of language in human brain