Myths in American War Movies

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Myths in American War Movies: Part One of Four Articles

August 12, 2008 by manuel!evy!eave a "omment

Myths in American War Movies: Part One

Peaceful e#istence has been a ma$or value of the American Way

of !ife% &he 'ortrayal of (ar an) 'eace in 'o'ular culture is an

issue of great social signi*cance because of the strong roles that

mass me)ia 'lay in the sociali+ation 'rocess% otions of

a''ro'riate -an) ina''ro'riate. 'atriotic behavior -in times of (ar

an) 'eace. are transmitte) not only by the family, 'eer grou',

an) schooling, but also by the mass me)ia -*ction, *lm,television.%

Po' culture an) mass me)ia serve as a ma$or source of

information about a variety of roles, inclu)ing 'olitical roles, that

is, the )uties an) rights of citi+ens for their country% &his

sociological function has been 'articularly im'ortant for chil)ren

an) a)olescents (ho have )ominate) the movie/going 'ublic in

recent )eca)es% &he most freuent moviegoers in the %% are

bet(een 12 an) 20% 3oung vie(ers often gain their *rst insights

into the 4real (orl)5 through e#'osure to the *lm me)ium%

6o(ever, the me)ia7s images are not necessarily accurate or u'/

to/)ate, an) a culture lag may 'revail%

&he notion of culture lag is base) on Ogburn7s theory of social

change, (hich )istinguishes bet(een material an) nonmaterial

culture% Ogburn claime) that because technological innovations

are more ra'i)ly acce'te) than ne( i)eas or values, there is

usually a 'erio) of time )uring (hich the symbolic elements of

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culture lag behin) the material ones% a may 'revail bet(een

society7s material con)itions -the actuality of (ar. an) its cultural

re'resentations, in terms of images, values, an) myths%

&his series of articles e#amine the treatment of (ar an) 'eace in

the American cinema% sing a social/historical 'ers'ective, my

chief goal is to analy+e the construction of (ar an) 'eace images

by 6olly(oo)% &he *lm in)ustry has a )ual as'ect% As a ma$or

economic institution, (ith a strong in)ustrial an) technological

base, it 'ro)uces 'ro)uctsstan)ar)i+e) an) formulaic *lmsfor

the consum'tion of large au)iences% 9ut the *lm in)ustry is also acultural institution, 4a storytelling machine,5 to use avi)

&hurburn7s conce't, (hich ful*lls im'ortant i)eological functions

through its 'ro)uction an) transmission of values an) myths%

nli;e material 'ro)ucts, *lms are symbolic creations, (hich

signify social values an) meanings through their narratives an)

characteri+ation%

&he ty'ical 6olly(oo) fare has al(ays been )esigne) to a''eal to

the largest 'ossible au)iences, an e#amination of 'o'ular *lms

about (ar serves as an in)icator of (hat *lmma;ers -'ro)ucers,

(riters, an) )irectors. thought (oul) be acce'table to the

American 'ublic% &he *lmma;ers7 conce'ts might have been

)istorte), but their gui)ing assum'tions have actually sha'e) the

contents an) forms of the ty'ical 6olly(oo) fare%

French critic An)re 9a+in has observe) that 46olly(oo)7s

su'eriority is only inci)entally technical< it lies much more in (hat

one might call the American cinematic genius, something (hich

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shoul) be analy+e) by a sociological a''roach to its 'ro)uction%

&he American cinema has been able in an e#traor)inarily

com'etent (ay to sho( American society $ust as it (ante) to see

itself%5 For the anthro'ologist mile ur;heim, a society forms

itself by bringing itself to consciousness through collective

re'resentations, (hich it then e#ternali+es an) (orshi's%

Focusing on the inter'lay among military screen images,

)ominant i)eology, an) social structure, this series of essays

e#'lore one ma$or issue: (hat gui)elines, 'rescri'tions an)

'roscri'tions, have American *lms 'rovi)e) concerning (ar an)'eace%

Specifc Questions

&he above basic issue is state) in terms of four s'eci*c uestions%

First, (hat are the main attributes of American screen heroism

econ), (hat gui)elines American *lms 'rescribe) for the

'erformance of military roles &hir), ho( rigi) -or =e#ible. have

these gui)elines been An) fourth, changes in the 'ortrayal of

combat an) sol)iers% &he a)vantage of analy+ing commercially

successful *lms is that they are (i)ely seen by the 'ublic, thus

serving as 'otential agents of sociali+ation%

&hese articles e#amine *lms, (hich (ere acclaime) for their

artistic merits an)>or (inners of critics7 a(ar)s, such as

"asablanca,5 *lms nominate) for or (inning the Oscar A(ar)s,

such as ergeant 3or;5 an) an)s of ?(o @ima,5 an) commercially

'o'ular *lms, (i)ely seen by the 'ublic li;e 9ataan5 or Mister

oberts%5

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French )irector Francois &ruBaut once sai) that, 4(hen a *lm

achieves a certain success, it become a sociological event,5 an)

the uestion of its uality become secon)ary%5 An) the social

historian igfrie) Cracauer observe) that, 4the *lms of a nation

re=ect its mentality in a more )irect (ay than any other artistic

me)ia%5 An) because the *lm in)ustry is 4vitally intereste) in

'ro*t,5 aiming to satisfy mass )esires, 4it is boun) to a)$ust itself

to the change in mental climate%5

My sociological a''roach em'loys both institutional an)

interactional 'ers'ectives in un)erstan)ing *lm 'ro)uction an)consum'tion% Films are mass 'ro)ucts, conceive) an) create) for

the imme)iate vie(ing by large an) )iverse au)iences% 6o(ever,

*lms often en$oy (i)e a''eal not because they are intrinsically

interesting, but because of the historical an) social timing of their

release, (hen they a))ress timely issues in terms of occurrences

outsi)e the in)ustry%

Films are inter(oven in a net(or; of relationshi's (ith other

institutions -family, 'olitics, religion. an) are also sub$ect to

institutional -organi+ational, in)ustrial, an) legal. an) i)eological

constraints that sha'e their thematics an) stylistics% &hese

constraints o'erate both (ithin an) (ithout the *lm in)ustry% For

e#am'le, the ;in)s of *lms 'ro)uce) are )etermine) by mar;et

consi)erations, (hich in turn are )etermine) by )emogra'hics

-the age of freuent *lmgoers.%

?n its general use, the re=ection theory -*lms re=ect society. is

not a)euate% One nee)s to be more s'eci*c, as;ing (hat

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'articular as'ects of the *lm -narrative structure, thematic

conventions, style. re=ect (hat as'ects of the social structure%

Moreover, *lms may e#'ress cultural norms or social tren)s, but

they may also re=ect the 'ersonal i)eology an) 'olitics of their

*lmma;ers% Along (ith other agencies, *lms 'erform a function of

social control: 9y stressing consensus values, they reaDrm the

status uo an) e#ercise stabili+ing eBects on their vie(ers%

&o 'ose the uestion of (hether *lms re=ect or reaDrm or sha'e

society is thus erroneous% either theory o'erates consistently,

an) each may be 'artially correct% ome *lms -or as'ects of a*lm. may re=ect the social structure, others reaDrm it, an) still

others change their vie(ers7 'erce'tion% &his boo; sho(s that

*lms shoul) be analy+e) in their multi'le facets, as narrative,

i)eological, artistic, an) commercial 'ro)ucts, all con)itione) by

their cultural settings%

sing the structuralist a''roach as formulate) by the French

anthro'ologist "lau)e !evi/trauss, movies are analy+e) as

cultural myths, narratives arising from society7s un)erlying issues

an) basic structures% !evi/trauss )escribes myths as

transformations of basic )ilemmas5 or contra)ictions5 that in

reality cannot be resolve)% ome of these contra)ictions have

been ac;no(le)ge) but su''resse) by the *lm in)ustry%

"oncerne) (ith )eco)ing the elementary units in culture, the goal

is to reveal, 4ho( the a''arently arbitrary mythical

re'resentations lin; u' into systems that lin; u' (ith reality,

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natural as (ell as social, in or)er to re=ect, obscure, or contra)ict

it%5

es'ite manifest im'lausibilities an) a''arent contra)ictions,

myths are coherent an) logical structures% !evi trauss7s metho)

see;s the un)erlying logic of myths, ho( 'eo'le create cognitive

or)er that gives meaning to cultural te#ts% 6is analysis is

im'ortant, because it brea;s )o(n the most com'le# myths into

logical categories of )ialectical o''ositions% 9ase) on a formal use

of inversion, every category in the myth has its o''osite%

!evi/trauss7s analysis of myths has been critici+e) for beingahistorical, ignoring the s'eci*c con)itions un)er (hich they arise

or are reactivate)% 9ut myths en)ure because they are at once

historical -s'eci*c. an) universal -atem'oral.% &hey 'rovi)e in

'o'ular *ctional form -stories. both a version of concrete history

an) a vision of e#istence%

As collective re'resentations, the function of myths is to 'reserve

an) legitimi+e the social or)er% !i;e other forms of storytelling,

*lms are )i)actic, euivalent of ol) "hristian morality 'lays% War

movies have been 'articularly 'e)agogical: &hey7ll have )erive)

from strong moral origins, re=ecte) moral con=icts, an) oBere)

moral solutions% &his article analy+es the sha'e of military stories

in both their generali+e) an) 'articulari+e) forms% &he general

sha'es, or archety'es, are the fun)amental (ays through (hich

vie(ers 'erceive the s'eci*cities of an in)ivi)ual (or;%

Archety'es )etermine the limits (ithin (hich 'articular stories

an) characters can be *lle)%

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"onsisting of three basic elements, narrative, values, an) hi))en

meanings, the survival of myths )e'en)s on t(o factors% First, the

ability of image/ma;ers -(riters, *lmma;ers. to regenerate similar

myths in fresh an) to'ical (ay% An) secon), the ability of vie(ers

to forget the (ea;est an) most mutable e#am'les, their

(illingness to sus'en) belief an) 'reten) that they are seeing the

story for the *rst time% &he )urability of s'eci*c5 myths about (ar

an) 'eace suggests their rich variability: &heir ability to 'resent

numerous variations of formulaic conventions% As obert ay has

observe), the in=uence of myths over vie(ers increases (ith thenumber of incarnations they allo( for%

Myths associate) (ith the econ) Worl) War have survive) for a

long time, until the images create) by the Eietnam War% Myths

cannot easily be overthro(n by contra)ictory reality, because

vie(ers )o not 'erceive reality )irectly, but through )ominant

'ara)igms that )etermine their 'erce'tion of s'eci*c events%

&hus, myths canan) )o)istort 'eo'le7s 'erce'tion, by

encouraging them to believe in the vali)ity rather than reality of

the tale%

?t is )ebatable (hether 6olly(oo) coul) create5 ne( national

myths% 6o(ever, because of their 'o(er, *lms )isseminate an)

'o'ulari+e myths more ra'i)ly than other cultural me)ia

-ne(s'a'ers, novels, 'lays.% es'ite the fact that the origins of

cinematic myths are often in literature -boo;s, stories. or theater

-'lays., *lms 'ortray the material of every)ay life more

eBectively than other arts% Films are able to 'rovi)e an illusion, or

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a''ro#imation of realism through the use of the camera in

4recor)ing5 reality%

As myths, (ar movies are e#'erience) in s'eci*c historical

circumstances%5 &his is

a 'oint of convergence bet(een structuralism an) sociology of

*lm% &he 4internal5 a''roach of the structuralist -the inner

attributes an) un)erlying structure of *lm as a te#t. is

su''lemente) (ith the sociologist7s 4e#ternal5 a''roach,

groun)ing these attributes in their s'eci*c cultural an) 'olitical

settings%Focusing on the structure of sign systems, semiology analy+es

verbal as (ell as nonverbal systems of symbols% emiologists 'ay

attention to the 4meanings5 of te#ts an) the 'rocesses through

(hich such meanings are conveye) to vie(ers% &he system of

rules un)erlying symbolic constructions is 4)iDcult to e#'lain

because it is easy to un)erstan),5 accor)ing to French scholar

"hristian Met+% &he semiologist7s )istinction bet(een )enotative

an) connotative meanings is useful, because connotation is

al(ays symbolic, i%e% arbitrary: it establishes a relationshi'

bet(een signi*er an) signi*e) (hich is culturally motivate) an)

historically con)itione)% 4We consi)er the ob$ects solely in relation

to the meaning,5 (rote olan) 9arthes, 4(ithout bringing in the

other )eterminants -'sychological, sociological, 'hysical. of these

ob$ects,5 to uote olan) 9arthes%

nli;e sociologists, semiologists analy+e symbolic messages for

their o(n sa;e, recogni+ing that the symbolic form of the

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message has a 'rivilege) 'osition in the communication

e#change, an) that though only relatively autonomous5 in relation

to the communication 'rocess as a (hole they are )eterminate

moments%5

Myths in American War Movies: Part &(o of Four Articles

August 12, 2008 by manuel!evy!eave a "omment

Hollywood and WWII

6istorians estimate that about one thir) of the *lms 'ro)uce) in

6olly(oo) -00 out of 1G00. bet(een 1HI2 an) 1HI (ere aboutsome as'ect of the War: the battle or the home front% &he

'ro)uction of (ar *lm reache) an all/time high in 1HIJ, (hen 1JJ

(ar *lms, or JJ 'ercent of the total *lm out'ut, (ere release)%

&he econ) Worl) War still occu'ies an im'ortant 'osition in the

country7s collective consciousness: it (as the last American (ar

'erceive) as a 4goo)5 (ar for a noble cause% &he imagery of WW??

stan)s in o''osition to other, less 4'ositive5 (ars, such as

Eietnam an) Corea% &he (ar *lm has been one of the sta'les an)

most 'o'ular genres of the *lm in)ustry, embo)ying some of the

nation7s most en)uring myths%

Focusing on (ar *lms, the article )eals (ith the construction of

American screen heroism, a rather coherent ty'e, characteri+e)

by s'eci*c an) recurrent themes% ?n)ee), the narrative structure

of combat *lms )iscloses basic, un)erlying conventions%

Thematic Analysis o War !ilms

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rationali+ation an) bureaucrati+ation, immel7s Metro'olis, an)

ur;heim7s anomie% ?n (ar *lms, this conce'tual )ichotomy ta;es

the classical form of the combat unit -'latoon. versus the military

organi+ation% &he i)eal combat unit re'resents a 'rimary grou':

intimate, face/to/face, 'ersonal interaction% 9y contrast, the

military institution is base) on net(or;s of secon)ary

relationshi's, signifying the all the ills of bureaucratic

organi+ations: Magnitu)e, s'eci*city, formality, im'ersonality,

an) anonymity%

&he issue of stability versus change5 also features 'rominently in(ar *lms% 6ere the tension is bet(een in)ivi)uals7 hol)ing onto

their civilian life, never (anting to change, an) their acute

a(areness that change is inevitable% ?n many (ar *lms, there is

tension bet(een in)ivi)uals7 *ght to maintain their o(n values

an) the military7s insistence to embrace an) )ominate them%

sing sociologist obert Merton7s ty'ology of mo)es of a)a'tation

to society7s 'rescribe) goals an) its legitimate means to achieve

them, the analysis )istinguishes among in)ivi)uals (ho are

conformists, innovative, ritualistic, retreatist, an) rebellious%

Sacred "s# Proane

mile ur;heim7s )istinction bet(een the sacre) an) the 'rofane5

serves as another useful )ichotomy% very society )istinguishes

bet(een these t(o )omains an) their activities% &he sacre)

re'resent the less rational, more emotional values, (hich assume

religious or ritualistic meanings% 9y contrast, the 'rofane

re'resents secular attitu)es or ob$ects that gain their value from

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their utilitarianism or 'ragmatism% &he narrative analysis of (ar

*lms stresses the values, sentiments, ob$ects, an) 'laces

consi)ere) to be sacre) by the in)ivi)ual an) the military

organi+ation% For e#am'le, u' to the late lHL0s, the military

service an) the American =ag (ere collectively )eeme) sacre)%

9ut )uring the Eietnam War, these ob$ects (ere no longer

'erceive) as such%

Most narratives )istinguish bet(een the 'ublic an) the 'rivate5

)omains, a )istinction (hich may 'arallel, but not al(ays eual,

the sacre) an) the 'rofane% ?t is often manifeste) in the con=ictbet(een 'rofessionalism or careerism -regar)e) as sel*sh

'ursuit. an) sel=ess commitment to the military%

Sel "s# $ollective Orientation

&he American screen hero is a man of action, not of i)eas% 6e is

'ragmatic, commonsensical, an) )o(n/to/earth in his (ay of

thin;ing an) actual behavior% "ommitte) to the solution of social

or 'olitical 'roblems, he is gui)e) by an inner co)e of ethics, his

conscience, (hich often stan)s in o''osition to societal norms%

&he American hero is inner/)irecte), not tra)ition/)irecte) or

other/)irecte), to use avi) iesman7s ty'ology of social

characters% n)o(e) (ith moral strength, the inner/)irecte) hero

en$oys a goo) )eal of free)om from societal constraints% &here is

a strea; of rebelliousness an) non/conformity in his nature, often

(illing to violate norms an) to sacri*ce himself in or)er to attain

collective goals%

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&he inner/)irecte) hero )iBers from the tra)ition/)irecte),

ty'ically a conformist (ho uncritically acce'ts society7s tra)ition,

religious or secular, an) resists any ;in) of change% 9ut he

)iverges even more ra)ically from the other/)irecte), (ho is

concerne) (ith a)$usting an) a)a'ting to the )eman)s an)

e#'ectations of others% nli;e the inner/)irecte), (hose source of

control is internal, that of the other/)irecte) is e#ternal: the

family, 'eer grou', (or; organi+ation an) community% &he

American (ar hero is mission/oriente), mobili+ing all available

resources for ful*lling collective, not 'ersonal, tas;s% ?n theAmerican cinema, heroes have been tough, rational,

commonsensical, an) goal/oriente)< a romantic or se#ual aBair

have never stoo) in their commitment to collective causes or

missions%

?n Flying &igers5 -1HI2., @im Kor)on -@ohn Wayne. is the sua)ron

lea)er of the

American volunteer grou', *ghting for "hina7s free)om against

the @a'anese% A com'etent lea)er, an) tough as nails on his men,

Kor)on is contraste) (ith a ne( recruit, Woo)y @ason, (ho signs

u' because he nee)s the money to 'ay oB a 9reach/of/'romise

suit% @ason ma;es no secret of his eagerness to get the 00

)ollars re(ar) for every @a'anese 'lane ;noc;e) )o(n% Kor)on

)es'ises him for his sel*shness, es'ecially after his failure to be

at the base (hen nee)e)< another =ier ta;es over an) *n)s his

)eath%

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4? (as a ;i),5 @ason laments, 4?t too; somebo)y to )ie to ma;e a

man out of me%5 9ut he begs for another chance an) his heroics

even save Kor)on7s life: bombing a @a'anese su''ly train, his

'lane catches *re but he 'ushes Kor)on out, thus re)eeming

himself, 'aying for his errors (ith his o(n life%

Kor)on7s comman)er nurtures his sol)iers to manhoo) by

teaching them to acce't military )isci'line, but he is also a

sensitive lea)er, a(are of the anguish of sen)ing innocent

sol)iers out to )ie% ?n one scene, he regrets having allo(e) a

young sol)ier to =y on a )ea)ly mission: 4houl) have staye) incollege (here he came from, but he begge) me for a chance an)

? gave it to himN5

?n a ty'ical @ames "agney (ar 'icture, he is cast as a sel*sh

recruit (ho learns the har) (ay the im'ortance of military or)er%

For e#am'le, in 6ere "omes the avy5 -1HJI., "agney 'lays a

hot/tem'ere), un)isci'line) sol)ier, (hose sel*sh in)ivi)ualism

u'sets the avy tra)ition an) alientaes him from his fello(men%

9ut at the en), after a court martial, he re)eems himself (ith a

heroic rescue, an) his re'utation is restore)%

?n "eiling ero5 -1HJ., "agney, a )evil/may/care 'ilot (ho en$oys

his esca'a)es, irres'onsibly causes the )eath of a fello( 'ilot%

Flamboyant an) loose *bere), his ma$or 4hobby5 is (omen% 9ut

)uring the course of the story, he reforms an), regretting his

behavior, he volunteers to test a ne(ly invente) aircraft, an

action that costs him his life%

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&he Fighting LHth5 -1HI0., 'ro)uce) as Warners7 contribution to

the recruitment cam'aign an) "agney7s most 'o'ular (ar movie,

is a *ctionali+e) account of e( 3or;7s fame) 4the Fighting ?rish5

regiment, (hich starte) )uring the "ivil War an) in 1HlG (as

incor'orate) into the Army% Private @erry Plun;ette, a )es'icable

tough ?rishman from 9roo;lyn, sneers at the regiment7s tra)itions

an) $eers at his cha'lain% When his unit is sent to the uro'ean

front, he gets hysterical at the very *rst sight of a )ea) bo)y% 6is

co(ar)ice an) irres'onsibility, revealing to the enemy his unit7s

'osition, bring )eath to many of his fello(men% At the en),ho(ever, he )ies heroically, 'roving himself a (orthy sol)ier% &he

transformation of the "agney character is al(ays from a coc;y

an) obno#ious recruit to a )isci'line) sol)ier% ?n their (ar *lms,

the "agney an) the Wayne screen 'ersona com'lemente) each

other%

$ommitment "s# %eutrality

?n a ty'ical 6um'hrey 9ogart (ar *lm, 9ogart (ears civilian

clothes, usually a trench coat, an) is 'lace) in a foreign country%

At times, he is the only one or one of the fe( Americans on the

scene% Across the Atlantic,5 for e#am'le, ta;es 'lace in Panama,

an) &o 6ave an) 6ave ot,5 on the islan) of Martiniue% &he titles

of his *lms often reveal their locales: Action Across the orth

Atlantic,5 ahara,5 "asablanca,5 Passage to Marseilles%5

9ogart7s heroes usually start as cynical, so'histicate), an)

uninvolve) men (ho are reluctantly )ra(n into the con=icts% &he

transformation is gra)ual, though at the en) 9ogart7s heroes are

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fully committe) to the cause% ?n)ee), at the start of "asablanca5

-1HIJ., 9ogart7s ic; 9lain, the former sol)ier an) no( a cafe

o(ner, )eclares, 4? stic; my nec; out for nobo)y,5 an) 4?7m the

only cause ?7m intereste) in%5 9y the en), ho(ever, he gives u'

the (oman he 'assionately loves, to hel' her husban), an anti/

Fascist lea)er, esca'e to free)om% 9lain7s cynicism )erives from

his )isillusionment (ith the (orl)7s a'athy to the "ivil War in

'ain an) to thio'ia< he himself smuggle) arms to thio'ia an)

fought (ith the !oyalists in 'ain%

American mythology ma;es im'ortant )istinctions bet(eeni)eological an) 'rofessional commitment% &he genuine American

hero is not the 'rofessional sol)ier, but the converte) civilian%

?)eological or moral commitment -base) on the belief in the

cause. is favore) over the strictly com'etent an) relatively

narro( commitment of the craftsman% &he 9ogart version of

commitment has 'revaile) from the late 1HL0s on, because it

suite) better the cynicism that characteri+e) American society

)uring the Eietnam War, the 'olitical assassinations, an) the

Watergate scan)al, all of (hich resulte) in an increasing lac; of

trust of the government an) any form of institutional authority%

&hough most *lms 'reach for greater 'olitical involvement,

commitment is not (ithout costs or a 'rice% 6um'hrey 9ogart in

"asablanca5 loses the only (oman he ever love)%

Most of @ames "agney7s 'rotagonists )ie in action in his (ar *lms,

inclu)ing the e'onymous hero of Mister oberts%5 &he form of

commitment in the American cinema is in)ivi)ualistic% &he heroes

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often o'erate on their o(n against all o))s% ?n classic 6olly(oo)

te#ts, the narratives focus almost e#clusively on an in)ivi)ual

-usually a (hite male., a loner -often outsi)er. in search of

i)entity an) re)em'tion%

As ichar) Maltby has observe), 4social 'roblems (ere s;irte) by

invariably couching them in in)ivi)ual terms%5 ?n this (ay, the

seemingly contra)ictory values of in)ivi)ualism an) commitment

are reconcile)% ?n American *lms, self/ful*llment an) self

actuali+ation are achieve) through commitment to collective

goals an) communal aBairs%Myths in American War Films: Part &hree of Four Articles

August 12, 2008 by manuel!evy!eave a "omment

$harismatic "s# &e'al Authority

Anti/institutional authority has been another )e*ning element of

American (ar heroes% &he authority of screen heroes is

charismatic to use Ma# Weber7s ty'ology of authority mo)els%

"harismatic authority rests on the lea)er7s 'ersonal a''eal an)

his e#ce'tional abilities, 'erceive) by his follo(ers as a gift of

grace% "harismatic heroes 'ossess e#traor)inary virtues, on the

basis of (hich they )eman) an) get 'ersonal )evotion from their

follo(ers% &his ty'e of lea)er )iBers substantially from the legal

rational lea)er, (hose authority is base) on e#'licit la(s an)

regulations, (hich )e*ne an) con*ne his use of 'o(er%

&he uintessential screen heroes of @ohn Wayne, Kary "oo'er,

6enry Fon)a, @immy te(art an) later, "lint ast(oo), ylvester

tallone, an) ))ie Mur'hy have been charismatic because they

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gain an) maintain authority by 'roving their e#traor)inary

'hysical an) emotional strengths% &he heroes 'laye) by

ast(oo), tallone, an) Mur'hy are more cynical an) ambiguous

in their attitu)e to(ar) the la( than their 're)ecessors, in tune

(ith the times in (hich these actor became a star% ?n each case,

ho(ever, their 'ersonal strength an) eDciency are far more

im'ortant than the oDcial 'ositions they occu'y in the hierarchy

of their organi+ations -be it the military or the 'olice force.%

6o(ever, being critical, or at the margins of the social system, by

no means im'lies o'erating outsi)e the legitimate or)er%o 'erformer has become a ma$or star if he s'eciali+e) in 'laying

)eviants or criminals, o'erating outsi)e the frame of the la(%

Actors (ho began their careers in crime gangster *lms, became

stars only5 after they transforme) their screen image into more

legitimate, mainstream heroes% &he best e#am'le for this tren) is

still @ames "agney (ho became a ma$or5 star, not in his crime

gangster *lms -&he Public nemy,5 1HJ1., but rather (hen he

'laye) mainstream *gures, such as 'atriotic sho(man Keorge M%

"ohan -3an;ee oo)le an)y,5 1HI2.%

imilarly, 6um'hrey 9ogart became 'o'ular (ith the 'ublic (hen

he cease) 'laying villains -in most of his 1HJ0s Warner movies.

an) began to be cast in heroic roles, such as &he Maltese Falcon5

-1HI1. an) "asablanca5 -1HIJ.%

(litism "s# )emocracy

?n &he Flying !eathernec;s5 -1H1., Ma$or an Cirby -@ohn

Wayne., comman)er of the Marine *ghting sua)ron in the outh

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Paci*c, is resente) by his men because the (ante) e#ecutive

oDcer "arl KriDn, a more 'o'ular an) amiable man, to get the

comman)% &hey also )isli;e Cirby for his rugge) (ays an) strict

)isci'line% &he *lm, ho(ever, ma;es it clear that it is Cirby, (ho is

more suite) for comman), 'articularly un)er 'ressure% KriDn

)efen)s Cirby7s tactic in front of the men but in 'rivate critici+es

him, 4o man is an islan)%5 When he ta;es over the comman),

ho(ever, he mo)els his lea)ershi' after Cirby% Furthermore, as in

other (ar *lms, the sol)iers learn to res'ect an) even li;e Wayne

for the ;in) of lea)er he is%?n @ohn For)7s &hey Were #'en)able5 -1HI., !ieutenant usty

yan -@ohn Wayne. insists that the P& boats, eui''e) (ith guns

an) tor'e)o tubes, coul) sli' into the @a'anese harbors% 6is

tem'erament stan)s in shar' o''osition to !ieutenant @ohn

9ric;ley, a calm, rational, an) eDcient comman)er% yan gets

increasingly frustrate): the )isbelief in the boats7 'otential an)

the lac; of action bore him to )eath% "hallenge) by 9ric;ley,

4What are you aiming at, buil)ing a re'utation, or 'laying for the

team5 yan re'lies, 4for years, ?7ve been ta;ing your fatherly

a)vice an) it7s never been very goo)% From no( on, ?7m a one/

man ban)%5 6e become even more frustrate) u'on learning that

the boats are assigne) to messenger )uty, claiming he is 4bore)

to )eath running messages%5

!ater on, (hen the boats are assigne) to )estroy a @a'anese

cruiser, he is eager to go out, but instea) is rushe) to the hos'ital

for treatment of an infecte) arm% 6e arrives at the hos'ital

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screaming an) (hen the nurse suggests to calm him )o(n,

'erha's even go )ancing, he yells, 4!isten, sister, ? )on7t )ance

an) ? can7t ta;e the time out no( to learn% All ? (ant is to get out

of here%5 After his boat ha) been sun;e), yan is or)ere) to =y

bac; to Washington to organi+e ne( P& 9oat sua)rons, but he

loathes leaving% 6e tries to get oB the 'lane, oBering his 'lace to

another oDcer% When the latter as;s him to call his (ife, yan

e#'lo)es, 4Phone her% ? got business here an) you got business

bac; in the tates%5 All he (ants is to be at the battle +one% 9ut

once again, it is 9ric;ley (ho brings him into line, 4usty, (ho7reyou (or;ing for 3ourself5

Stratifcation "s# Inte'ration

Of all *lm genres, narratives of (ar *lms )emonstrate) best the

i)eology of American society as a melting 'ot, a 'luralistic society

consisting of various ethnic minorities% &his *lm genre has also

been the most o'timistic concerning issues of ethnic an) racial

integration% se) as a microcosm of the society at large, social

integration is achieve) in the military through commitment to the

value of euality%

9ataan5 -1HIJ., a tale of 1J battere) sol)iers, )e'icts the heroic

eBorts of a rear/guar) 4suici)e5 mission to 'rotect the American

retreat )o(n the 'eninsula to "orregi)or% ?t is a classic e#am'le of

the 'latoon (ith cross/section 'ersonality ty'es an) ethnic

grou's, all ban)e) together to *ght the enemy% &he grou'

inclu)es a conscientious ob$ector, an immature a)olescent, an) a

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blac; stu)ying for the ministry, a lovable 6is'anic, a humorous

an) tal;ative @e(%

&he *lm )escribes the ethnic tra)itions of the )iversi*e) 'latoon