Fundamental Concepts in Linguistics

Lecturer at Department of English Language & Literature University of the Punjab , Lahore Pakistan

Aspects of Language

Language

Langue Parole

Language Language Performance

Langue• The following rules & conventions constitute

langue:

– The combination of Sounds & Pronunciation (Phonetic,

Phonology)– Formation of Words (Morphology)– Construction of Sentences (Syntax)– Contextual Meanings (Pragmatics)–Words Relationship (Semantics)

Grammatical System

To Saussure:• Language is a grammatical system– That exists in the brains of a group of individuals– In the form of word-image & knowledge of

conventions

• Language exists perfectly – within a society/ collectivity– Not in any individual speaker

Product of Social Agreement

• There is a similarity of:–Sounds–Words–Meaning–among the native speakers of a language

• They have the same images and signs in their minds

–The social bond constitutes language

Parole

•Parole belongs to the individual

•It is the concrete physical manifestation• of the abstract langue•That exist in mind

•An individual makes use of this knowledge•To produce actual sentence i.e. parole

LANGUEVS.

PAROLE

Langue vs. Parole

Langue is Social

•A set of conventions & rules

– Shared by all the speakers of a language

Parole is Individual

• Individual performance of language

– In speech or writing

Langue vs. ParoleLangue is Abstract

•These conventions exist in the minds of the speakers

– Who belong to that society

– That has created the language

Parole is Concrete

• It is physical, makes use of the physiological mechanism:

– Speech organs– In uttering words and

sentences

Langue vs. ParoleUnderlying system

• Which makes the individual

performance (parole)

meaningful

If we hear unknown language

We can’t understand

As we do not share the langue

Performance

• Sound and sentence

Parole cant be a mean of

communication &

understood without langue

Langue vs. ParoleLanguage System

• Consist of stable:

Conventions

Rules

Codes

Language Behaviour

• Production of sentences :

Unpredictable

Heterogeneous

Whimsical (capricious)

Variable

Langue vs. ParoleLegislative side of

Language• Like law langue is relatively fixed

It does not change with each individual

• Langue maintains:

The social order

Homogeneity of the language

Executive side of Language

• It uses the law or code the language

• It executes langue through Individual acts of speaking and writing

Langue vs. ParoleLanguage can be studied

• It is well defined

• Homogenous object

• It is in form of written symbols

So, it can be studied

Parole can not be studied• Unpredictable mass of

speech act

• It cannot be accurately represented

• It is heterogeneous

So variable that cannot be studied

Analogy of a Game of Chess

Rules are determined

Understood by all the players

But each game is different

Depends on the individual performance

Which differ from player to player

ARGUMENTS ABOUT DICHOTOMIES

BY SOCIOLINGUISTS

Unreal Dichotomies

• Langue and Parole are interrelated not separate– Speech has both an individual & social side– We cannot conceive of one without the other

• Parole is not possible or effective without Langue

• Langue also changes gradually under the effect of parole

Parole has Social Aspect• It is concerned with the language use in social

situation– Has some systematic & predictable features in

social situations – It has effect on langue

• Gives a useful insight into language process– Can obtain the data ,gives better understanding of

langue

• It is now easy to study through recording – Audio, video devices

COMPETENCE VS.

PERFORMANCEBY

NOAM CHOMSKY

Competence vs. PerformanceSpeaker’s Knowledge

• Native language (structure)

• Mastery of the system of rules– Is speaker’s linguistic

competence

Speaker’s Production

• Production of actual sentences use in real-life situation

• The way of using linguistic competence is linguistic performance

Competence vs. PerformanceSet of Code

• Competence is set of principals/code which a speaker masters

• The abstract/internal grammar which enables a speaker to utter & understand infinite number of utterances

Encoding/Decoding• Performance is what a

speaker does

• It is the act of encoding or decoding

Competence vs. PerformanceFree from Interference• Due to slips of memory

Lapses of attention

Easy to study• It is ideal thus gives

coherent picture of the language

• Can be studied easily

Prone to Interference• It reflects many such

lapses

Difficult to study• It is difficult to get a

direct coherent record of performance

• Difficult to study

LANGUEVS.

COMPETENCE

Langue vs. Competence

Same & Social

• It is same with every language user

• It has social aspect/agreement/bond

Different & Individual• Based on inbuilt LAD

enables a person:To acquire competenceTo internalize the

rules of the languageTo generate an infinite

number of sentences• Speaker A may be more

competent than BThough share the same

conventions of language

LINGUSTIC SIGN VS.

SYMBOL

Linguistic Sign

• It is a physical marker –carries some information

– Direct– Brief– Precise (only this not other)

Parts of Sign• The linguistic sign is consist of two parts:

Sign

The signifier The signified

The word The concept

which signifies The object

Word Represents Concept• Word does not represents the actual object in

real life– But the concept/image of the object we have in our

minds– If the word tree represents the real object (tree)– The word for this object in all languages would

have been the same

• We see an object and form a concept of it in our minds

Word/Concept Relationship • We invent a word consisting of some sound-images

– That represents the concept exists in mind

• The relationship between the sounds/words and the concept they signify– An arbitrary– No logical reason why we choose a certain word

• To represent the concept

• Since signs are arbitrary – They differ from language to language– Every society constructs its own concepts of the real world – Links these concepts to certain signifiers & signified

(chosen arbitrarily)

Validity of Sign

• This relationship once establish as social fact– Continues over a long period of time

• Social agreement gives it validity

Relational Entity

• Signs are the relational entities

• Exist in terms of complex relationships to each other

• Signs make up the whole system of a language

Symbol• A kind of sign that signifies several concepts – on the basis of the primary relationship of

signifier/signified • Thus the word “tree” signifies concept of tree

(primary relationship) may also signify:– Life, growth etc becomes not only sign but also symbol

• Symbol means more information e.g. waving one’s hand– Symbolic of farewell– Dismissal etc.

SUBSTANCE&

FORM

Language Quality

Language Quality

Substance Form

Raw Material Particular Order

Meaningless Meaningful

Substance

Phonic Graphic

Phonemes Morphemes Graphemes

sounds letters alphabets

/k/ /b/ /t/ -tion, -able, -co. A, d, c, h

Form• All distinct sounds &written scripts are the substance

of a language– It is meaningless (only noisy)– Required some form to become meaningful

• When sounds, letters, words are arranged in a certain way i.e.– We can see some meaning in them– It becomes form of a language

• It is just like a shapeless log of wood– The carpenter makes a chair / table out of it– He changes substance into form

Saussure’s TermLanguage Quality

Substance Form

Signifier Signified

Mere sound/words Meaningful/ Concept

Specific Arrangement makes Form

• Sounds when arranged in particular order– Signify something meaningful

• Words when arranged in a particular order – Express some meaningful idea/action

• The arrangement itself gives form to the substance of the language

Levels of Form

Form

Expression Content

Shape/form of Elements Level of Meanings

Regardless of Meanings Grammar & Semantics

The bachelor gave birth to a baby

Linguistic Study

To sum up we say: • Substance is element/ raw material of language

• Form is the associative order– In which elements are brought together in a

meaningful way

• So, form is the concern of linguistic study, not substance

• Form makes it study substance

STRUCTURE/SYSTEM&

SYNTAGMATIC/PARADIGMATIC RELATIONSHIPS

Language

Structured System of Systems

Elements are inter-related A System(At each level of its structure)

Phonological Morphological Syntactic

Sounds words word-classes

Elements of sounds/words/class are inter-related

Structure • An ordered composition of many

elements/parts– Each part being related to the whole– Also related to other elements within it

• Inter-relationship of elements constitute SYSTEM–Within each system, elements are selected &

combined to build up structure

The Phonological System: Word Structure

– To build up a word such as “TAKE”

1. We will select some soundsOut of several possible sounds

2. We combine them in a particular orderdecide which one is to occur 1st, which later

Structure: Process of SelectionCertain rules operate:

• We can select only one element from a class of similar elements– A particular consonant from same class – A noun from a class of nouns

• /k/ /b/ /t/ all are consonants

Structure: Process of CombinationCertain rules operate:

• We combine the chosen elements in a particular order

• We can combine:– /t/ + /eI/ + /k/ but not /eI/ + /t/

• These elements are combined in a particular sequence

Language Structure : Orchestra• The member of an orchestra

are all related to each other as a whole– By their specific roles

• Smaller groups (violinists, bass

player) perform their function in relation to other

• Players cannot be added or taken away without changing its quality

Structure Constitute System• Structure: an order composition of many parts

Order Composition of many parts

Brass

Woodwinds

Violin

Harp

Springs

Cello

Piano

DrumFlute

Elements’ Relationships

Relationship

Paradigmatic Syntagmatic

Paradigmatic Relationship• The relationship between those elements which are similar as

belong to same class/category is PR– Which holds between several elements of same class

within a system • Elements can be replaced by another elements within the same

system and class

The phonological system The syntactic system

The relationship between The relationship

Plosive Consonants between nouns

Syntagmatic Relationship• The particular sequence between elements is

syntagmatic relationship

• In syntagmatic relationship, the elements have to be combined in the proper sequence

• We cannot violate the sequential order

Significance of these Relationships• These relationships are like two intersecting threads– That build up the fabric of language

• On the basis of these relationships, the rules of selection & combination operate and constitutes the structure of a language

• Language has duality of structure– Selection of elements at one level– Combination of these elements at another level– To form a structure unit

• Limited number of elements can construct large number of combinations

Variation & Flexibility• Both selection (paradigmatic) & combination

(syntagmatic) processes unable us to construct different sentences

TO SUM UP

System Set of Paradigmatic R (in elements)

Structure set of Syntagmatic R (each level)

Phonological System Phonological Structure

Vowels/ Consonants Combination of it

Syntactic System Syntactic Structure

Word-classesCombination of it

Sound Level

Sentence Formation

DIACHRONIC&

SYNCHRONICAPPROACHES

Language Study

Synchronic Diachronic (traces)

Chronos Historical development Records

Time Language Changes

Language at particular time in between successive point in time

(as a living whole/ state)

Synchronic Approach• This state of language is:– Accumulation of all the linguistic activities of

language community

Irrelevant time FactorTo study language linguists:• Collect samples of language as it exists

• Describe it regardless of any historical considerations–Which may have influenced the language at any

previous time– Once linguists have isolated a focal point for

synchronic description– The time factor becomes irrelevant

Main Focus of Study• The system of language– as it exists i.e.:

• The system of inter-relationships– that bind together co-existing items– in the collective mind of the community

Diachronic ApproachEquivalent to historical:

• It investigates language changes– as they have occurred from time to time

• The evolution of languages

Inter-relationship of Synchronic & Diachronic• CD is synchronic axis (static)

– All the facts of language co-exist at a particular time

• AB is diachronic axis of successions– AB is an imaginary line moving through

time– The historical path through which

language has travelled & will continue travelling

• CD can intersect AB at any point – because at any given time there will be a

number of facts about language co-existing

• X is the point on AB – where the particular point in time can be

isolated– and the language can be described at that

point as it exists

Synchronic Approach is Prior• Saussure make this distinction• Gives priority in linguistics to the synchronic

approach• He explained this priority by analogy with the

game of chess

Analogy of the Game of Chess• Chessboard constantly changes

with each move• During the game at any moment

a 3rd person can understand the state of game by looking at the position of pieces

• Regardless what kind of moves & how many moves have been made before arriving at this stage

• The game can be described without reference to the earlier moves

Analogy of the Game of ChessGame Rules

• Which are determined before the game – Continue to operate with

each move

Language Rules

• Similarly rules exist in language too

Analogy of the Game of ChessValue of Pieces

•Depends on their position on the chess board

Value of Linguistic Term

• Derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms

Analogy of the Game of ChessChanges in Game

• To pass from one stage to the next

• Only one piece needs to be moved at a time

• Succession of moves can change the outcome of the game

Changes in Language

• In language change effects only isolated elements

• Not the whole language• These changes ultimately

do result in changing the language

Conclusion• Language can & should be described

synchronically• On its own terms without reference to what it

has developed from or what it is likely to develop into

• However, this does not mean that diachronic/historical study cannot be done

• To Saussure ,though the diachronic perspective is not related to the language system

• It does affect/condition the system