Dissertation Writing - CA Sri Lanka

Dissertation Writing Dr Thusitha RodrigoPhD,PMM,BSc(Eng)(First Class),MRAeS(UK),CTHE

1st Lecture -15th May 2021

(1500-1700 Hrs)

Module content Scientific Investigation

The research process

Elements of research design

Experimental Designs

The research proposal

Revision

TOPICS DISCUSSED

THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENCE

• Purposiveness

• Rigor

• Testability

• Replicability

• Precision and Confidence

• Objectivity

• Generalizability

• Parsimony

TOPICS DISCUSSED

cont..

• THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENCE AND THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD OF RESEARCH

• THE SEVEN STEPS OF THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

• Observation

• Preliminary Information Gathering

• Theory Formulation

• Hypothesizing

• Further Scientific Data Collection

• Data Analysis

• Deduction

TOPICS DISCUSSED

cont..

• OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Case Studies

• Action Research

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter you should be able to:

1. Explain what is meant by scientific investigation, giving examples of both

scientific and nonscientific investigations.

2. Explain the eight hallmarks of science.

3. Briefly explain why research in the organizational behavior and management areas cannot be completely scientific.

4. Describe the building blocks of science.

5. Discuss the seven steps of the hypothetico-deductive method, using an example of your own.

6. Appreciate the advantages of knowledge about scientific investigation.

• Scientific research focuses on solving problems andpursues a step-by-step logical, organized, and rigorousmethod to identify the problems, gather data, analyzethem, and draw valid conclusions therefrom.

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Difference Between

Basic Research

and Applied Research

• Applied research deals with particular topicswhich have direct practical relevance. On the contrary, basic research is mainly motivated by the expansion of knowledge and seek to answer questions that are not related to direct applications.

THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

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1. Purposiveness

2. Rigor

3. Testability

4. Replicability

5. Precision and Confidence

6. Objectivity

7. Generalizability

8. Parsimony

Purposiveness

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The Researcher has started the research with a definite aim or purpose.

The focus is on increasing the commitment of employees to the organization, as this will be beneficial in many ways.

An increase in employee commitment will translate into less turnover, less absenteeism, and probably increased performance levels, all of which would definitely benefitthe organization.

The research thus has a purposive focus.

Rigor

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A good theoretical base and a sound methodological design would add rigor to a purposive study.

Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of exactitude in research investigations.

Testability

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Scientific research lends itself to testing logically developed hypotheses to see whether or not the data support the educated conjectures or hypotheses that are developed after a careful study of the problem situation.

Testability thus becomes another hallmark of scientific research.

Replicability

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Our hypotheses would not have been supported merely by chance but are reflective of the true state of affairs in the population.

Replicability is thus another hallmark of scientific research.

Precision and Confidence

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Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to ―reality based on a sample. In other words, precision reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe.

Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. This is also known as confidence level.

Objectivity

• The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values.

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Generalizability

• Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to other settings.

• Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by research, the more useful the research is to the users.

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Parsimony

• Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageable number of factors.

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THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENCE IN RESEARCH

• One of the primary methods of scientific investigation is the hypothetico-deductive method.

• The deductive and inductive processes in research are described below.

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Deduction and Induction

• Answers to issues can be found either by the process of deduction or the process of induction, or by a combination of the two.

• Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact.

• Induction, on the other hand, is a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.

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The building blocks of science

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An Example …

A sales manager might observe that customers are perhaps not as pleased as they used to be.

The manager may not be certain that this is really the case but may experience anxiety and some uneasiness

that customer satisfaction is on the decline.

THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

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The seven steps involved in the hypothetico-deductive method of research stem from the building blocks discussed above, and are listed and discussed below.

1. Observation

2. Preliminary information gathering

3. Theory formulation

4. Hypothesizing

5. Further scientific data collection

6. Data analysis

7. Deduction

Observation

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Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes are occur- ring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are surfacing in one‘s environment (i.e., the workplace).

When the observed phenomena are seen to have potentially important consequences, one would proceed to the next step.

Preliminary Information Gathering

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Preliminary information gathering involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is observed.

This could be done by talking informally to several people in the work setting or to clients, or to other relevant sources, thereby gathering information on what is happening and why.

Through these unstructured inter- views, one gets an idea or a feel for what is transpiring in the situation.

Theory Formulation

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Theory formulation, the next step, is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manner, so that the factors responsible for the problem can be conceptualized and tested.

The theoretical framework formulated is often guided by experience and intuition.

Hypothesizing

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Hypothesizing is the next logical step after theory formulation.

From the theorized network of associations among the variables, certain testable hypotheses or educated conjectures can be generated.

Hypothesis testing is called deductive research.

Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally formulated do get generated through the process of induction.

Further Scientific Data Collection

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After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect to each variable in the hypotheses need to be obtained.

In other words, further scientific data collection is needed to test the hypotheses that are generated in the study.

Data Analysis

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In the data analysis step, the data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported.

Analyses of both quantitative and qualitative data can be done to determine if certain conjectures are substantiated.

Deduction

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Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data analysis.

In summary, there are seven steps involved in identifying and resolving a problematic issue.

To make sure that the seven steps of the hypothetico-deductive method are properly understood, let us briefly review two examples in an organizational setting and the course of action taken in the seven steps.

Example 1(THE CIO

DILEMMA)

• Observation

• The Chief Information Officer (CIO) of a firm observes that the newly installed Management Information System (MIS) is not being used by middle managers as much as was originally expected.

• The managers often approach the CIO or some other computer expert‖ for help, or worse still, make decisions without facts.

• There is surely a problem here, the CIO exclaims.

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THE CIO DILEMMA cont..

• Information Gathering through Informal Interviews

• Talking to some of the middle-level managers, the CIO finds that many of them have very little idea as to what MIS is all about, what kinds of information it could provide, and how to access it and utilize the information.

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THE CIO DILEMMA cont..

• Obtaining More Information through Literature Survey

• The CIO immediately uses the Internet to explore further information on the lack of use of MIS in organizations.

• The search indicates that many middle-level managers especially the old timers are not familiar with operating personal computers and experience computer anxiety.

• Lack of knowledge about what MIS offers is also found to be another main reason why some managers do not use it.

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THE CIO DILEMMA cont..

• Formulating a Theory

• Based on all this information, the CIO develops a theory incorporating all the relevant factors contributing to the lack of access to the MIS by managers in the organization.

• Hypothesizing

• From such a theory, the CIO generates various hypotheses for testing, one among them being: Knowledge of the usefulness of MIS would help managers to put it to greater use.

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THE CIO DILEMMA cont..

• Data Collection

• The CIO then develops a short questionnaire on the various factors theorized to influence the use of the MIS by managers, such as the extent of knowledge of what MIS is, what kinds of information MIS provides, how to gain access to the information, and the level of comfort felt by managers in using computers in general, and finally, how often managers have used the MIS in the preceding 3 months.

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THE CIO DILEMMA cont..

• Data Analysis

• The CIO then analyzes the data obtained through the questionnaire to see what factors prevent the managers from using the system.

• Deduction

• Based on the results, the manager deduces or concludes that managers do not use MIS owing to certain factors.

• These deductions help the CIO to take necessary action to rectify the situation, which might include, among other things, organizing seminars for training managers on the use of computers, and MIS and its usefulness.

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OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Case studies and action research are sometimes used to study certain types of issues.

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Case Studies

• Case studies involve in-depth, contextual analyses of similar situations in other organizations, where the nature and definition of the problem happen to be the same as experienced in the current situation.

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Action Research

• Action research is sometimes undertaken by consultants who want to initiate change processes in organizations.

• In other words, action research methodology is most appropriate while effecting planned changes.

• Here, the researcher begins with a problem that is already identified and gathers relevant data to provide a tentative problem solution.

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Action Research cont..

• This solution is then implemented, with the knowledge that there may be unintended consequences following such implementation.

• The effects are then evaluated, defined, and diagnosed, and the research continues on an ongoing basis until the problem is fully resolved.

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Reflection..

• What is scientific research ?

• Difference Between Basic Research and Applied Research.

• The hallmarks of scientific research.

• Deduction and Induction.

• The building blocks of science.

• The hypothetico-deductive method.

• Case Studies.

• Action Research.

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