Definition: We use the relative pronouns to refer to a noun mentioned before and of which we are adding more information. They are used to join two or more sentences and forming in that way what we call "relative sentences".

Relative pronounsWho, Whom, That, Which

whoever, whomever, whichever

For example:

People who speak two languages are called bilingual.* In this example, the relative "who" introduces the relative sentence "speak two languages" that describes or gives more information about the noun "people".

Relative pronouns: Subject or ObjectAs the relative pronouns relate to another noun preceding it in the sentence, they connect a dependent clause to an antecedent (a noun that precedes the pronoun.) Therefore, relative pronouns acts as the subject or object of the dependent clause.

For example:

The chef who won the competition studied in Paris.* Here, "who" relates back to (or is relative to) the noun "Chef". "Who" also acts as the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "won".=> The dependent clause: who won the competition. => The independent clause: The chef studied in Paris.

The shirt that Carl bought has a stain on the pocket.* Here, "that" relates back to (or is relative to) the noun "shirt". "That" is also the object of the verb "bought". => The dependent clause is: that Carl bought. => The independent clause: The shirt has a stain on the pocket.

Referring to people: Who, Whom, Whoever, WhomeverThese pronouns take a different case depending on whether the relative pronoun is a subject or an object in the dependent clause.

1. Subjective caseUse the subjective case when these relative pronouns are the subject (initiating the action) of the dependent clause: Who, Whoever

For example:

Negotiations were not going smoothly between the two leaders, who made no bones about not liking each other.* "Who" relates back to the noun "leaders" and is the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "made".

Most workers, whoever was not employed by the auto manufacturer, toiled at one of the millions of little minnow companies.* "Whoever" relates back to the noun "workers" and is the subject of the dependent clause and the verb "was employed".

Objective caseUse the objective case when these relative pronouns are the object (receiving the action) of the dependent clause: Whom, Whomever

For example:

This is the approach taken by journalists, whom some consider to be objective.* "Whom" relates back to the noun "journalists" and is the object of the verb "consider". The subject of the dependent clause is "some".

The three representatives, whomever the committee chooses, should be at the meeting tomorrow.* "Whomever" relates back to the noun representatives and is the object of the verb "chooses". The subject of the dependent clause is "Committee".

Referring to a place, thing or idea: Which, ThatWhen using relative pronouns for places, things or ideas, rather than determining case, the writer must decide whether the information in the dependent clause is essential to the meaning of the independent clause or simply additional information.

When information is critical to the understanding of the main clause, use That as the appropriate relative pronoun and do not set the information off by commas.

For example:

Russian generals have delivered a message that is difficult to ignore.* "That" relates back to the noun "message" and is necessary for the reader to know what "message" the sentence is about.

There is another factor that obviously boosts the reputation of both of these men.* "That" relates back to the noun "factor" and is necessary for the reader to know what "factor" the sentence is about.

When information is not critical to the understanding of the main clause, use "Which" as the appropriate relative pronoun and set the information off by commas.

For example:

The toughest intramural fight of all for Clinton was the North American Free Trade Agreement, which he undertook a full year before the 1994 election.

* "Which" relates back to the noun "agreement" and the information following it is not necessary for the reader to know what "agreement" the sentence is about.

Clinton refused to head toward the center on affirmative action and abortion, which are the two most sacred issues to the traditional liberal wing of the party.* "Wich" relates back to the noun "affirmative action and abortion" and the information following it is not necessary for the reader to know what "affirmative action and abortion" the sentence is about.

When referring to more than one place, thing or idea use these relative pronouns: Whatever, Whichever

For example:

The three approaches, whichever works is fine, produce a more ambiguous picture of a man.* "Whichever" relates to the noun "approaches" and the information contained within the commas is additional, not critical information.

Any excessive profits, whatever exceeded accepted limits, would attract the notice of representatives.* "Whatever" relates to the noun "profits" and the information contained within the commas is additional, not critical information.

Relative PronounsA relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it modifies. Here is an example:

The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.

In the above example, "who":

relates to "person", which it modifies introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night"

There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that*

Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for things. That can be used for people** and things and as subject and object in defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information).

Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male and female.

Look at these examples showing defining and non-defining relative clauses:

 example sentencesS=subject, O=object, P=possessive

notes

defining

S

- The person who phoned me last night is my teacher.- The person that phoned me last night is my teacher.

That is preferable

- The car which hit me was yellow.- The cars that hit me were yellow.

That is preferable

O

- The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher.- The people who I phoned last night are my teachers.- The person that I phoned last night is my teacher.- The person I phoned last night is my teacher.

Whom is correct but very formal. The relative pronoun is optional.

- The car which I drive is old.- The car that I drive is old.- The car I drive is old.

That is preferable to which. The relative pronoun is optional.

P

- The student whose phone just rang should stand up.- Students whose parents are wealthy pay extra.

 

- The police are looking for the car whose driver was masked.- The police are looking for the car of which the driver was masked.

Of which is usual for things, but whose is sometimes possible

non-defining

S

- Mrs Pratt, who is very kind, is my teacher.

 

- The car, which was a taxi, exploded.- The cars, which were taxis, exploded.

 

O - Mrs Pratt, whom I like very much, is my teacher.- Mr and Mrs Pratt, who I like very much, are my teachers.

Whom is correct but very formal. Who is normal.

- The car, which I was driving at the time, suddenly caught fire.

 

P

- My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor.

 

- The car, whose driver jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed.- The car, the driver of which jumped out just before the accident, was completely destroyed.

Of which is usual for things, but whose is sometimes possible

*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun.**Some people claim that we cannot use "that" for people but must use "who/whom"; there is no good reason for such a claim.

Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Relative Clauses

Relative pronouns that introduce a restrictive relative clause ARE NOT separated from the main clause by a comma. Restrictive relative clauses (also known as defining relative clauses) add essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence's meaning correctly and cannot be omitted. In other words, without the restrictive relative clause, the sentence does not make sense. 

The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses:

Function in the sentence

Reference to

People Things / concepts Place Time Explanation

Subject who, that which, that

Object (that, who, whom)* (which, that)* where when what/why

Possessive whose whose, of which

Examples

Relative pronouns used as a subject of a restrictive relative clause:

This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration.

 

It took me a while to get used to people who eat popcorn during the movie.

Relative pronouns used as an object in a restrictive relative clause:

1) As can be seen from the table, referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position, but formal English includes the relative pronoun. When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, which is used instead of that, for example, "in which," "for which," "about which," "through which," etc. (please see the third example below):

Formal English: This is the man to whom I wanted to speak and whose name I had forgotten.Informal English: This is the man (whom/that) I wanted to speak to and whose name I'd forgotten.

 

Formal English: The library did not have the book that I wanted.Informal English: The library didn't have the book I wanted.

 

Formal English: This is the house where/in which I lived when I first came to the US.Informal English: This is the house I lived in when I first came to the US.

2) In American English, whom is not used very often. "Whom" is more formal than "who" and is very often omitted while speaking:

Grammatically Correct: The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher.

Conversational Use: The woman you have just spoken to is my teacher.ORThe woman who you have just spoken to is my teacher.

However, "whom" may not be omitted if preceded by a preposition because the relative pronoun functions as the object of the preposition:

The visitor for whom you were waiting has arrived.

Relative pronouns used as a possessive in a restrictive relative clause:

Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun in English. The antecedent of "whose" can be both people and things:

The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a complimentary suite in a hotel.

 

The book whose author won a Pulitzer has become a bestseller.

Relative Pronouns in Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Although similar in use, relative pronouns that introduce a non-restrictive relative clauses ARE separated from the main clause by a comma (in most instances). Typically, which is the preferred relative pronoun for indicating that a relative clause is non-restrictive. Non-restrictive relative clauses (also known as non-defining relative clauses) provide non-essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. The information is not crucial for understanding the sentence's meaning correctly and can be omitted without affecting the sentence's meaning. In other words, non-restrictive relative clauses are an aside that add extra information.

Examples

Relative pronouns used as a subject of a non-restrictive relative clause:

The science fair, which lasted all day, ended with an awards ceremony.

The movie turned out to be a blockbuster hit, which came as a surprise to critics.

Relative pronouns used as an object in a non-restrictive relative clause:

The sculpture, which he admired, was moved into the basement of the museum to make room for a new exhibit.

 

The theater, in which the play debuted, housed 300 people.

"That" vs. "Who" and "Which"

The relative pronoun that can only be used in restrictive clauses. It can also be substituted for who (referring to persons) or which (referring to things) in informal English. Whereas that is often used while speaking, who and which are more common in formal written English.

Conversationl, Informal: William Kellogg was the man that lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children.

Written, Formal: William Kellogg was the man who lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children.

Conversational, Informal: The café that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed.

Written, Formal: The café, which sells the best coffee in town, has recently been closed.

Some Special Uses of Relative Pronouns in Restrictive Clauses

that / whoWhen referring to people, both that and who can be used in informal language. "That" may be used to refer to the characteristics or abilities of an individual or a group of people:

He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down.

 

I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago.

However, when speaking about a particular person in formal language, who is preferred:

The old lady who lives next door is a teacher.

 

The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at the party.

that / whichThere are several cases when that is more appropriate than which:

1) After the pronouns "all," "any(thing)," "every(thing)," "few," "little," "many," "much," "no(thing)," "none," "some(thing)":

The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person.

 

Dessert is all that he wants.

2) After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree:

This is the best resource that I have ever read!