184

eriod in Perspective

New Patterns of Civilization

400–1500

By the beginning of the first millennium A.D., the greatstates of the ancient world were mostly in decline. On the

ruins of these ancient empires, new patterns of civilizationbegan to take shape. Some of these new societies built

upon elements of earlier civilizations, even as they movedin unique directions.

At the same time, between 400 and 1500, new civiliza-tions were beginning to appear in a number of other parts

of the world—Japan, Southeast Asia, Africa, and theAmericas. Like earlier states, most of these civilizations

obtained much of their wealth from farming. More striking, however, is that these societies were being

increasingly linked through trade.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 992–993 for primary source readings to

accompany Unit 2.

Use The World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM to find additional

primary sources about New Patterns of Civilization.

The

� Ruins at Chichén Itzá

� Mayan sculpture

“Let there be dawn in thesky and on the earth.”

—Mayan myth

➊ Indus Valley

The Use of NumeralsIn order to keep accurate records and inventories, the Sumerians,

around 3000 B.C., devised one of the world’s earliest numbering sys-tems. They used two wedge-like symbols for counting. One symbolstood for 1, the other for 10. These wedge-like symbols—and othersthat followed—basically came from the Sumerian cuneiform. Thewedges served double-duty for they symbolized both words andfigures.

Other early peoples who invented numbering systems used let-ters from their alphabets. Then, around A.D. 500, Hindu people inthe Indus River valley abandoned the use of letters and createdspecial number symbols to stand for the figures 1 to 9. Althoughmodernized over time, these nine Hindu symbols are the ones weuse today.

MathematicsThe invention of mathematics changed the course of civilization.Astronomers used mathematics to account for the movements of thesun and moon so they could mark the seasons. Geometry enabledpeople to calculate the volume of a cylindrical granary. Mathematicssupported travel, from the earliest sea travel to the development ofthe space program. It all began with the Sumerians.

572–212 B.C.Greeks develop geometric principles

Sumerian cuneiform tablet

➌

➋

186

3000 B.C.Sumerians record numberson clay tablets

➊

187187

➌ Europe

The Triumph of Arabic NumeralsMuslims ruled Spain from the A.D. 700s to the A.D. 1400s. Their

presence opened the door for European use of the new Hindu-Arabicnumber system. At first, many Europeans rejected it. They clung insteadto Roman numerals.

Later, however, European merchants found knowledge of “Arabicnumerals,” as they were called, necessary for dealing with merchants inMuslim ports. Influenced by al-Khowarizmi’s work, Leonardo Fibonaccipublished, in 1202, a book of arithmetic and algebraic information. Europeans who learned the new arithmetic also found it easier to do theirtallies. By the A.D. 1400s, the numbers could even be found in popular art.

➋ Southwest Asia

The Rise of AlgebraAbout A.D. 825, an Arab mathematician, al-Khowarizmi of Baghdad, wrote

books showing ways to use the Hindu numbering system. Algebra comes fromal-jabra, which he used in the title of his book al-jabr w’al-muqabalah, roughlymeaning “bringing together unknowns to match a known quantity.”

The wonder of the system caught Arab imaginations. They especially likedthe concept of zero, which had also been created by the Hindus. With the useof zero, mathematicians could build numbers of astronomical size.

Early arithmetic was used at first for business transactions and simplecalculations that were part of daily life. How did mathematics make itpossible for fifteenth- and sixteenth-century explorers to voyage intounknown regions?

Why It Matters

A.D. 1202Leonardo Fibonacci, an Italian merchant,spreads al-Khowarizmi’s work to Europe

A.D. 500In India, Hindus create anumber system with zero

A.D. 825Al-Khowarizmi advances the use of Hindunumbers and algebra in the Arab world

al-Khowarizmi

European wool merchants

UNIT 2 New Patterns of Civilization

188

The World of Islam

600–1500

Key Events• Muhammad and his followers established the beliefs and practices of Islam.

• At its peak, the Arab Empire extended west and north through Spain and into France.• In the seventh century, a split in Islam created two groups, the Shiite and the Sunni

Muslims.

The Impact Today• More than one billion people around the world are devout Muslims who follow the teachings of the Quran, and Islam is one of the world’s leading faiths.

• The cultural, artistic, and scientific contributions of Muslims continue to enrich our daily lives.

World History Video The Chapter 6 video, “Islamic ScientificAdvances,” chronicles the many contributions of Islamic culture to our world.

600 700 800 900 1000

630Muhammadreturns to Makkah

c. 900 Arab scholars work at the House of Wisdom

661Umayyadsestablish Islamic Empire

852Great Mosqueof Samarra built

635The Quran iscompiled

732Arab forces defeated at the Battle of Tours

Prayer rug

Tower mosque, Samarra, Iraq

189

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem was built by Muslims in the seventh century. Muslims believethat Muhammad ascended into Paradise from this site.

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and click on Chapter 6–ChapterOverview to preview chapter information.

wh.glencoe.com

Art or Photo here

1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

1187Saladin’s army invadesJerusalem

1382Ibn-Khaldunteaches atuniversity in Cairo

Praying Muslims face Makkah

1258Mongols captureBaghdad

190

Muhammad’s Messagen Makkah, a small town of about three thousand peoplelocated in the desert lands of the Arabian Peninsula, a

man named Muhammad was born in 570. His father diedwhen he was not yet one; and his mother died when he wasonly five. He was raised by relatives, from whom he learnedhow to buy, sell, and transport goods. Intelligent and hard-working, he became a capable merchant. He married, hadchildren, and seemed to have a happy and rewarding life.

Muhammad, however, was not content. Deeply disturbedby problems in society, he spent days on end in a nearby cave,praying and meditating. According to Islamic teachings, onenight in 610, while Muhammad was deep in meditation, thevoice of the angel Gabriel called out, “Recite!” The voicerepeated the proclamation twice more.

A frightened Muhammad replied, “What shall I recite?”The angel responded, “In the name of thy Lord the Creator,

who created mankind from a clot of blood, recite!”Over the next 23 years, Muhammad received and memo-

rized everything the angel revealed and preached these wordsto others: “Allah will bring to nothing the deeds of those whodisbelieve. . . . As for the faithful who do good works andbelieve in what is revealed to Muhammad—which is thetruth from their Lord—He will forgive them their sins andennoble their state.” These words were gathered together asthe Quran, or Koran, the sacred book of Islam.

I

Muslims worship inmosques, such as this one in Edirne, Turkey.

Why It MattersMuhammad’s life had a lastingimpact on world history. When hewas born, Southwest Asia was ruledby two competing empires: theByzantine and the Sassanid Persian.After Muhammad’s death, his successors organized the Arabs and began a great expansion. Arabarmies marched westward acrossNorth Africa and eastward intoMesopotamia and Persia, creating anew empire that stretched fromSpain to the Indus River valley. Arabrule brought with it the religion andculture of Islam.

History and You Create a multi-media presentation illustrating thescientific and artistic advances thatwere made during the IslamicEmpire. Show your presentation tothe class. Be prepared to answerquestions about the Islamic innova-tions that you chose to include.

Guide to Reading

Preview of Events

191CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

The Rise of IslamMain Ideas• In the fifth and sixth centuries, the Ara-

bian Peninsula took on a new impor-tance as a result of the caravan trade.

• The religion of Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula and its prophet was a man named Muhammad.

Key Terms sheikh, Quran, Islam, Hijrah, hajj, shari’ah

People to Identify Muhammad, Bedouins, Khadija, Muslims

Places to Locate Arabian Peninsula, Makkah, Madinah

Preview Questions1. What was the role of Muhammad in

the spread of Islam?2. What are the major beliefs and princi-

ples of the religion of Islam?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Create a dia-gram like the one below to list the maincharacteristics of the Islamic religion.Your diagram can list more characteristicsthan this example.

✦550 ✦575 ✦625

570Muhammad is born

610Muhammad receivesthe first message

622Muhammad and his followers journey toMadinah, a journey known as the Hijrah

630The people of Makkahconvert to Islam

632Muhammaddies

Allah speaks to Muslims through the Quran:

“God had helped you at Badr, when you were a contemptible little band. So fearGod and thus show your gratitude. Remember when you said to the Believers: ‘Is it not enough for you that your Lord helped you with 3,000 angels sent down? Yes, andif you remain firm and aright, even if the enemy should come against you here in hothaste, your Lord would help you with 5,000 angels on the attack.’”

—Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, F.E. Peters, 1994

From ancient times, Southwest Asia has been the site of great empires. In the sev-enth century, a new empire was being built by the Arabs—a people who believed thattheir efforts were aided by Allah.

The ArabsLike the Hebrews and the Assyrians, the Arabs

were a Semitic-speaking people who lived in theArabian Peninsula, a desert land sorely lacking inrivers and lakes. The Arabs were nomads who,because of their hostile surroundings, moved con-stantly to find water and food for their animals.

Survival in such a harsh environment was noteasy, and the Arabs organized into tribes to help oneanother. Each tribe was ruled by a sheikh (SHAYK) who was chosen from one ofthe leading families by a council of elders. Although each tribe was independent,all the tribes in the region were loosely connected to one another.

Voices from the Past

ArabianSea

RedSea

ArabianPeninsulaEGYPT

PersianGulf

Arabic illustration of angels

Characteristics of Islam

✦650✦600

N

SE

W

500 kilometers

500 miles0

0Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

40°E 50°E

20°N

30°N

40°N

ARABIANPENINSULA

Mesopotamia

Caucasus Mts.

SAHARA

ASIA MINOR

MediterraneanSea

Black Sea

Red

Sea

PersianGulf

ArabianSea

Gulf of Aden

AralSea

Caspian

Sea

Euphrates R.

TigrisR

.

Nile

R.

SYRIA

EGYPT

PERSIA

YEMEN

Constantinople

Alexandria Jerusalem

Damascus

Yathrib(Medina)

Makkah(Mecca)

Baghdad

Persepolis

Southwest Asia in Muhammad’s Time, c. 600

A modern caravan inthe Niger desert

Eastern Roman Empire

Persian Empire

Hijrah, 622

The Arabs lived as farmers and sheepherders on theoases and rain-fed areas of the Arabian Peninsula.After the camel was domesticated in the first millen-nium B.C., the Arabs populated more of the desert.They also expanded the caravan trade into theseregions. Towns developed along the routes as theArabs became major carriers of goods between theIndian Ocean and the Mediterranean, where the SilkRoad ended.

Most early Arabs were polytheistic—they believedin many gods. The Arabs trace their ancestors toAbraham and his son Ishmael, who were believed tohave built at Makkah (Mecca) the Kaaba (KAH• buh),a house of worship whose cornerstone was a sacredstone, called the Black Stone. The Arabs recognized asupreme god named Allah (Allah is Arabic for “God”),but they also believed in other tribal gods. Theyrevered the Kaaba for its association with Abraham.

The Arabian Peninsula took on a new importancewhen political disorder in Mesopotamia and Egyptmade the usual trade routes in Southwest Asia toodangerous to travel. A safer trade route that wentthrough Makkah to present-day Yemen and then byship across the Indian Ocean became more popular.

Communities along this route, such as Makkah,prospered from the increased caravan trade. Tensionsarose, however, as increasingly wealthy merchantsshowed less and less concern for the welfare of theirpoorer clanspeople and slaves.

Explaining Why did the communi-ties on the Arabian Peninsula prosper?

The Life of MuhammadInto this world of tension stepped Muhammad.

Born in Makkah to a merchant family, he became an

Reading Check

orphan at the age of five. He grew up to become acaravan manager and married a rich widow namedKhadija, who was also his employer.

Over time, Muhammad became troubled by thegrowing gap between what he saw as the simplehonesty and generosity of most Makkans and thegreediness of the rich trading elites in the city. Deeplyworried, he began to visit the hills to meditate.

During one of these visits, Muslims believe,Muhammad received revelations from God. Accord-ing to Islamic teachings, the messages were given bythe angel Gabriel, who told Muhammad to recitewhat he heard.

Muhammad came to believe that Allah hadalready revealed himself in part through Moses andJesus—and thus through the Hebrew and Christiantraditions. He believed, however, that the final reve-lations of Allah were now being given to him.

Islamic teachings and Muhammad’s influence reshaped thegeography and politics of the Arab world.

1. Interpreting Maps Calculate the distance fromMakkah to Yathrib, using the map’s scale.

2. Applying Geography Skills Draw a new map, inserting the trade routes that passed through Makkah.What bodies of water did these routes link?

Islam. During a visit to the Kaaba, Muhammaddeclared it a sacred shrine of Islam. Two years afterhis triumphal return to Makkah, Muhammad died,just as Islam was beginning to spread throughout theArabian Peninsula. All Muslims are encouraged tomake a pilgrimage to Makkah, known as the hajj(HAJ), if possible.

Identifying What was the signifi-cance of the message given to Muhammad by Gabriel?

The Teachings of MuhammadLike Christianity and Judaism, Islam is mono-

theistic. Allah is the all-powerful being who createdthe universe and everything in it. Islam emphasizessalvation and offers the hope of an afterlife. Thosewho desire to achieve life after death must subjectthemselves to the will of Allah.

Unlike Christianity, Islam does not believe that itsfirst preacher was divine. Muhammad is considereda prophet, similar to Moses, but he was also a manlike other men. Muslims believe that because humanbeings rejected Allah’s earlier messengers, Allah senthis final revelation through Muhammad.

Reading Check

193CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

Out of these revelations, which wereeventually written down, came theQuran, the holy book of the religion ofIslam. (The word Islam means “peacethrough submission to the will ofAllah.”) The Quran contains the ethicalguidelines and laws by which the fol-lowers of Allah are to live. Those whopractice the religion of Islam are calledMuslims. Islam has only one God,Allah, and Muhammad is God’sprophet.

After receiving the revelations,Muhammad returned home andreflected upon his experience. His wife,Khadija, urged him to follow Gabriel’smessage, and she became the first con-vert to Islam. Muhammad then set outto convince the people of Makkah of thetruth of the revelations. ; (See page 992to read excerpts from Muhammad’s Wife Remembers the Prophetin the Primary Sources Library.)

People were surprised at his claims to be aprophet. The wealthy feared that his attacks on cor-rupt society would upset the established social andpolitical order. After three years of preaching, he hadonly 30 followers.

Muhammad became discouraged by the persecu-tion of his followers, as well as by the failure of theMakkans to accept his message. He and some of hisclosest supporters left Makkah and moved north toYathrib, later renamed Madinah (Medina; “city of theprophet”). The journey of Muhammad and his fol-lowers to Madinah is known as the Hijrah(HIH•jruh). The year the journey occurred, 622,became year 1 in the official calendar of Islam.

Muhammad soon began to win support from peo-ple in Madinah, as well as from Arabs in the desert,known as Bedouins. From these groups, he formedthe first community of practicing Muslims.

Muslims saw no separation between political andreligious authority. Submission to the will of Allahmeant submission to his prophet, Muhammad. Forthis reason, Muhammad soon became both a reli-gious and a political leader. His political and militaryskills enabled him to put together a reliable militaryforce to defend himself and his followers. His mili-tary victories against the Makkans began to attractlarge numbers of supporters.

In 630, Muhammad returned to Makkah with aforce of ten thousand men. The city quickly surren-dered, and most of the townspeople converted to

This page from the Quran dates from the four-teenth century. The text is handwritten, and thepages are decorated with gold leaf. How doesthis compare to current religious books youmay have seen?

History

The shari’ah does not separate religious matters fromcivil or political law.

Believers are expected to follow sound principlesfor behavior. In addition to acts of worship called theFive Pillars, Muslims must practice honesty and jus-tice in dealing with others. Muslims are forbidden togamble, eat pork, drink alcoholic beverages, orengage in dishonest behavior. Family life is based onmarriage.

Comparing How is Islam similar toChristianity and Judaism?

Reading Check

194 CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

Checking for Understanding1. Define sheikh, Quran, Islam, Hijrah,

hajj, shari’ah.

2. Identify Allah, Muhammad, Bedouins,Khadija, Muslims.

3. Locate Arabian Peninsula, Makkah,Madinah.

4. Describe the importance of the shari’ah on the daily life of a Muslim.

5. List the Five Pillars of Islam.

Critical Thinking6. Discuss What problems did Muham-

mad encounter while trying to spreadthe message of Islam?

7. Organizing Information Create achart like the one below showing thechanges that Islam brought to the peo-ples of the Arabian Peninsula.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the picture of the Quran on

page 193 of your text. How does thedesign of this book reflect the impor-tance of Muhammad’s words?

Early Arabs Islam

Pilgrimage(Haji)

Fasting(Siyaam)

Charity(Zakaah)

Prayer(Salaah)

Belief(Shahaadatayn)

Making a pilgrimage to

Makkah once ina lifetime

Refraining fromfood and drink

from dawnto sunset

through themonth ofRamadan

Giving part ofone’s wealth to

the poor(”giving alms”)

Performing theprescribedprayers fivetimes a day

Believing there isno deity but the One God, andMuhummad ishis messenger

The Five Pillars of Islam

Quran

9. Descriptive Writing Imagine thatyou are a former Bedouin who nowlives in Makkah. Write a letter toyour Bedouin cousin describing howyour life has changed since themove to the city.

Muslims practice acts of worship called the FivePillars of Islam.

1. Compare and Contrast How do the FivePillars of Islam differ from the Ten Com-mandments? How are they similar?

2. Describing What behaviors are encouragedby the Five Pillars of Islam?

Islam is a direct and simple faith, stressing the needto obey the will of Allah. This means practicing acts ofworship known as the Five Pillars of Islam. The faith-ful who follow the law are guaranteed a place in aneternal paradise.

Islam is not just a set of religious beliefs but a wayof life as well. After Muhammad’s death, Muslimscholars developed a law code known as the shari’ah(shuh•REE•uh). It provides believers with a set ofpractical laws to regulate their daily lives. It is basedon scholars’ interpretations of the Quran, and theexample set by Muhammad in his life. The shari’ahapplies the teachings of the Quran to daily life. It reg-ulates all aspects of Muslim life including family life,business practice, government, and moral conduct.

195

A Pilgrimage to Makkah THE PILGRIMAGE TOMakkah is one of the FivePillars of Islam and is theduty of every Muslim. Inthis selection, Ibn Jubayr, atwelfth-century SpanishMuslim, describes the finaldestination in his pilgrim-age—the Black Stone,which resides in the Kaabaat Makkah.

“The blessed Black Stoneis encased in the corner [ofthe Kaaba] facing east. Thedepth to which it penetratesit is not known, but it is saidto extend two cubits into thewall. Its breadth is two-thirdsof a span, its length onespan and a finger joint. Ithas four pieces, joinedtogether, and it is said that itwas the Qarmata—may Godcurse them—who broke it. Itsedges have been braced with a sheet of silverwhose white shines brightly against the black sheenand polished brilliance of the Stone, presenting theobserver a striking spectacle which will hold hisgaze. The Stone, when kissed, has a softness andmoistness which so enchants the mouth that hewho puts his lips to it would wish them never to beremoved. This is one of the special favors of DivineProvidence, and it is enough that the Prophet—mayGod bless and preserve him—declared it to be acovenant of God on earth. May God profit us by thekissing and touching of it. By His favor may all whoyearn fervently for it be brought to it. In the soundpiece of the stone, to the right of him who presentshimself to kiss it, is a small white spot that shinesand appears like a mole on the blessed surface.

Concerning this white mole, there is a tradition thathe who looks upon it clears his vision, and whenkissing it one should direct one’s lips as closely asone can to the place of the mole.”

—Ibn Jubayr, Describing the Black Stone

Muslim pilgrims circle the Kaaba, which holds the Black Stone.

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. What are the unique properties of the Black Stone?

2. What is the significance of the Black Stone?

3. What are the three units of measure-ment used in this source?

Guide to Reading

Preview of Events

✦700 B.C. ✦600 B.C. ✦500 B.C. ✦400 B.C. ✦300 B.C. ✦200 B.C. ✦100 B.C.

196 CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

632Abu Bakr becomesthe first caliph

732Arab forces are defeated at the Battle of Tours

1055The Seljuk Turks capture Baghdad andtake command of the Abbasid Empire

The Arab Empire and Its Successors

1258The Abbasid dynastycomes to an end

750The Abbasid dynastycomes to power

✦600 ✦700 ✦800 ✦900 ✦1000 ✦1100 ✦1200 ✦1300

After the death of Muhammad, a caliph became the secular and spiritual leader ofthe Islamic community. As the empire grew, caliphs became more like kings or emper-ors, as described by this thirteenth-century Chinese traveler:

“The king wears a turban of silk brocade and foreign cotton stuff. On each newmoon and full moon he puts on an eight-sided flat-topped headdress of pure gold, setwith the most precious jewels in the world. His robe is of silk brocade and is boundaround him with a jade girdle. On his feet he wears golden shoes. . . . The king’sthrone is set with pearls and precious stones, and the steps of the throne are coveredwith pure gold. The various vessels and utensils around the throne are of gold or sil-ver, and precious pearls are knotted in the screen behind it. In great court ceremoniesthe king sits behind this screen.”

—Chau Ju-Kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Fredrick Hirth and W.W. Rockhill, trans., 1966

The jewels and finery of the Arab rulers were indications of the strength and powerof the growing Arab Empire.

Creation of an Arab EmpireMuhammad had been accepted as both the political and religious leader of the

Islamic community. The death of Muhammad left his followers with a problem:Muhammad had never named a successor. Although he had several daughters, he

Voices from the Past

Main Ideas• After Muhammad’s death, his successor

organized the Arabs and set in motion agreat expansion.

• Internal struggles weakened the empireand, by the close of the thirteenth cen-tury, the Arab Empire had ended.

Key Terms caliph, jihad, Shiite, Sunni, vizier, sultan,mosque

People to Identify Abu Bakr, Mu’awiyah, Hussein, Harun al-Rashid, Saladin

Places to Locate Syria, Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo

Preview Questions1. What major developments occurred

under the Umayyads and Abbasids?2. Why did the Umayyad and the

Abbasid dynasties fall?

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Use a chart tocompare and contrast the characteristicsof the early caliphs with the caliphs of theUmayyad and Abbasid dynasties.

Early Caliphs Caliphs of the Umayyadand Abbasid dynasties

Guide to Reading

Preview of Events

Interior courtyard of theAlhambra in Granada, Spain

197CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

Yarmuk Karbala

Tours

N

S

EW

500 kilometers

500 miles0

0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

60°E

10°N

20°N

TROPIC OF

CANCERAFRICA

ASIA MINOR

Mediterranean Sea

ArabianSea

Persian Gulf

Red

Sea

CaspianSea

Black Sea

AralSea

Strait ofGibraltar

Ind

us

R.

Euphrates R.

Tigris R.

Nile

R.

Danube R.

SPAIN

GRANADA

MOROCCO TUNISIA

EGYPT

FRANCE

SYRIA

PALESTINE

ARABIA

IRAQPERSIA

INDIA

Mesopotamia

Makkah (Mecca)

Madinah (Medina)

Cairo

Jerusalem

Damascus Baghdad

ConstantinopleC´ordoba

had left no son. In a male-oriented society, whowould lead the community of the faithful?

Shortly after Muhammad’s death, some of hisclosest followers chose Abu Bakr (uh•BOO

BA•kuhr), a wealthy merchant and Muhammad’sfather-in-law, to be their leader. He was named caliph(KAY•luhf), or successor to Muhammad.

Arab Conquest Under Abu Bakr’s leadership, theIslamic movement began to grow. As the Romanshad slowly conquered Italy, so also the Muslimsexpanded over Arabia, and beyond.

Muhammad had overcome military efforts by theearly Makkans to defeat his movement. The Quranpermitted fair, defensive warfare as jihad (jih•HAHD), or “struggle in the way of God.” Muham-mad’s successors expanded the territory.

Unified under Abu Bakr, the Arabs began to turnthe energy they had once directed toward each otheragainst neighboring peoples. At Yarmuk in 636, theArab army defeated the Byzantine army in the midstof a dust storm that enabled the Arabs to take theirenemy by surprise. Four years later, they took control

of the Byzantine province ofSyria. By 642, Egypt andother areas of northernAfrica had been added tothe new Arab Empire. Tothe east, the Arabs had con-quered the entire PersianEmpire by 650.

The Arabs, led by a seriesof brilliant generals, hadput together a large, dedi-cated army. The courage of the Arab soldiers wasenhanced by the belief that Muslim warriors wereassured a place in Paradise if they died in battle.

Arab Rule Early caliphs ruled their far-flung empirefrom Madinah. After Abu Bakr died, problems aroseover who should become the next caliph. There wereno clear successors to Abu Bakr, and the first twocaliphs to rule after his death were assassinated. In 656, Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, was chosen tobe caliph, but he too was assassinated after ruling forfive years.

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

andclick on Chapter 6–Student Web Activityto learn more about thepractice of hajj.

wh.glencoe.com

Spread of Islam, 632–750

After Muhammad’s death, the territory included in the ArabEmpire more than doubled.

1. Applying Geography Skills How did the Arabs bene-fit from expansion?

Byzantine Empire, 750

Islamic territory atMuhammad's death, 632

Islamic expansion, 632–661

Islamic expansion, 661–750

Battle

The Conflict between Sunnis and ShiitesIn 1980, a brutal and bloody war erupted between

Iran and Iraq. Border disputes were one cause of thewar, but religious differences were another.

Both Iranians and Iraqis are Muslims. The Iranians arelargely Shiites. Although the Iraqi people are mostly Shi-

ites as well, the rulinggroups in the country areSunnis. During the war,Iran hoped to defeat Iraqby appealing to the Shiitemajority in Iraq for sup-port. The attempt largelyfailed, however.

The clash between Shi-ites and Sunnis goes backto the seventh century.The Shiites believed thatonly the descendants of

Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, were the true leaders ofIslam. Sunnis did not all agree with Umayyad rule butaccepted the Umayyads as rulers. Over the years, Shiitesdeveloped their own body of law, which differed fromthat of the Sunni majority.

Most Muslims today are Sunnis, although Shiites formmajorities in both Iran and Iraq. Shiite minorities con-tinue to exist in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, India, Pakistan,and east Africa.

The success of the Iranian Revolution in 1978–1979,led by the Ayatollah Khomeini (koh•MAY•nee), resultedin a noticeable revival of Shiism in Iran and in parts ofthe Islamic world adjacent to Iran. The separationbetween Shiite and Sunni Muslims still exists.

� Iran-Iraq War, 1981

family. In doing this, he established the Umayyad(oo•MY•uhd) dynasty. He then moved the capital ofthe Arab Empire from Madinah to Damascus, in Syria.

Umayyad Conquests At the beginning of theeighth century, Arab armies conquered and con-verted the Berbers, a pastoral people living along theMediterranean coast of northern Africa.

Around 710, combined Berber and Arab forcescrossed the Strait of Gibraltar and occupied southernSpain. By 725, most of Spain had become a Muslimstate with its center at Córdoba. In 732, however,Arab forces were defeated at the Battle of Tours inGaul (now France). Arab expansion in Europe cameto a halt.

In 717, another Muslim force had launched an attackon Constantinople with the hope of defeating the Byzan-tine Empire. The Byzantines survived, however, bydestroying the Muslim fleet. This created an uneasyfrontier in southern Asia Minor between the ByzantineEmpire and the Islamic world.

The Arab advance had finally come to an end, but notbefore the southern and eastern Mediterranean parts ofthe old Roman Empire had been conquered. Arabpower also extended to the east in Mesopotamia andPersia and northward into central Asia.

In the conquered territories, Arab administratorswere quite tolerant, sometimes even allowing localofficials to continue to govern. The conquered peoplewere not forced to convert to Islam. Those who chosenot to convert were required only to be loyal to Mus-lim rule and to pay taxes.

Identifying Who was the first caliphto unify the Arabs and begin an expansionist movement?

The UmayyadsIn this section, you will learn how

Arab forces were defeated by the Frankish army at theBattle of Tours in 732. While Spain remained underMuslim rule, this battle marked the end of Arab expan-sion into Europe.In 661, the general Mu’awiyah (moo•UH•

wee•uh), the governor of Syria and one of Ali’s chief rivals, became caliph. He was known for oneoutstanding virtue: he used force only whenabsolutely necessary. As he said, “I never use mysword when my whip will do, nor my whip whenmy tongue will do.”

Mu’awiyah moved quickly to make the office ofcaliph, called the caliphate, hereditary in his own

Reading Check

Research the current relationship between Iraq andIran. Has the conflict between the Shiites and theSunnis changed in any way since the war of 1980?

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500 kilometers

500 miles0

0Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

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199CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

A Split in Islam In spite of Umayyad successes,internal struggles threatened the empire’s stability.Many Muslims of non-Arab background, such asPersians and Byzantines, did not like the way localadministrators favored the Arabs.

An especially important revolt took place inpresent-day Iraq early in the Umayyad period. It wasled by Hussein (hoo•SAYN), second son of Ali—theson-in-law of Muhammad.

Hussein encouraged his followers to rise upagainst Umayyad rule in 680. He set off to do battle,but his soldiers defected, leaving him with an army of72 warriors against 10,000 Umayyad soldiers. Hus-sein’s tiny force fought courageously, but all died.

This struggle led to a split of Islam into twogroups. The Shiite (SHEE•YT) Muslims accept onlythe descendants of Ali as the true rulers of Islam. TheSunni (SU•NEE) Muslims did not all agree withUmayyad rule but accepted the Umayyads as rulers.This political split led to the development of twobranches of Muslims that persists to the present. TheSunnis are a majority in the Muslim world, but mostof the people in Iraq and neighboring Iran considerthemselves to be Shiites.

Evaluating What weakness in Arabrule led to revolts against the Umayyads?

Reading Check

Abbasid Empire, 800

The Abbasid dynasty lasted 500 years and saw a period ofrising prosperity as Baghdad became the center of an enor-mous trading empire.

1. Interpreting Maps What geographical factors wouldhave influenced the placement of the Abbasid capital?

2. Applying Geography Skills Compare this map to theone on page 160 showing the Roman Empire at itsheight. Identify the geographic factors that would haveinfluenced the expansion of both empires. Create a Venndiagram to compare and contrast the geography of theRoman and the Abbasid Empires.

The Abbasid DynastyResentment against Umayyad rule grew. As men-

tioned, non-Arab Muslims resented favoritismshown to Arabs. The Umayyads also helped bringabout their own end by their corrupt behavior. In 750, Abu al-Abbas, a descendant of Muhammad’suncle, overthrew the Umayyad dynasty and set upthe Abbasid (uh•BA•suhd) dynasty, which lasteduntil 1258.

Abbasid Rule In 762, the Abbasids built a new cap-ital city at Baghdad, on the Tigris River, far to the east

Trade route through Baghdad

Abbasid capital

Former Umayyad capital

Abbasid Empire during reignof Harun ar-Rashid, A.D. 800

of the Umayyad capital at Damascus. The new capi-tal was well placed. It took advantage of river trafficto the Persian Gulf and was located on the caravanroute from the Mediterranean to central Asia.

The move eastward increased Persian influenceand encouraged a new cultural outlook. Under theUmayyads, warriors had been seen as the ideal citi-zens. Under the Abbasids, judges, merchants, andgovernment officials were the new heroes. All Mus-lims, regardless of ethnic background, could nowhold both civil and military offices. Many Arabsbegan to intermarry with conquered peoples.

The Abbasid dynasty experienced a period ofsplendid rule during the ninth century. Best knownof the caliphs of the time was Harun al-Rashid(ha•ROON ahl•rah•SHEED), whose reign is oftendescribed as the golden age of the Abbasid caliphate.Harun al-Rashid was known for his charity, and he also lavished support on artists and writers. His

son al-Ma’mun (ahl•mah•MOON) was a greatpatron of learning. He supported the study of astron-omy and created a foundation for translating classi-cal Greek works.

This was also a period of growing prosperity. TheArabs had conquered many of the richest provincesof the Roman Empire, and they now controlled thetrade routes to the East. Baghdad became the centerof an enormous trade empire that extended into Asia,Africa, and Europe, greatly adding to the riches ofthe Islamic world.

Under the Abbasids, the caliph began to act in amore regal fashion. The bureaucracy assisting thecaliph in administering the empire grew more com-plex as well. A council headed by a prime minister,known as a vizier, advised the caliph. The caliph didnot attend meetings of the council but instead satbehind a screen listening to the council’s discussionsand then whispered his orders to the vizier.

How did the ArabEmpire Succeed?During the early eighth century,the Muslims vastly extendedtheir empire. Their swift con-quest of Southwest Asia hasintrigued many historians.Was their success due toreligious fervor or mili-tary strength; or, werethere other reasons fortheir military victoriesthat are not so obvious?

“They were aided by the weakness of the twocontemporary empires, the Sassanian (Persian) andthe Byzantine, which had largely exhausted them-selves by their wars on one another. . . . Nor werethese Arabs simply zealots fired by the ideal of aHoly War. They were by long tradition tough fight-ers, accustomed to raiding out of hunger and want;many or perhaps even most of them were notardent followers of Mohammed. Yet there can belittle question that what got the Arabs started, andkept them going, was mainly the personality andthe teaching of the Prophet.”

—Herbert J. Muller, 1958The Loom of History

“Perhaps . . . another kind of explanation can begiven for the acceptance of Arab rule by the popu-lation of the conquered countries. To most of themit did not much matter whether they were ruled byIranians, Greeks or Arabs. Government impinged for the most part on the life of cities and . . . city-dwellers might not care much who ruled them,

200 CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

201CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

provided they were secure, at peace and reason-ably taxed. The people of the countryside . . .lived under their own chiefs and . . . with theirown customs, and it made little difference tothem who ruled the cities. For some, the replace-ment of Greeks and Iranians by Arabs evenoffered advantages.”

—Albert Hourani, 1991A History of the Arab Peoples

1. Review the information presented in this sectioncarefully. Using the material from the text andinformation obtained from your own outsideresearch, explain why both of these viewpointscan be considered valid.

2. Compare the information given in the secondexcerpt to attitudes of other conquered peoplesthat you have read about. Do you believe thatmost people easily accept outside rule? Whatfactors lead to acceptance and what factors leadto rebellion against outside rule?

Decline and Division Despite its prosperity, all wasnot well in the empire of the Abbasids. There wasmuch fighting over the succession to the caliphate.When Harun al-Rashid died, his two sons fought tosucceed him, almost destroying the city of Baghdad.

Vast wealth gave rise to financial corruption.Members of Harun al-Rashid’s clan were given largesums of money from the state treasury. His wife wasreported to have spent vast amounts on a pilgrimageto Makkah.

The process of disintegration was helped along bya shortage of qualified Arabs for key positions in thearmy and the civil service. As a result, caliphs beganto recruit officials from among the non-Arab peopleswithin the empire, such as Persians and Turks. Thesepeople were trained to serve the caliphs, but gradu-ally they also became a dominant force in the armyand the bureaucracy.

Eventually, rulers of the provinces of the AbbasidEmpire began to break away from the central authority

and establish independent dynasties. Spain had estab-lished its own caliphate when a prince of the Umayyaddynasty fled there in 750. Morocco became independ-ent, and a new dynasty under the Fatimids was estab-lished in Egypt, with its capital at Cairo, in 973. TheMuslim Empire was now politically divided.

Describing What changes did theAbbasid rulers bring to the world of Islam?

The Seljuk TurksThe Fatimid dynasty in Egypt soon became the

dynamic center of Islamic civilization. From theirposition in the heart of the Nile delta, the Fatimidsplayed a major role in the trade passing from theMediterranean to the Red Sea and beyond. They cre-ated a strong army by hiring non-native soldiers tofight for them. One such group was the Seljuk(SEHL•JOOK) Turks.

The Seljuk Turks were a nomadic people fromcentral Asia. They had converted to Islam and pros-pered as soldiers for the Abbasid caliphate. As theAbbasids grew weaker, the Seljuk Turks grewstronger, moving gradually into Iran and Armenia.By the eleventh century, they had taken over the east-ern provinces of the Abbasid Empire.

In 1055, a Turkish leader captured Baghdad andtook command of the empire. His title was sultan—or “holder of power.” The Abbasid caliph was stillthe chief religious authority, but, after they capturedBaghdad, the Seljuk Turks held the real military andpolitical power of the state.

By the second half of the eleventh century, theSeljuks were putting military pressure on the Byzan-tine Empire. In 1071, theByzantines foolishlychallenged the Turks,and the Byzantine armywas routed at Manzikertin modern-day easternTurkey. The Turks nowtook over most of theAnatolian Peninsula. In desperation, the ByzantineEmpire turned to the West for help.

Explaining How did the Seljuk Turksgradually replace the Abbasids?

The CrusadesThe Byzantine emperor Alexius I asked the Chris-

tian states of Europe for help against the Turks.Because the Christian states and the Islamic world

Reading Check

Reading Check

BaghdadMediterraneanSea

Black Sea

CaspianSea

Manzikert

BYZANTINEEMPIRE Anatolian

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feared and disliked each other, many Europeansagreed, beginning a series of crusades in 1096.

At first, Muslim rulers were thrown on the defen-sive by the invading crusaders, who were able toconquer areas and establish crusader states. In 1169,however, Saladin, a new Muslim ruler, took controlof Egypt and made himself sultan, thus ending theFatimid dynasty. He also established control overSyria and took the offensive against the Christianstates in the area. In 1187, Saladin’s army invadedthe kingdom of Jerusalem and destroyed the Chris-tian forces there. Soon the Christians were left withonly a handful of fortresses along the coast of Pales-tine. Saladin did not allow a massacre of the popu-lation. He even allowed Christian religious servicesto continue.

The Crusades had little lasting impact on South-west Asia, except to breed centuries of mistrustbetween Muslims and Christians. Far more importantwas the threat posed by new invaders—the Mongols.

Identifying Why did crusaders fromEurope invade Southwest Asia?

The MongolsThe Mongols were a pastoral people who swept

out of the Gobi in the early thirteenth century to seize control over much of the known world (seeChapter 8). These invaders were destructive in theirconquests. They burned cities to the ground,destroyed dams, and reduced farming villages to the

Reading Check

point of mass starvation. Their goal was to createsuch terror that people would not fight back.

Beginning with the advances led by GenghisKhan in North China, Mongol armies spread acrosscentral Asia. In 1258, under the leadership ofHülegü (hoo•LAY•GOO), brother of the morefamous Kublai Khan (KOO•BLUH•KAHN), theMongols seized Persia and Mesopotamia. TheAbbasid caliphate at Baghdad was brought to anend. Hülegü had a strong hatred of Islam. After hisforces captured Baghdad in 1258, he decided todestroy the city. Schools, libraries, mosques (Mus-lim houses of worship), and palaces were burned tothe ground.

The Mongols advanced as far as the Red Sea. Theirattempt to seize Egypt failed, however, in partbecause of resistance from the Mamluks. The Mam-luks were Turkish slave-soldiers who had over-thrown the administration set up by Saladin andseized power for themselves.

Over time, the Mongol rulers converted to Islamand began to intermarry with local peoples. Theybegan to rebuild the cities. By the fourteenth century,the Mongol Empire had begun to split into separatekingdoms. The old Islamic Empire established by theArabs in the seventh and eighth centuries had cometo an end. As a result of the Mongol destruction ofBaghdad, the new center of Islamic civilizationbecame Cairo, in Egypt.

Describing How did the Mongolsseize control of the Arab Empire in the early thirteenth century?

Reading Check

202 CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

Checking for Understanding1. Define caliph, jihad, Shiite, Sunni,

vizier, sultan, mosque.

2. Identify Abu Bakr, Mu’awiyah,Umayyad dynasty, Berbers, Hussein,Abbasid dynasty, Harun al-Rashid,Seljuk Turks, Saladin, Mongols.

3. Locate Syria, Damascus, Baghdad,Cairo.

4. Explain how General Mu’awiyah cre-ated the Umayyad dynasty.

5. List the occupations that were givenincreased respect under the Abbasids.

Critical Thinking6. Explain The initial Mongol reaction to

Islam was hatred and destruction, yetover time that changed. Why do youthink the Mongols gradually acceptedIslam?

7. Categorizing Information Create achart that shows the strengths andweaknesses of the Abbasid dynasty.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of the interior

courtyard of the Alhambra on page196. Where is this building located?Can you identify various influences on its architectural style?

9. Persuasive Writing Imagine you areGeneral Mu’awiyah and you have justbecome caliph. Write a speech thatoutlines how you will rule the empireand explain why you believe thecaliphate should be hereditary.

Strengths of Weaknesses of Abbasid dynasty Abbasid dynasty

Islamic CivilizationGuide to Reading

Main Ideas• An extensive trade network brought

prosperity to the Islamic world.• The Quran provided fundamental guide-

lines for all Muslims, not only in spiri-tual affairs but also in politics,economics, and social life.

Key Terms bazaar, dowry

People to Identify Abbasids, Fatimids

Places to Locate Morocco, Caspian Sea, Córdoba

Preview Questions1. List the items traded in the Arab

Empire and where they came from.2. What were the basic characteristics of

Islamic society?

Reading Strategy Compare and Contrast Create a chartlike the one below comparing the urbanareas of the Arab Empire to the morerural areas of the empire.

✦600 ✦700 ✦800 ✦900 ✦1000

635The Quran is compiled

750Trade begins to flourish during the Abbasid dynasty

C. 800Baghdad reaches its heightof prosperity

Preview of Events

CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam 203

In the late twelfth century, a Spanish rabbi wrote the following account of Baghdad,one of the world’s greatest cities, during a visit there:

“The city of Baghdad is twenty miles in circumference, situated in a land of palms,gardens, and plantations, the like of which is not to be found in the whole land ofMesopotamia. People come there with merchandise from all lands. Wise men livethere, philosophers who know all manner of wisdom, and magicians expert in all man-ner of witchcraft. . . . Within the domains of the palace of the caliph there are greatbuildings of marble and columns of silver and gold, and carvings upon rare stones arefixed in the walls. In the caliph’s palace are great riches and towers filled with gold.”

—The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, M.N. Adler, trans., 1907

The riches of Baghdad symbolized the prosperity of the Arab Empire.

Prosperity in the Islamic WorldOverall, the period of the Arab Empire was prosperous. The Arabs carried on

extensive trade, not only within the Islamic world but also with China, the Byzan-tine Empire, India, and Southeast Asia. Trade was carried both by ship and bycamel caravans, which traveled from Morocco in the far west to the countriesbeyond the Caspian Sea.

Starting around 750, trade flourished under the Abbasid dynasty. From southof the Sahara came gold and slaves; from China, silk and porcelain; from easternAfrica, gold and ivory; and from the lands of Southeast Asia and India, sandal-wood and spices. Within the empire, Egypt contributed grain; Iraq providedlinens, dates, and precious stones; and western India supplied textile goods. The

Voices from the Past

Urban areas Rural areas

Baghdad

CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

Housing and Food in the Islamic Empire

As might be expected, housing condi-tions in the Islamic Empire during this

period varied widely according to theregion and the economic conditions of theindividual family. In the cities, houses wereoften constructed of stone or brick arounda wooden frame. The larger houses wereoften built around an inner courtyardwhere the residents couldretreat from the dust, noise,and heat of the city streets.Sometimes domestic ani-mals like goats and sheepwould be stabled there.

The houses of thewealthy often had several

stories. Rooms upstairs would have bal-conies and windows covered with latticedshutters to provide privacy and relief fromheat and cold for those inside. Walls wouldbe plastered and decorated with designs.

The poor in both urban and rural areaslived in simpler houses made of clay orunfired bricks. In the cities, the poor oftencrowded into huts built around an opencourtyard. Lesser merchants and artisansmight live in apartment houses. The

Bedouins, like nomads else-where, lived in tents thatcould be taken down andmoved according to theneeds of the day.

Eating habits varied con-siderably, based on one’seconomic standing. The

Bedouin woman making bread

204

development of banking and the use of coins made iteasier to exchange goods.

The Role of Cities With flourishing trade cameprosperous cities. While the Abbasids were inpower, Baghdad, the Abbasid capital known as theCity of Peace, was probably the greatest city in theempire and one ofthe greatest cities inthe world. After therise of the Fatimidsin Egypt, however,the focus of tradeshifted to Cairo. Atraveler describedCairo as “one of the greatest and most famous citiesin all the whole world, filled with stately andadmirable palaces . . . and most sumptuous tem-ples.” Another great trading city was Damascus inmodern-day Syria.

Baghdad, Cairo, and Damascus were the centers ofadministrative, cultural, and economic activity fortheir regions. Aside from these capital cities, travelers

Cairo

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did not find Islamic cities to be especially grand,though the cities did outshine those of mostly ruralEurope. This is exemplified by Córdoba, the capitalof Umayyad Spain. With a population of two hun-dred thousand, Córdoba was Europe’s largest cityafter Constantinople.

Islamic cities had a distinctive physical appear-ance. Usually, the most impressive urban buildingswere the palaces for the caliphs or the local governorsand the great mosques for worship. There were alsopublic buildings with fountains and secluded court-yards, public baths, and bazaars or marketplaces.

The bazaar, or covered market, was an importantpart of every Muslim city or town. Goods from manyregions were available in the bazaar. To guaranteehigh standards, market inspectors enforced rules, suchas the daily washing of counters and containers.Guidelines were established for food prepared for saleat the market. One rule stated, “Grilled meats shouldonly be made with fresh meat and not with meat com-ing from a sick animal and bought for its cheapness.”The bazaar also housed many craftspeople’s shops, aswell as services such as laundries and bathhouses.

205CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

poor were generally forced to survive onboiled millet or peas, served occasionallywith meat. Bread was crucial to the dietof the poor. Usually made of wheat, itcould be found on tables throughout theregion except in the deserts whereboiled grain was the staple food.

The rich had greater variety in theirdiet. Muslims do not eat pork, butthose who could afford it often servedother meats—boiled or roasted—such aslamb, poultry, or fish. A variety of veg-etables and fruits, including grapes,oranges, apricots, dates, and peaches,were also found on the tables of thewell-to-do. Dairy products, made fromthe milk of sheep, goats, camels, andcows, included cheese, butter, andyogurt. Mild spices such as pepper andsalt were used with some foods. Delica-cies included sweets, usually made withhoney as a sweetener.

Shoppers at a textile market

CONNECTING TO THE PAST

1. Summarizing Information Describe the differencesbetween the lifestyles of the wealthy and the poor.

2. Writing about History Pretend you live in theIslamic Empire, and you have just been hired as aservant. Write a description of the living conditionsof the rich. How do you think a wealthy citizen ofthe Islamic Empire would react to seeing the livingstandards of the poor?

The Importance of Farming The Arab Empire wasmore urban than most other areas of the world at thetime. Nevertheless, a majority of people still lived inthe countryside, making their living by farming orherding animals.

During the early stages of the empire, most of thefarmland was owned by independent peasants.Later, wealthy landowners began to amass largeestates. Some lands were owned by the state or thecourt and were farmed by slave labor. In the Tigris,Euphrates, and Nile River valleys, however, mostfarmers remained independent peasants. Despite allthe changes since the days of ancient Egypt, peasantsalong the Nile continued to farm the way their ances-tors had.

Identifying List the major Islamiccities. What activities were centered there?

Islamic SocietyTo be a Muslim is not simply to worship Allah but

also to live one’s life according to Allah’s teachings asrevealed in the Quran, which was compiled in

Reading Check

635. As Allah has decreed, so must humans live.Questions concerning politics, economics, and sociallife are answered by following Islamic teachings.

Social Structure According to Islam, all people areequal in the eyes of Allah. In reality, however, thiswas not strictly the case in the Arab Empire. Therewas a fairly well defined upper class that consisted ofruling families, senior officials, nomadic elites, andthe wealthiest merchants. Even ordinary merchants,however, enjoyed a degree of respect that merchantsdid not receive in Europe, China, or India.

One group of people in the Islamic world was notconsidered equal. They were the slaves. As in theother civilizations we have examined so far, slaverywas widespread. Because Muslims could not beslaves, most of their slaves came from Africa or fromnon-Islamic populations elsewhere in Asia. Manyhad been captured in war.

Slaves often served in the army. This was espe-cially true of slaves recruited from the Turks of cen-tral Asia. Many military slaves were freed. Someeven came to exercise considerable power.

Many slaves, especially women, were used asdomestic servants. These slaves were sometimes per-mitted to purchase their freedom. Islamic law madeit clear that slaves should be treated fairly, and it wasconsidered a good act to free them.

The Role of Women The Quran granted womenspiritual and social equality with men. Believers,men and women, were to be friends and protectors ofone another. Women had the right to the fruits oftheir work and to own and inherit property. Womenhad played prominent roles in the rise of Islam dur-ing the time of Muhammad.

Islamic teachings did account for differencesbetween men and women in the family and socialorder. Both had duties and responsibilities. As in most

societies of the time, however, men were dominantin Muslim society.

Every woman had a male guardian, be it father,brother, or other male relative. Parents or guardiansarranged marriages for their children. The Quranallowed Muslim men to have more than one wife, butno more than four. Most men, however, were unableto afford more than one, because they were requiredto pay a dowry (a gift of money or property) to theirbrides. Women had the right to freely enter into marriage, but they also had the right of divorceunder some circumstances. Adultery was forbiddento both men and women.

After the spread of Islam, older customs erodedthe rights enjoyed by early Muslim women. Forexample, some women were secluded in their homesand kept from social contacts with males outsidetheir own families. One jurist wrote that “some. . .have said that a woman should leave her house on three occasions only: when she is conducted to the house of her bridegroom, on the deaths of herparents, and when she goes to her own grave.”

The custom of requiring women to cover virtuallyall parts of their bodies when appearing in publicwas common in the cities and is still practiced todayin many Islamic societies. It should be noted, how-ever, that these customs owed more to traditionalArab practice than to the Quran. Despite the restric-tions, the position of women in Islamic society wasbetter than it had been in former times, when womenhad often been treated like slaves.

Describing Describe how life in theArab Empire did and did not reflect the principle of equality.

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206 CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

Checking for Understanding1. Define bazaar, dowry.

2. Identify Abbasids, Fatimids.

3. Locate Morocco, Caspian Sea, Córdoba.

4. Explain how high standards wereensured at bazaars. What was sold atthe bazaar?

5. Identify the basic differences in theroles of Muslim men and women.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze What was the importance of

trade to Arab life, both in rural areasand in cities?

7. Summarizing Information Use a chartto list the characteristics of farming dur-ing the Arab Empire.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph of a market

on page 205 of your text. Describe howthis photograph reflects the economicinfluence of women in Islamic culture.

“Our religion and our Empire are Arab and twins.”—al-Biruni 973–c. 1050 Muslim writer of Iranian origin

9. Descriptive Writing Imagine thatyou are an inspector at a bazaar.Describe what is sold at the bazaar.Then describe the types of violationsthat you are searching for and waysyou use to spot violations.

Characteristicsof Farming

An illustrated sectionof the Quran

The Culture of IslamGuide to Reading

Main Ideas• Muslim scholars made great advances

in the areas of mathematics and thenatural sciences.

• Muslim art and architecture incorpo-rated innovative, geometric styles ofdecoration.

Key Termsastrolabe, minaret, muezzin, arabesque

People to IdentifyIbn-Rushd, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn-Khaldun, Omar Khayyám

Places to LocateSamarra, Granada

Preview Questions1. What was the House of Wisdom?2. What are the traits of Islamic art?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to identify the achieve-ments of Islamic civilization.

✦700 ✦800 ✦850 ✦750 ✦900

700Papermaking introducedto Arab Empire

848Great Mosque ofSamarra is built

c. 900Ibn Sina writes Canon of Medicine

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CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam 207

In his Autobiography, the eleventh-century Islamic scholar Ibn Sina, known in theWest as Avicenna, described his early training:

“By the time I was [10] I had mastered the Quran and a great deal of literature.There followed training in philosophy . . . then I took to reading texts by myself . . .mastering logic, geometry and astronomy. I now occupied myself with mastering thevarious texts and commentaries on natural science and metaphysics, until all the gatesof knowledge were open to me. Next I desired to study medicine, and proceeded toread all the books that have been written on this subject. At the same time I continuedto study and dispute on law, being now sixteen years of age.”

—Autobiography, Ibn Sina

Ibn Sina was one of the Islamic world’s greatest scholars.

Preservation of KnowledgeDuring the first few centuries of the Arab Empire, the ancient Greek philoso-

phers were largely unknown in Europe. The Arabs, however, were not only awareof Greek philosophy, they were translating works by Plato and Aristotle into Ara-bic. The translations were then put in a library called the House of Wisdom inBaghdad, where they were read and studied by Muslim scholars. Similarly, textson mathematics were brought to Baghdad from India.

The process of translating works and making them available to scholars wasaided by the making of paper, which was introduced from China in the eighthcentury. By the end of the century, paper factories had been established in Bagh-dad. Booksellers and libraries soon followed.

Voices from the Past

Achievements of Islam

An Arabic manuscript

208 CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

the position of the stars. They were aware that Earthwas round, and they named many stars. They alsoperfected the astrolabe, an instrument used bysailors to determine their location by observing thepositions of stars and planets. The astrolabe made itpossible for Europeans to sail to the Americas.

Muslim scholars developed medicine as a field ofscientific study. Especially well known was thephilosopher and scientist, Ibn Sina (IH•buhnSEE•nuh). He wrote a medical encyclopedia that,among other things, stressed the contagious nature ofcertain diseases. Ibn Sina showed how diseases couldbe spread by contaminated water supplies. After itwas translated into Latin, Ibn Sina’s work became abasic medical textbook for university students inmedieval Europe. Ibn Sina was only one of many Ara-bic scholars whose work was translated into Latinand thus helped the development of intellectual life inEurope in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.

Islamic scholars also took an interest in writinghistory. Ibn-Khaldun (IH•buhn KAL•DOON), wholived in the fourteenth century, was the most promi-nent Muslim historian of the age. Disappointed in hiscareer in politics, he began to devote his time to thestudy and writing of history.

In his most famous work Muqaddimah (Introductionto History), he argued for a cyclical view of history.Civilizations, he believed, go through regular cyclesof birth, growth, and decay. He sought to find a sci-entific basis for the political and social factors thatdetermine the course of history.

Identifying What instrument used bysailors was perfected by Muslim astronomers in Baghdad?

LiteratureIslam brought major changes to the culture of

Southwest Asia, including its literature. ThoughMuslims regarded the Quran as their greatest literarywork, pre-Islamic traditions continued to influencewriters throughout the region.

One of the most familiar works ofMiddle Eastern literature is the Rubaiyat(ROO•bee•AHT) of Omar Khayyám(KY•YAHM). Another is The 1001 Nights(also called The Arabian Nights).

Little is known of the life or the poetryof the twelfth-century Persian poet,mathematician, and astronomer, OmarKhayyám. We do know that he did notwrite down his poems but composedthem orally. His simple, down to earth

Reading Check

Islamic doctors could diagnoseand treat many illnesses. Muslimastronomers perfected the astro-labe (above). Why was Islamicmedicine more advanced thanEuropean medicine?

History

It was through the Muslim world that Europeansrecovered the works of Aristotle and other Greekphilosophers. In the twelfth century, the Arabic trans-lations were translated into Latin, making themavailable to the West.

Explaining Why was paper manufac-turing important to Islamic culture?

Philosophy, Science, and HistoryThe brilliant Islamic civilization contributed more

intellectually to the West than translations, however.When Aristotle’s works arrived in Europe in the sec-ond half of the twelfth century, they were accompa-nied by commentaries written by outstanding Arabicphilosophers. One such philosopher was Ibn-Rushd(IH•buhn•RUSHT). He lived in Córdoba and wrote acommentary on virtually all of Aristotle’s survivingworks.

Islamic scholars also made contributions to math-ematics and the natural sciences that were passed onto the West. The Muslims adopted and passed on thenumerical system of India, including the use of thezero. In Europe, it became known as the “Arabic”system. A ninth-century Iranian mathematician cre-ated the mathematical discipline of algebra, which isstill taught in schools today.

In astronomy, Muslims set up anobservatory at Baghdad to study

Reading Check

poetry was recorded later by friends or scribes. As canbe seen in the following lines, Omar Khayyám won-dered about the meaning of life, which seemed to passtoo quickly. He writes,

“They did not ask me, when they planned my life;Why then blame me for what is good or bad?Yesterday and today go on without us;Tomorrow what’s the charge against me, pray?In youth I studied for a little while;Later I boasted of my mastery.Yet this was all the lesson that I learned:We come from dust, and with the wind are gone.Of all the travelers on this endless roadNo one returns to tell us where it leads,There’s little in this world but greed and need;Leave nothing here, for you will not return.”

The anonymous stories of The Arabian Nights are acollection of folktales, fables, and romances that blendthe natural with the supernatural. The earliest storieswere told orally and then written down later, withmany additions, in Arabic and Persian. The famousstory of Aladdin and the magic lamp, for example,was added in the eighteenth century. The ArabianNights allows the reader to enter a land of wish ful-fillment through unusual plots, comic and tragic situ-ations, and a cast of unforgettable characters.

Comparing What are the similaritiesbetween the Rubaiyat and The Arabian Nights?

Reading Check

Art and ArchitectureIslamic art is a blend of Arab, Turkish, and Persian

traditions. The best expression of Islamic art is found inthe magnificent Muslim mosques. The mosque repre-sents the spirit of Islam.

The Great Mosque ofSamarra in present-day Iraq isthe largest mosque ever built(848 to 852), covering 10 acres(more than 40,000 square m).The most famous section of theSamarra mosque is its minaret.This is the tower from whichthe muezzin (moo•EH•zuhn),or crier, calls the faithful toprayer five times a day. Theminaret of Samarra, nearly 90 feet (around 27 m) inheight, was unusual because of its outside spiralstaircase.

One of the most famous mosques is the ninth-century mosque at Córdoba in southern Spain. It isstill in remarkable condition today. Its 514 columns,which support double-horseshoe arches, transformthis building into a unique “forest of trees” pointingupward, giving it a light and airy effect.

209CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

BaghdadSamarra

Tigris R.Euphrate s R.Arabian

PeninsulaPersianGulf

Black Sea

CaspianSea

RedSea

Rumi1201–1273—Sufi poet and mystic

The thirteenth-century poet Rumiembraced Sufism, a form of Sunnireligious belief that focused on a closepersonal relationship with Allah. Rumiwas converted to Sufism by a wander-ing dervish. (Dervishes try to achieveunion with Allah through dancing andchanting.) He then abandoned orthodoxIslam to embrace God directly through love.

Rumi sought to achieve union with God through atrance attained in the whirling dance of the dervishes, setto enchanting music. As he twirled, Rumi composed hispoems: “Come! But don’t join us without music. . . . Weare the spirit’s treasure, Not bound to this earth, to timeor space. . . . Love is our mother. We were born of Love.”

Whirling dervishes

The minaret of the Samarra mosque

palaces. One feature of these castleswas a gallery over the entrance gatewith holes through which boilingoil could be poured down on theheads of attacking forces. This fea-ture was taken over by the cru-saders and became part ofEuropean castles.

The finest example of the Islamicpalace is the fourteenth-centuryAlhambra in Granada, Spain.Every inch of the castle’s surface isdecorated in floral and abstract pat-terns. Much of the decoration isplasterwork that is so finely carvedthat it looks like lace. The Alhambra

is considered an excellent expression of Islamic art.Most decorations on all forms of Islamic art con-

sisted of Arabic letters, natural plants, and abstractfigures. These decorations were repeated over andover in geometric patterns called arabesques thatcompletely covered the surfaces of objects.

No representation of the prophet Muhammadever adorns a mosque, in painting or in any other artform. The Quran does not forbid representationalpainting. However, the Hadith, an early collection ofthe prophet’s sayings, warns against any attempt toimitate God by creating pictures of living beings. Asa result, from early on, no representations of figuresappear in Islamic religious art.

Summarizing What are the charac-teristics of the largest mosque ever built?

Reading Check

210 CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam

9. Descriptive Writing Imagine thatyou are a young Muslim Arab corre-sponding with a European friend. Ina brief paragraph describe Islamicaccomplishments in art and archi-tecture to your friend.

Checking for Understanding1. Define astrolabe, minaret, muezzin,

arabesque.

2. Identify Ibn-Rushd, Ibn Sina (Avi-cenna), Ibn-Khaldun, Omar Khayyám,Alhambra.

3. Locate Samarra, Granada.

4. Explain how the Muslims transmittedancient literature to other cultures.

5. List the other cultures that influencedIslamic art and architecture.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate Argue against the viewpoint

that Islamic civilization was mainly apreserver and transmitter of culture,rather than a creator of culture.

7. Organizing Information Create atable like the one below to identify anddescribe two important Islamic worksof literature.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the mosque at Samarra on

page 209 and the mosque shown on page 190. Compare and contrasthow both mosques reflect Islamic architecture.

Literary Work Description

History through Architecture

The Mosque of Córdoba This mosque inSpain is famous for the symmetry of its arches.Intricate arabesque patterns highlight the interiorof this mosque and others. Why do mosques use abstract forms of decoration?

Because the Muslim religion combines spiritualand political power in one, palaces also reflected theglory of Islam. Beginning in the eighth century withthe spectacular castles of Syria, Islamic rulers con-structed large brick palaces with protective walls,gates, and baths.

Designed around a central courtyard surroundedby two-story arcades and massive gate-towers,Islamic castles resembled fortresses as much as

211

Applying the Skill

Scan a local newspaper for a short editorial or an arti-cle about an important issue or event in the worldtoday. Take notes by writing the main idea and sup-porting facts. Summarize the article using only yournotes.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

Taking NotesUsing this textbook as a source, read the material

on “The Life of Muhammad” in Section 1. Afterreviewing the material, prepare notes as if you werewriting a report. Use the first set of notes as anexample.

Topic: The Life of Muhammad

Main Idea: Who was Muhammad?

1 Born to merchant family but orphaned at agefive

2 Became a caravan manager and married his richemployer

3 Troubled by gap between poor Bedouins andrich traders and withdrew to hills to meditate

4 During meditations had visions and heardvoices and believed that it was Allah

Main Idea: How did Muhammad spread the reli-gion of Islam?

1

2

3

Main Idea: What were Muhammad’s teachings?

1

2

3

Why Learn This Skill?Effective note taking involves more than just

writing down everything your teacher says. Theinformation you write down should be meaningfuland concise so that it can be understood andremembered when reviewed.

Learning the SkillTo take notes, follow these steps:

• Do not try to write down everything. Listen for thekey points. Note these, along with any importantfacts and figures that support these points.

• Use abbreviations and phrases.

• Copy words, statements, or diagrams drawn onthe chalkboard.

• Ask the teacher to repeat important points youhave missed or do not understand.

• Organize notes from textbooks into an outline.

• For a research report, take notes on cards. Notethe title, author, and page number. Use them as areference in your report.

Practicing the SkillSuppose you are writing a research paper on the

topic “The Life of Muhammad.” First, ask yourselfquestions about the main ideas of this topic, such as: “Who was Muhammad?”, “How did he spreadthe religion of Islam?”, “What were his teachings?”Then, find material that answers each of these questions.

A decorative tilewith inscription“Allah is Great”

CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam212

Using Key Terms1. are Muslim houses of worship.

2. The leader of the Seljuk Turks was called a , or“holder of power.”

3. A crucial part of every Muslim city or town was the coveredmarket, called the .

4. The journey of Muhammad from Makkah to Madinah isknown in history as the .

5. The sacred book of is called the Quran.

6. According to the Quran, means struggle in the wayof God.

7. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is making a pilgrimage, calledthe , to Makkah.

8. Islamic geometric designs entwined with natural plants, Arabic letters, and abstract figures are known as .

9. Islamic scholars and theologians organized Islamic moralrules into the , or code of law.

10. During the Abbasid dynasty, the council that advised thecaliph was led by a prime minister known as a .

Reviewing Key Facts11. Geography How did the harsh environment of Arabia

shape the political and economic life of the people?

12. Government What is a caliph and how did they administertheir empire?

13. History Identify the changes in the Arabian Peninsula dur-ing the 600s.

14. Economics How did the caravan trade benefit the ArabianPeninsula in the fifth and sixth centuries and why did thetrade routes change during this time?

15. Culture What is the significance of the Black Stone andwhere is it located?

16. Geography Trace the expansionist movement of the Arabsfrom 632 to 1055.

17. History What is the basic message of the Quran and whenwas it compiled?

18. Culture What were some of the physical characteristics ofIslamic cities?

19. History What are the main differences between the Shiitesand the Sunnites?

20. Science and Technology Name three contributions byMuslim scholars in the fields of mathematics and the naturalsciences.

Critical Thinking21. Compare and Contrast Compare and contrast the Islamic

religion to Christianity.

22. Drawing Conclusions Evaluate the significance in worldhistory of the Battle of Tours in 732 and the destruction ofthe Muslim fleet in 717.

Writing About History23. Expository Writing The Arabian Nights incorporates tales

from many cultures. What does this tell us about the diversenature of Islamic society? Find a story from The ArabianNights and analyze how it reflects Islamic society.

Islamic civilization is renowned for its innovation, movement, and cultural diffusion.

• irrigation

• astrolabe

• algebra

• large-scale papermanufacturing

• trade routes

• Arab expansion inAfrica, Asia, and Europe

• movement of Arabcenter of power fromMakkah to Baghdadto Cairo

• Bureaucracy relies onnon-Arabs.

• Arabs translateGreek philosophers.

• Ibn Sina’s medicaltextbook is standardin Europe.

Innovation Movement Cultural Diffusion

Analyzing Maps and Charts28. The Umayyads moved their capital from Makkah to Damas-

cus, and the Abbasids then moved it to Baghdad. What werethe advantages of these moves?

29. Trade went overland or by sea. What were the advantagesand disadvantages of each method?

30. How far did a caravan travel overland from Makkah to Constantinople? Calculate your answer in miles and kilo-meters using the map’s scale.

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History Web site at

and click on Chapter 6–Self-CheckQuiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.wh.glencoe.com

HISTORY

StandardizedTest Practice

CHAPTER 6 The World of Islam 213

Analyzing SourcesRead the following poem by Omar Khayyám.

“ They did not ask me, when they planned my life;Why then blame me for what is good or bad?Yesterday and today go on without us;Tomorrow what’s the charge against me, pray?In youth I studied for a little while;Later I boasted of my mastery.Yet this was all the lesson that I learned;We come from dust, and with the wind are gone.Of all the travelers on this endless roadNo one returns to tell us where it leads,There’s little in this world but greed and need;Leave nothing here, for you will not return. ”

24. How do you think Omar Khayyám viewed life in SouthwestAsia in the twelfth century?

25. Find another translation of this poem and compare the two.Are they similar? How do they differ? Can you corroboratewhich translation is most representative of the originalpoem? Explain the steps you took to make your decision.

Applying Technology Skills26. Creating a Database Search the Internet to find informa-

tion about different modern Islamic countries. Build a data-base collecting information about the Islamic countries ofthe world. Include information about beliefs, practices, anddemographics of each country. Identify each country’s majorcities, major imports and exports, and cultural treasures.Choose one country and present your findings to the class.

Making Decisions27. Imagine that you are a Bedouin, used to living in the desert

with your family. You have grown accustomed to thenomadic lifestyle. You are offered the opportunity to joinanother family in the city, go to school daily, and meet newfriends who have grown up in the city. What would youchoose to do? Justify your answer with logic and supportyour position with research from both traditional and elec-tronic sources.

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

What is a similarity between the religions of Islam andChristianity?

F They are both monotheistic.

G They both believe that Allah and Muhammad areprophets.

H Both religions forbid the eating of pork.

J Believers of both religions were persecuted by theRomans.

Test-Taking Tip: When a question asks for a similarity,check that your answer is true for both parts of the compar-ison. In this case, you need something that is true for bothfaiths. Wrong answer choices often describe only one halfof the comparison.

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection500 kilometers

500 miles0

0

N

S

EW

50°E40°E30°E20°E

40°N

30°N

20°N

Mediterranean Sea

Black Sea

CaspianSea

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.

Nile

R.

EuphratesR.

EGYPT

SYRIA

PALESTINE

IRAQPERSIA

ARABIAB

YZANTINE EMPIRE

DamascusJerusalem

Madinah

Makkah

Baghdad

Constantinople

Kufa

Abbasid Trade Routes, 800

Abbasid Empire, 800Trade route

World Religions214

ow was the universe created? What happens when we die? How do we

become good people? These are some of thequestions that religions attempt to answer. By creating an organized system of worship, religions help us make sense of our lives andour world.

Religion can be an individual belief. In somenations, religion is also state policy. Throughouthistory, religions have had the power both tounite people and to create terrible conflict.Today, there are thousands of religions practicedby about 6 billion people around the world.

HMajor World Religions

Religion Number of Followers

Christianity

Islam

Hinduism

Buddhism

Confucianism

Judaism

1,974,181,000

1,155,109,000

799,028,000

356,270,000

154,080,000

14,313,000

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF CANCER

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

ARCTICCIRCLE

Atlantic

OceanPacific

Ocean

Pacific

Ocean

Indian

Ocean

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIAEUROPE

AUSTRALIA

ANTARCTICA

0°

0°

30°S

60°S

60°E 120°E60°W120°W

30°N

60°N

Winkel Tripel projection3,000 kilometers0

3,000 miles0

N

S

EW

World Religions

Orthodox and other Eastern ChurchesProtestantismRoman Catholicism

BuddhismConfucianismHinduismJudaismTraditionalreligions

Christianity: Other:

ShiiteSunni

Islam:

Official or principal religion practiced

Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica Book of the Year.Note: The figure for Confucianism includes Chinese followers.

Local R eligionsI

Although some religions have spread worldwide, many people still practice religions that originated and developed in their own area.

World Religions 215

AustraliaThere are no deities in the traditional beliefsof the aborigines of Australia. Their livesrevolve around a belief known as theDreamtime. According to aboriginalmythology, ancestor heroes created theworld and all it contains during the Dream-time. The aborigines also believe in spiritsthat inhabit the natural world and can bereborn or return to the earth many times.

Japan In Japan there are over 80,000 Shintoshrines, such as the one shown to the left.Shintoism, which goes back to prehistorictimes, has no formal doctrine. Believersworship kami, which are sacred spirits thattake on natural forms such as trees ormountains. They also worship ancestors or protectors of families.

North America The Navajo religion is distinct in that it must bepracticed in a particular geographical area. Navajopeople believe that the Creator instructed themnever to leave the land between four sacred moun-tains located in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona.Navajo dwellings, called hogans (at right), are sacredand constructed to symbolize their land: the fourposts represent the sacred mountains, the floor isMother Earth, and the dome-like roof is Father Sky.

Africa Many Africans south of the Sahara continue traditional religious practices. Because Africa hasmany ethnic groups, languages, customs, andbeliefs, it is not surprising that local religions arejust as diverse. Despite the differences, however,most Africans recognize one god whom they consider to be a supreme creator.

216 World Religions

ChristianityChristians believe in one God and that JesusChrist is the Savior, the Son of God, who wassent to Earth and died on the cross to savehumanity. Christians believe that faith in Jesussaves believers from God’s penalty for sin andbestows eternal life. The cross remains a verypotent symbol of the religion. For Christians, theBible is the inspired word of God. Christianitybegan approximately 2,000 years ago. It is practiced byalmost 2 billion people in nearly all parts of the world.

ConfucianismAlthough many people consider Confucianisma religion, it is actually a philosophy based onthe teachings of Confucius, a Chinese scholarwho lived about 500 B.C. He believed that moralcharacter and social responsibility were the wayto lead a fulfilling life. Confucianism has beenan important influence on Chinese life since itsfounding, and Confucius is often honored as aspiritual teacher.

BuddhismBuddhism began in India around the sixth century B.C. and today is practiced by over 350 million people throughout Asia. It is basedon the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama,known as the Buddha, or Enlightened One.The Buddha taught that to escape the sufferingcaused by worldly desires, people must followthe Eightfold Path, which prescribes a life of morality, wisdom, and contemplation. The Wheel of Law (at left) is an importantBuddhist symbol, representing the endlesscycle of life.

Major R eligionsIHistory and Beliefs

217World Religions

HinduismHinduism is the world’s oldest organized religion,starting in India about 1500 B.C. It has influenced andabsorbed many other religions. This has led to a widevariety of beliefs and practices among its followers,who number about 800 million and still live princi-pally in India. Although Hindus worship a number ofgods, today they primarily worship Siva and Vishnu(shown at left). Siva represents both the destructiveand creative forces of the universe. Vishnu is consid-ered the preserver of the universe.

IslamThe followers of Islam, known as Muslims,believe in one God, Allah. They also accept all the prophets of Judaism and Christianity.Muslims follow the practices and teachings ofthe Quran, which the prophet Muhammadsaid was revealed to him by Allah beginningin A.D. 610. In 2000, there were about 1.1 billion Muslims, living mainly in Asia andAfrica. Islam is often symbolized by a crescentmoon, an important element of Muslim ritu-als, which depend on the lunar calendar.

JudaismJews believe in only one God; in fact, their faith,Judaism, was the first monotheistic religion. Today,about 14 million people throughout the world prac-tice Judaism, with most Jews living in Israel and theUnited States. The main laws and practices ofJudaism are contained in the Torah (the Pentateuch),the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The six-pointed star, known as the Star of David (see theTorah mantle at left), was rarely used as a Jewishsymbol until the nineteenth century. Today it iswidely accepted and appears on the Israeli flag.

Major R eligionsIHistory and Beliefs

218 World Religions

BuddhismThe ultimate goal of Buddhism is to reachnirvana, an enlightened state that frees an indi-vidual from the suffering that is found in life.Anyone might reach nirvana, but it is consid-ered most attainable by Buddhist monks. Thesedevout believers usually live in monasteries,leading a disciplined life of poverty, meditation,and study. Those who are not monks pursueenlightenment by making offerings and per-forming rituals such as walking clockwisearound sacred domes, called stupas.

Major R eligionsIWorship and Celebrations

ChristianityChristians gather weekly to worship God andpray. Christians also observe important and joy-ful holidays such as Easter, which celebrates theresurrection of Jesus Christ. Christians believethat his resurrection was the evidence of God’spower over sin and death. Holy Week, the weekbefore Easter, begins with Palm Sunday, whichcelebrates Jesus’ arrival into Jerusalem. MaundyThursday, or Holy Thursday, commemoratesJesus’ last meal with his disciples. Good Fridayis a somber day in remembrance of Jesus’ death.

ConfucianismConfucianism does not have a god or clergy anddoes not concern itself with what could be con-sidered religious issues. It is more of a guide toethical behavior and good government. Despitethis, Confucius is venerated as a spiritual leader,and there are many temples dedicated to him.His teachings were recorded by his students in abook called the Analects, which have influencedChinese people for generations.

219World Religions

HinduismHindus believe that after death the soulleaves the body and is reborn in anotherperson, animal, vegetable, or mineral.Where a soul is reborn depends upon itskarma, or the accumulated merits or faultsof its past lives. One of the ways Hindusincrease “good” karma is through ritualssuch as washing away their sins. TheGanges is considered a sacred river toHindus, and each year thousands come tobathe in the water to purify themselves.

IslamRamadan is the ninth month of the Muslim cal-endar, commemorating the time during whichMuhammad received the Quran from Allah.During Ramadan, Muslims read from the Quranand fast from dawn until sunset. Fasting helpsbelievers focus on spiritual rather than bodilymatters. The daily fast is broken with prayersand a meal called the iftar. People celebrate theend of Ramadan with the Feast of the Fast, Eid-ul-Fitr.

JudaismObservant Jews follow many strict lawsthat guide their daily lives and the ways in which they worship. They recite theirprayers standing up and often wear aprayer shawl. Their heads are covered as a sign of respect for God. Every synagogue(place of worship) has a Torah, handwrittenon a parchment scroll. During services, theTorah is read to the congregation, and theentire text is read in the course of a year.

Major R eligionsIWorship and Celebrations