THE ZOOLOGICAL STUDY OF ANIMAL THE ZOOLOGICAL STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIORBEHAVIOR

Definition:Definition:((from Greek: ἦθος,from Greek: ἦθος, ethos ethos, "character"; and λόγος,, "character"; and λόγος,

logoslogos, "knowledge", "knowledge") is the scientific study of animal ) is the scientific study of animal behavior, and a branch of zoology.behavior, and a branch of zoology.

People have to learn to read and write, but bees do not learn how to sting. They are born knowing how to sting when there is danger. This kind of behavior is called Instinct. Parents pass on instincts to their young through heredity.

MAIN TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR

Some basic concepts of animal Some basic concepts of animal behavior can be illustrated by the behavior can be illustrated by the egg-egg-retrieval response of theretrieval response of the greylag geesegreylag geese described by described by Lorenz and TinbergenLorenz and Tinbergen in a in a famous paper in 1938. If Lorenz and famous paper in 1938. If Lorenz and Tinbergen presented a female greylag Tinbergen presented a female greylag goose with an egg a short distance from goose with an egg a short distance from her nest, she would rise, extend her neck, her nest, she would rise, extend her neck, pulling the egg carefully into the nest.pulling the egg carefully into the nest.

Egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose, Egg-rolling behavior of the greylag goose, Anser anserAnser anser..

They also noticed that if they They also noticed that if they removed the egg once the goose had removed the egg once the goose had begun her retrieval, or if the egg being begun her retrieval, or if the egg being retrieved slipped away and rolled down retrieved slipped away and rolled down the outer slope of the nest, the goose the outer slope of the nest, the goose would continue the retrieval movement would continue the retrieval movement without the egg until she was again without the egg until she was again settled comfortably on her nest. Then, settled comfortably on her nest. Then, seeing that the egg had not been seeing that the egg had not been retrieved , she would repeat the egg-retrieved , she would repeat the egg-rolling pattern.rolling pattern.

Instinctive BehaviorInstinctive Behavior

•Behavior that Behavior that does not have to does not have to be learned. be learned. Another example Another example would be a young would be a young bird that has bird that has never seen never seen another bird another bird build a nest, does build a nest, does not have to be not have to be taught how to taught how to build one.build one.

Grebes have an elaborate Grebes have an elaborate courtship dance.courtship dance.

The male crouches The male crouches as he approaches as he approaches the female , wings the female , wings outstretched. Then outstretched. Then a head wagging a head wagging display begins. They display begins. They often carry weeds in often carry weeds in their beaks as they their beaks as they stretch their necks stretch their necks and sway. Finally, and sway. Finally, the male will give the male will give the female a fish. the female a fish.

-an instinctive behavior.-an instinctive behavior.

•A behavior of this type, performed in an orderly, A behavior of this type, performed in an orderly, predictable sequence is called predictable sequence is called stereotypical stereotypical behaviorbehavior. . Of course, stereotyped behavior may not Of course, stereotyped behavior may not be performed identically on all occasions, but it be performed identically on all occasions, but it should be recognizable even when performed should be recognizable even when performed inappropriately.inappropriately.

•In order instinct can be observable, there must act In order instinct can be observable, there must act as a stimulus, or trigger. The stimulus in the example as a stimulus, or trigger. The stimulus in the example is the female Grebes. Scientists termed this stimulus is the female Grebes. Scientists termed this stimulus a a releaserreleaser, a simple signal in the environment that , a simple signal in the environment that would trigger a certain innate behavior. Or, because would trigger a certain innate behavior. Or, because the animal usually responded to some specific the animal usually responded to some specific aspect of the releaser aspect of the releaser (sound, shape or color, for (sound, shape or color, for example)example) the effective stimulus was called a the effective stimulus was called a sign sign stimulus.stimulus.

Learned BehaviorLearned Behavior

Reflex ActionsReflex Actions•This type of behavior are not This type of behavior are not planned or decided beforehand. For planned or decided beforehand. For instance, you accidentally touch a instance, you accidentally touch a hot object, you pull your hand away hot object, you pull your hand away without thinking.without thinking.

•Behavior can be changed by Behavior can be changed by learning. learning. Many animals will run Many animals will run away when they hear a loud bang. away when they hear a loud bang. But if the bangs are repeated often But if the bangs are repeated often enough, the animal grows used to enough, the animal grows used to the noise and ceases to run away. It the noise and ceases to run away. It has changed its behavior.has changed its behavior.

The hygienic The hygienic behavior in honey bees, behavior in honey bees, as demonstrated by W.C. as demonstrated by W.C. Rothenbuhler. The Rothenbuhler. The results are explained by results are explained by assuming that there are assuming that there are two independently two independently assorting genes, one assorting genes, one associated with associated with uncapping cells uncapping cells containing diseased containing diseased larvae, and other larvae, and other associated with associated with removing diseased removing diseased larvae from cells.larvae from cells.

GENETICS OF BEHAVIORGENETICS OF BEHAVIOR

uu uncap cellsuncap cells

UU does not uncap cellsdoes not uncap cells

rr removes diseased larvaeremoves diseased larvae

RR does not remove diseased larvaedoes not remove diseased larvae

HomozygousHomozygoushygienichygienic

HomozygousHomozygousnonhygienicnonhygienic

♀ ♀ u/u r/r u/u r/r xx ♂ U/U R/R♂ U/U R/R

UU//uu RR//rr Nonhygeinic Nonhygeinic hybridshybrids

u/u r/ru/u r/r xx UU//uu RR//rr

Backcross of hygienic Backcross of hygienic with hybrid beeswith hybrid bees

u/u r/ru/u r/rHygienicHygienic

UU/u r/r/u r/r

Nonhygienic , Nonhygienic , does not uncap does not uncap but can remove but can remove

dead larvaedead larvae

u/uu/u RR//rrNonhygieniNonhygienic, uncaps, c, uncaps, leaves dead leaves dead larvae larvae inside cellsinside cells

UU//uu RR//rrNonhygieniNonhygienic neither c neither uncaps nor uncaps nor removes removes dead larvaedead larvae

Learning and Diversity of BehaviorLearning and Diversity of Behavior

Another aspect of Another aspect of behavior is behavior is learninglearning, which we , which we define as modification of behavior define as modification of behavior through experience. An excellent through experience. An excellent model system for studying learning model system for studying learning processes has been the marine processes has been the marine opisthobrach snail, opisthobrach snail, AplysiaAplysia, a , a subject of intense experimentation subject of intense experimentation by by E. R. Kandel E. R. Kandel and his associates.and his associates.

If one prods the siphon, Aplysia If one prods the siphon, Aplysia withdraws its siphon and gills and withdraws its siphon and gills and folds them in the mantle cavity. This folds them in the mantle cavity. This simple protective response, called simple protective response, called gill withdrawal reflexgill withdrawal reflex, , is repeated is repeated when Aplysia extends its siphon when Aplysia extends its siphon again. But if the siphon is touched again. But if the siphon is touched again, Aplysia decreases its again, Aplysia decreases its response and ignores the stimulus. response and ignores the stimulus. This is called This is called habituationhabituation..

•If now Aplysia is given a noxious stimulus (for example, If now Aplysia is given a noxious stimulus (for example, an electric shock) to the head at the same time the siphon an electric shock) to the head at the same time the siphon is touched, it becomes is touched, it becomes sensitizedsensitized to the stimulus and to the stimulus and withdraws its gills as completely as it did before withdraws its gills as completely as it did before habituation occurred. habituation occurred. SensitizationSensitization, then, can reverse any , then, can reverse any previous habituation.previous habituation.

•Sensitization requires action of a different kind of neuron Sensitization requires action of a different kind of neuron called a called a facilitating interneuron. facilitating interneuron. These interneurons make These interneurons make connections between sensory neurons in the snail’s head connections between sensory neurons in the snail’s head and motor neurons that control muscles of the gill and and motor neurons that control muscles of the gill and mantle.mantle.

Neural circuitry concerned with habituation Neural circuitry concerned with habituation and sensitization of the and sensitization of the gill-withdrawal reflexgill-withdrawal reflex

in the marine snail, in the marine snail, Aplysia.Aplysia.

ImprintingImprinting

An amazing  and very An amazing  and very curious example of genetic curious example of genetic and environmental and environmental influences on animal influences on animal behavior is provided by behavior is provided by imprinting. It is a imprinting. It is a phenomenon exhibited by phenomenon exhibited by several species when young, several species when young, mainly birds, such as mainly birds, such as ducklings and chicks. Upon ducklings and chicks. Upon coming out of their eggs, coming out of their eggs, they will follow and become they will follow and become attached (socially bonded) attached (socially bonded) to the first moving object to the first moving object they encounter (which they encounter (which usually, but not necessarily, usually, but not necessarily, is the mother duck or hen). is the mother duck or hen). The first scientific studies of The first scientific studies of this phenomenon were this phenomenon were carried out by Austrian carried out by Austrian naturalist Konrad Lorenz naturalist Konrad Lorenz (1903 - 1989), one of the (1903 - 1989), one of the founders of Ethology.founders of Ethology.

He discovered that if greylag geese were reared by him from hatching, they would treat him like a parental bird. The goslings followed Lorenz about and when they were adults they courted him in preference to other greylag geese.  He first called the phenomenon "stamping in" in German, which has been translated to English as imprinting. The reason for the name is because Lorenz thought that the sensory object met by the newborn bird is somehow stamped immediately and irreversibly onto its nervous system.

Types of Types of Imprinting:Imprinting:

Filial ImprintingFilial Imprinting

The best known form of imprinting is The best known form of imprinting is filial imprinting, in which a young animal filial imprinting, in which a young animal learns the characteristics of its parent.learns the characteristics of its parent.

The filial imprinting of birds was a The filial imprinting of birds was a primary technique used to create the movie primary technique used to create the movie Le Peuple MigrateurLe Peuple Migrateur, which contains a great , which contains a great deal of footage of migratory birds in flight. deal of footage of migratory birds in flight. The birds imprinted on handlers, who wore The birds imprinted on handlers, who wore yellow jackets and honked horns constantly. yellow jackets and honked horns constantly. The birds were then trained to fly along with The birds were then trained to fly along with a variety of aircraft, primarily ultralights.a variety of aircraft, primarily ultralights.

D'Arrigo noted that D'Arrigo noted that the flight of a non-the flight of a non-motorized hang-glider is motorized hang-glider is very similar to the flight very similar to the flight patterns of migratory patterns of migratory birds: both use updrafts of birds: both use updrafts of hot air (thermal currents) hot air (thermal currents) to gain altitude which to gain altitude which then permits soaring flight then permits soaring flight over distance. He used over distance. He used this fact to enable the re-this fact to enable the re-introduction into the wild introduction into the wild of threatened species of of threatened species of raptors. raptors.

Birds which are hatched in captivity have Birds which are hatched in captivity have no mentor birds no mentor birds to teach them their traditional to teach them their traditional migratory routes. D'Arrigo had onemigratory routes. D'Arrigo had one solution to solution to this problem. The chicks hatched under the wing this problem. The chicks hatched under the wing of his of his glider, and imprinted on him. Subsequently, glider, and imprinted on him. Subsequently, he taught thehe taught the fledglings to fly and to hunt. The fledglings to fly and to hunt. The young birds followed him not young birds followed him not only on the ground only on the ground (as with Lorenz) but also in the air as he took(as with Lorenz) but also in the air as he took the the path of various migratory routes. He flew across path of various migratory routes. He flew across the Sahara and the Sahara and over the Mediterranean Sea to over the Mediterranean Sea to Sicily with eagles, from Siberia toSicily with eagles, from Siberia to Iran (5,500 km) Iran (5,500 km) with a flock of Siberian cranes, and over Mount with a flock of Siberian cranes, and over Mount Everest with Nepalese eagles. In 2006, he worked Everest with Nepalese eagles. In 2006, he worked with a condor inwith a condor in South America. South America.

In a similar project, orphaned Canada Geese In a similar project, orphaned Canada Geese were trainedwere trained to their normal migration route by to their normal migration route by the Canadian ultralightthe Canadian ultralight enthusiast Bill Lishman, enthusiast Bill Lishman, as shown in the fact-based movie dramaas shown in the fact-based movie drama Fly Away Fly Away Home. Home.

Sexual Sexual ImprintingImprinting

Sexual imprintingSexual imprinting is the process by which a young is the process by which a young animalanimal learns the characteristics of a desirable mate. For learns the characteristics of a desirable mate. For example, male zebra finches appear to prefer mates with the example, male zebra finches appear to prefer mates with the appearance of the female bird that rears them, rather than appearance of the female bird that rears them, rather than mates of their own type (Immelmann, 1972). The famous mates of their own type (Immelmann, 1972). The famous psychologist John Money called it the lovemap. psychologist John Money called it the lovemap.

Sexual imprinting on inanimate objectsSexual imprinting on inanimate objects is a popular is a popular theory concerning the development of sexual fetishism. For theory concerning the development of sexual fetishism. For example, according to this theory, imprinting on shoes or example, according to this theory, imprinting on shoes or boots (as with Lorenz' geese) would be the cause of boots (as with Lorenz' geese) would be the cause of shoe shoe fetishism. fetishism.

Sound spectrogram of songs of Sound spectrogram of songs of white-crowned sparrows, white-crowned sparrows, ZonotrichiaZonotrichia leucopharys.leucopharys. Top, natural songs of wild bird; bottom, Top, natural songs of wild bird; bottom, abnormal song of isolated bird.abnormal song of isolated bird.

Song Song birds birds demonstrate demonstrate robust sex robust sex differences in differences in many aspects of many aspects of behavior. Males behavior. Males of many species of many species of birds have of birds have characteristic characteristic territorial songs territorial songs that identify that identify singers to other singers to other birds and birds and announce announce territorial rights territorial rights to other males of to other males of that specie.that specie.

Like many Like many other songbirds, other songbirds, a male white-a male white-crowned sparrow crowned sparrow must learn the must learn the song of its song of its species by species by hearing the song hearing the song of its father.of its father.

ImitationImitation

Imitation is often a big part of the Imitation is often a big part of the learning process. A learning process. A well-documented example well-documented example of imitative learning is that of macaques inof imitative learning is that of macaques in Hachijojima island, Japan. These primates used Hachijojima island, Japan. These primates used to live in the inland forest to live in the inland forest until the 60s, when a until the 60s, when a group of researchers started giving them some group of researchers started giving them some potatoespotatoes on the beach: soon they started on the beach: soon they started venturing onto the beach, picking the venturing onto the beach, picking the potatoes potatoes from the sand, and cleaning and eating them. from the sand, and cleaning and eating them. About one year later,About one year later, an individual was an individual was observed bringing a potato to the sea, putting observed bringing a potato to the sea, putting it into the it into the water with one hand, and cleaning it water with one hand, and cleaning it with the other. Her behavior was soonwith the other. Her behavior was soon imitated imitated by the individuals living in contact with her; by the individuals living in contact with her; when they gave birth, when they gave birth, they taught this practice they taught this practice to their children. to their children.

Scientists Scientists observed a female observed a female macaque washing a macaque washing a sweet potato before sweet potato before eating it. She was the eating it. She was the first one to be first one to be observed doing this observed doing this behavior. Soon after, behavior. Soon after, the rest of her troop the rest of her troop began washing their began washing their sweet potatoes before sweet potatoes before eating them. eating them.

Japanese macaque washing sweet potatoes. The tradition began Japanese macaque washing sweet potatoes. The tradition began when a young female named Imo began washing sand from the potatoes when a young female named Imo began washing sand from the potatoes before eating them. Younger members of the troop quickly learned behavior.before eating them. Younger members of the troop quickly learned behavior.

SOCIAL BEHAVIORSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

When we think of “social” animals we tend to think of When we think of “social” animals we tend to think of highly structured honey bee colonies, herds of antelope gazing on highly structured honey bee colonies, herds of antelope gazing on the African plains, etc. But social behavior of animals the African plains, etc. But social behavior of animals of the same of the same species species living together is by no means limited to such obvious living together is by no means limited to such obvious examples in which individuals one another. examples in which individuals one another.

Socially Coordinated BehaviorSocially Coordinated Behavior

An individual adjusts its actions to the An individual adjusts its actions to the presence of others to increase directly its own presence of others to increase directly its own reproductive success.reproductive success.

Cooperative BehaviorCooperative Behavior

An individual performs activities that An individual performs activities that benefit others because such behavior ultimately benefit others because such behavior ultimately benefits that individual’s genetic contributions to benefits that individual’s genetic contributions to future generations.future generations.