Unit 1

Overview of Applied Animal Management

What do we mean by APPLIED?

APPLICATION -- use, practice of animal management techniques Basic practical techniques commonly used in the livestock industry

o cost effective o easily performed day after day, year after year o good for the animals

With what species of animals are we concerned?

In this course, we will study animals raised commercially for food and fiber in the US

Cattle - dairy - beef Sheep Swine Poultry

What do we mean by MANAGEMENT?

To manage means "to handle or control". Animal management is the care, control and handling of the animal species under study. In our livestock species, most of the time and energies of the animal manager are spent providing food and shelter and assuring optimal health and reproductive capacity of the animals under the care of the manager. In this course we will study "typical livestock management systems." While we refer to these as "typical" management systems, the particular management system in any livestock operation will vary depending upon the following:

species of animal intended use of animal (dairy cow vs. beef cattle) location - part of the country, climate, resources available, nearness to neighbors, etc. resources of producer -- land, labor, capital materials handling required -- what goes in and what comes out of system

feed and water are materials handling inputs waste products and products to be marketed are materials handling outputs

government rules and regulations -- waste management, food safety, humane care, etc.

preference of producer, processor and consumer

A Good Management system must do the following:

provide for basic needs of animal -- food, water, shelter

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provide a product that can be sold at a profit for producer

In operating a livestock management system, a great deal of time is devoted to providing food and water, assuring the health of the animals under one's care and assuring animal reproduction in systems where reproduction is important to providing the final product. As a consequence, we will devote the majority of lecture time in this course to these topics.

Evolution of livestock management systems

Management systems are constantly evolving to more efficiently provide for the needs of animals in an economical and socially acceptable manner. We can appreciate this by examining the evolution of livestock production from the beginnings of the United States.

early pioneers cleared small plots of land and raised food principally for themselves the industrial revolution created nonfarm jobs.

o This also "industrialized" farming as machines were invented to plant and harvest crops, milk cows, etc.

o Agricultural industrialization was required so that farmers could produce surplus food to feed the "city folk"

the US moved from an agrarian society to an urban, industrialized society

Where are we now?

Farm population = <2% US population

2,073,000 farms/3,672,000 farm workers

People fed/farmer = 138

What does the future hold?

Larger production units controlled by fewer people Increasing governmental rules & regulations Decreasing knowledge and appreciation of agriculture by the general public Greater concern for product, food safety and environment

Broiler/Egg Laying Management System

Species -- Avian

General Characteristics

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Nutritional needs: Poultry are Monogastric animals and cannot digest and utilize forages to meet their nutritional needs. They need a complete balanced ration including grain, concentrate and vitamin and mineral supplements.

Environmental needs: Domesticated poultry are not readily adapted to outside environments. They are generally of low intelligence and are very susceptible to predators. Laying hens will produce best when housed at a specific day length of lighting.

Life Cycle Considerations

Broiler operation: reproduction is NOT an important consideration because chicks are supplied from a brood flock at 1 day of age and raised to be sold

Layer operation: reproduction is NOT an important consideration because a hen will lay eggs without mating, however lighting, nesting instincts, etc. must be considered.

Primary and Multiplier Breeder Flocks are the only enterprises where reproduction (mating, and production of fertile eggs) is a prime concern.

In the United States, the poultry has become fully vertically integrated, meaning that large corporations own all phases of the operation, including the feed mills that supply feed to the individual farms, the processing plants, and even the marketing and sales of the poultry products.

Vertical Integration in Poultry One Corporation owns everything but primary breeder flock

Intended Use--produce meat and eggs for human consumption. Sanitation and food safety concerns are being regulated at the processing and retail end of the fully integrated systems. The concern for protection of the food supply from bacterial contamination will affect management practices at the egg and broiler production phases as well.

Resources needed: Land, Labor, Capital

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Land is only needed for construction of the facilities; feedstuffs are typically purchased.

Labor needs are high in large flock commericial operations however much of the feeding, egg collection, etc. has been automated in the poultry industry.

Capital needs are high due to automation, need for feed storage and delivery equipment, etc. Existing facilities are usually not very adaptable.

Materials Handling

Input -- The materials handling input is high due to the large flock size (1,000-5,000 birds per building) in a totally confined operation.

Output --The materials handling output is also high due to daily egg collection and removal of waste material between batches of animals.

Swine Farrow-to-Finish Management System Species -- Porcine

General Characteristics

o Nutritional needs: Swine are also Monogastric animals and cannot digest and utilize forages to meet their nutritional needs. They need a complete balanced ration including grain, concentrate and vitamin and mineral supplements.

o Environmental needs: Swine are readily adapted to both inside and outside environments. Shelter and supplemental heat is needed during farrowing phases of production. Modern swine facilities are moving toward total confinement in which the feeding, health care and reproductive cycle can be more carefully controlled to maximize productivity. Some segments of the swine industry in the United States are also moving toward a fully integrated production system, similar to the poultry industry. Swine have a high level of intelligence.

Life Cycle Considerations:

o All stages of the life cycle are represented in a farrow-to-finish management system, consequently, reproduction is an important factor in the overall productivity of the operation. A different type of operation, the feeder pig operation, is similar to the beef feedlot operation, with purchase of nursery pigs who are simply fed and cared for until they reach market age and are sold for meat. In the feeder pig operation, reproduction would not be a consideration.

o Simultaneous management and care of different ages and life cycle phases (farrowing, nursery, growing and finishing phases) is required. This is accomplished in several different manners which are outlined below:

Continuous flow production scheme: Pigs are moving through each of the phases of this operation at any given time. As pigs reach the desired age or body weight to progress to the next phase of production,

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they are removed from a building and replaced by younger and lighter weight pigs. There is mixing of pigs of differing ages in each of the facilities.

All-in/All-out (AI/AO) production scheme : Pigs are grouped by age and/or body weight and remain in the same group as they move through the different production phases. When pigs move from one facility to another, the facility is completely emptied of animals and cleaned and sanitized before another group is moved into the facility.

Three site/Segregated Early Weaning (SEW) production scheme: Pigs are weaned from the sow at 10-14 days of age and moved as a group to a nursery located some distance from the farrowing facilities. At completion of the nursery phase of production, they are again moved as a group to a third site where the growing and finishing facilities are located. As with AI/AO production, all facilities are cleaned and disinfected between batches of pigs and traffic between each of the facilities is minimized.

In addition to these three most common rearing schemes, there are many other variations, such a recently introduced Wean-to-Finish management system.

Intended Use--produce lean meat acceptable to the consumer.

Regulation of waste materials management is the subject of considerable debate.

Protection of the food supply from drug residues and bacterial contamination are also becoming important issues.

Resources needed: Land, Labor, Capital

Land requirement has traditionally been high, because a typical operation produced its own grain and needed large amounts of highly productive crop land. Many of the newer, large confinement operations, however, purchase all their feed and only need land for construction of their facilities. The land requirements for these operations may change as waste management regulations evolve.

Labor needs are high especially as intensity and herd size increase. Capital needs are high in confinement operations and are less in pasture

rearing systems.

Materials Handling

Input -- The materials handling input is high due to large herd size (1,000-5,000 sow) in many large confinement operations.

Output --The materials handling output is also high due to waste generated by large numbers of animals.

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Unit 3

Poultry Reproduction

So far, in studying reproductive life cycle considerations, we have examined puberty, pregnancy and parturition in mammalian species in which the offspring develop inside the body of the dam and, after birth, are provided nourishment in the form of milk produced by the dam. In the avian species, however, the dam produces an egg in which, if fertilized, the offspring will undergo growth and development outside the body of the dam. The dam does not suckle it's young, either. As a consequence, there are a number of contrasts between avian and mammalian reproductive life cycles.

Puberty and Breeding in the Avian Species

The hen reaches puberty and starts to produce eggs at 4-5 months of age. As with mammals, the reproductive system is not functioning completely normally at the onset and hens at puberty produce small egg sizes and high percentages of eggs with twin yolks. Since these eggs do not produce viable offspring, hens are not bred to produce young until they reach 5-6 months of age.

The cockerel is capable of insemination at 4-5 months of age, but, like the hen, is not used for breeding until 6 months of age to insure viable sperm.

The natural instinct is to lay a "clutch" of eggs, become "broody", stop laying eggs (ovulating), and set on eggs to hatch. This broodiness has, for the most part, been bred out of our commercial breeds of poultry, and hens will produce eggs continuously. Hens do not have an estrus cycle, and will lay an egg nearly every day.

In contrast with mammalian species in which both ovaries are functional and either ovulate simultaneously, or alternately, 99% of hens have only one functional ovary.

Reproductive Physiology of the Hen

The reproductive tract of the hen is also different from mammals, and different functions are performed in different segments of the tract. The major structures are as follows:

OVARY - containing immature and mature follicles. The mature follicles consist of the egg "yolk" and the unfertilized ovum.

INFUNDIBULUM - yolk with attached ovum is snatched up by the infundibulum. It is at this point in the reproductive tract that the ovum is fertilized if the hen has been mated with a cockerel. Spermatozoa from the cockerel are stored in "sperm nests" located within the infundibulum and are capable of fertilizing ova for up to 30 days after mating.

MAGNUM - while traveling through this part of the oviduct, the albumin or egg white is formed.

ISTHMUS - the tough outer membrane located just beneath the egg shell is formed in this part of the oviduct.

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UTERUS - also referred to as the "shell gland", this is where the egg shell is formed. Most of the transit time from ovulation until the egg is laid is spent in the uterus.

VAGINA - the egg travels through the vagina into the cloaca, from which it is "laid." CLOACA - this is the common external opening from which the contents of the

urinary tract (urates), the intestinal tract (feces) and the reproductive tract (eggs) exit the hen.

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This image was taken from the Purdue Avian Sciences web page. For additional pictures of the reproductive tract of the hen, check the University of Georgia, Department of Poultry Sciences, PS 202 lab review materials. Slides 68, 70, 71, 73, 77 and 84 are particularly good examples.

General Information

A hen is capable of producing an egg every 25 hours. Eggs are produced and laid regardless of whether the hen has been mated and the eggs

are fertile or not. A hen is capable of laying approximately 270 eggs per year. The embryo in a cracked fertile egg will not develop. Incubation and hatching of fertile egg

o humidity & temperature control are important factors in the hatchability of fertilized eggs.

o Chicken -- eggs incubate 21 days; spend 1 day in hen; 22 days from fertilization to birth of chick

o Turkey, duck -- eggs incubate 28 days for a total of 29 days from fertilization to birth.

In addition to differences in the reproductive physiology, the development of avian offspring differs significantly from mammals in a number of other ways:

The shell takes the place of the uterus or womb in providing a dark, warm, moist sterile environment in which the offspring develop.

The albumin or egg white serves as a shock absorber for the developing embryo, just as the amniotic fluid does within the mammalian amniotic membranes (birth sac).

The yolk provides nourishment to the developing chick just as the umbilical cord provides nourishment to the developing mammal. The yolk also provides maternal antibodies to the chick to protect against infectious agents in the environment to which the hen has developed an immunity (this is similar to colostrum in mammals).

The chick develops outside and independent of the hen, and does not need the hen for survival provided that the proper environment is provided by man for incubation of the egg. Mammals develop inside the uterus of the dam and are dependent upon the health and well-being of the dam throughout the entire gestation for their health and well-being.

Animal Health Management

Part 1 -- Overview

Animal management and animal health cannot be separated-everything done to or for an animal will have an impact on the animal's health, either positive or negative.

A. Health vs disease

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1. Health--state of an individual living in complete harmony with its environment

2. Disease--condition in which an individual shows overt physiological, anatomical or chemical changes from normal

3. The difference between a healthy and diseased animal is that the healthy animal has not yet exhausted its normal adaptive powers. The animal is able to cope with challanges such that it does not adversely effect the animals' productivity. Challenges may include:

o infectious disease

o nutrition

o genetic makeup of animal

o environment

4. A good health management program will minimize the stresses and challenges on animals that may tip the balance in favor of disease, it will strive to keep diseases and health problems in check and still be economically feasible.

PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Recognizing What's Normal

In order to be able to tell when an animal is abnormal, it is important to know what is considered normal for each animal species.

Normal physiologic parameters that can be easily observed or measured in animal include the body temperature, pulse (number of heart beats per minute) and respiration (the number of breaths an animal takes per minute). These are commonly referred to as Vital Signs. Following are the normal ranges for vital signs in our common livestock species.

Species Temperature Pulse Respiration

Cattle 100-103oF 40-70/min 30/min

Sheep 101-104 60-120 19

Horse 99-101 25-70 12

Swine 101-104 55-85 16

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Chicken 105-109 250-300 12-36

Turkey 103-107 160-175 28-49

Recognition of abnormalities in an animal's behavior can also help to identify a sick animal. Normal behavior patterns, however, also differ from one species to another. Examples of differences in behavior between species follow:

Normal eating, drinking behavior

Pig: scoops feed with jaw, takes a few bites, then drinks, repeats until full, then lies down in comfortable spot to digest.

Cow: pulls forage with tongue, bites off and swallows whole, continues until full, then finds a comfortable spot to ruminate in sternal recumbency (one can observe cud chewing and see rumen contractions).

Chicken: takes water up in beak and raises head to swallow.

Normal fecal and urination pattern--color, odor, consistency, frequency vary with species and the diet being fed -- black, white or bloody feces are abnormal in all species.

Normal movement, posture, activity

Normal vocalization

Normal expression

It is important to remember that it is normal to have some variation! Examples of things that will result in normal variation in behavior and even physiologic parameters are:

"Heat" or estrus

Pregnancy and parturition

These life cycle changes have an effect on "normal" eating, sleeping, movement, etc. A calving cow goes off by itself. A sow paws as if to build a nest when close to parturition. Most animals do not eat the day of parturition.

It is important to observe the entire herd for normal activities. Look for things such as:

Social order--pecking order

Reactions to: visitors, dogs, wild animals, new additions to herd/flock, weather changes

Recognizing What's Abnormal --The Sick Animal

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For a manager that knows normal behavior, the sick or abnormal animal will be evident. Once again, both physiologic and behavioral parameters can be examined. Usually, the herdsperson will identify animals exhibiting abnormal behaviors, and will then check out the physiologic parameters. Knowing what is abnormal in the different body systems: digestive, respiratory, urinary, nervous, integumentary (skin, hair and feathers), locomotor, circulatory is essential. Examples of things to observe are listed below:

o Eating patterns--off feed, gaunt appearance

o Breathing, labored, etc

o Urination, defecation

o Movement

o Vocalization

o Appearance

o Weakness, collapse

o Excessive discharges-nasal, eye, anal, reproductive tract

Animal Health Management

Part B -- Control of Infectious Disease

Noninfectious Diseases

Although we will spend most of our efforts examining how to manage livestock to minimize infectious diseases, noninfectious diseases also play a significant role in animal health. These noninfectious diseases can be grouped into 4 general catagories, nutritional, metabolic, toxic and genetic diseases. Following are examples of each:

1. Nutritional--deficiency or excess of essential nutrients, water deprivation/salt toxicity, pregnancy toxemia

2. Metabolic--disorders of the animal's metabolic processes leading to such diseases as milk fever, ketosis and pregnancy toxemia

3. Toxic--animal intoxications due to ingestion or exposure to toxic plants, chemicals, insecticides, herbicides,etc.

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4. Genetic--disorders due to alterations or mutations in the animal's genetic makeup; can be heritable or spontaneous. Examples are Bovine Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (BLAD), Severe Combined Immune Deficiency (SCID), Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS).

Infectious Disease

Infectious diseases are caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi or protozoa. Before examining each of these classes of infectious agents, however, there are several important concepts that must be understood when dealing with infectious disease.

1. Contagious vs noncontagious disease -- Even though caused by an infectious agent, not all infectious diseases are highly contagious (easily spread from one animal to another by contact).

2. Infection does not always equal disease -- Even when an animal becomes infected with one of the infectious agents, they may not show overt signs of disease. Remember that the healthy animal has alot of reserve capacity to fight disease agents and mayl not show signs of disease until those reserves are depleted and the animal is overwhelmed.

3. Latent infections are infections that do not cause a visible disease in an animal. This is an example of concept 2, in which infection does not always equal disease. Latent infections can revert to a disease state, however, if the animal becomes stressed, malnurished, etc.

4. Endemic vs epidemic disease -- Endemic disease is a state in which a disease agent is circulating within a group of animals, but may be in a latent state and not be noticeable. Many of the animals in the group will be infected and show no signs of disease, many will have cleared the infecting agent and be immune, some will not be infected but will be susceptible to the agent, and a few animals may actually be sick. Epidemic disease is a state in which a group of naive animals become exposed to a disease agent to which they have not immunity. In this instance, large numbers of animals become sick and may die.

Parasites

Size--most can be seen with the naked eye, or low power microscope-multicellular organism-possess all genetic material and organelles needed to reproduce Location

Internal

stomach-sheep Haemonchus sucks blood and causes severe anemia (bottle jaw) in sheep

intestine-roundworms-migrate through lung, liver, blood vessels, causing damage during migration, compete for nutrients in the intestine; hookworms, whipworms-suck blood from the intestine

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lung worms, liver flukes are parasites that reside and damage the lungs and liver of animals

External

lice & mites-Northern fowl mite, mange mite

ticks-vector for other diseases-protozoan diseases, lyme disease; suck blood

flies-irritating, larvae may migrate throughout body and cause disease-stomach bot, nasal bot, warbles

Means of spread Egg contamination of the environment -- eggs &/or larvae often have long latent periods outside body Some internal parasites have an obligate intermediate host such as snail or insect-spend part of the time someplace else. Vertical transmission -- from mother to offspring either in utero or in milk Animal-to-animal contact -- external parasites are commonly spread in this fashion

Means of control (anthelmintics, mitocides, insecticides, etc.)--external-dust, spray on, pour on. Also oral or injectable for both internal and external.

Mech of action--some types of anthelminics kill the parasite directly; others interfere with the life cycle of parasite at one larval stage or another; others affect the nervous system-paralyze the intestinal worm which is then passed out with feces. Currently, there are no effective vaccines licensed in US to protect against parasitic infection. Development of resistance of parasite to the anthelmintic has been a problem with older medications; ivermectin very effective against wide spectrum of both internal and external, but expensive. Management techniques to minimize parasitic disease:

1) remove fecal material, disinfect, fumigate

2) rotate pastures

3) drain mudholes

4) monitor for disease -- vet examination of skin scrapings, fecal egg counts

5) prevent fecal contamination of feed

6) prompt removal of sick and dead animals

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7) do not feed garbage, especially uncooked (Trichinella spiralis)

Bacteria and Viruses

o Size--

Bacteria require light microscope to visualize, unicellular organism-possess all genetic material to reproduce. Viruses--submicroscopic, requires electron microscope to visualize and identify by size and shape, piece of DNA or RNA and envelope and a few enzymes-requires host cell to produce, reproduce.

Means of spread-- Direct contact between animals, Some bacteria and viruses can survive in environment, Others are obligate intracellular organisms, can only live and multiply within the animal. Some bacteria can survive and multiply in a contaminated environment

Means of control Bacteria--antibiotics to treat infection, vaccines to protect against infection Viruses--vaccines to prevent infection-nothing short of new generation interferon-type agents can treat infection and those are too expensive for animal use It is important to have a veterinarian confirm the diagnosis of bacterial and viral infections, because many different agents may cause diseases that appear the same

Fungi and Protozoa

o Fungi Types

Cutaneous -- contagious, and some are spread to man (zoonotic) Systematic -- usually noncontagious and most often found in animals with defective immune systems

Control Clean, sanitary environment Quarantine and isolation of new stock, infected animals Topical and/or systemic antifungal drugs

o Protozoa Types

Blood-borne Gastrointestinal -- Coccidia

Spread Dam to offspring Environment -- fecal-oral for coccidia Biting insects or dirty needles and syringes for blood-borne

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Control Cleanliness Coccidiostat drugs

Biologics and Pharmaceuticals

o Vaccines -- The purpose of a vaccine is to stimulate the animal's immune system to produce an active immunity. Vaccines are used to prevent diseases, not cure them. There are three general classes of vaccines:

Modified live (attenuated) vaccine--disease producing properties reduced, organism grows and multiplies in animal, stimulates stronger immune response

a. must be stored properly or it will loose effectiveness

o b. restrictions to use age of animal restricted in pregnant animals

o c. can cause mild disease with some types-if given to sick, debilitated animals, can cause apparent disease

Bacterin--killed bacteria, don't need to worry about causing disease-autogenous is made from strains present on farm (custom designed) usually doesn't provide as long lasting protection

Toxoid--prepared from a potent toxin that has been detoxified and will provide immunity to to effects of the toxin (tetanus, Clostridium perfringens enteritis in baby pigs)

Always read and follow the label before using vaccines!! Failure of a vaccine to adequately protect an animal against disease can be due to vaccine factors, animal factors, or human factors!

o Antibiotics -- The purpose of antibiotics are to treat bacterial infections; antibiotics are ineffective against viruses and most parasitic diseases.

Types:

Bacteriostatic

Bactericidal

Effective only against bacteria, not viruses WITHDRAWAL TIMES IN FOOD PRODUCING ANIMALS Use proper antibiotic for type of infection and use for perscribed duration-one shot is worse than none-development of resistance

o Routes of Administration of Biologics and Pharmaceuticals

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1. Topical--pour on anthelmintics, antibiotic ointment for superficial wounds, etc.

2. Oral--in water, feed, as drench, bolus or pill given with balling gun, paste squirted into mouth

3. Parenteral--injection, either intramuscular (IM), intravenous (IV) or subcutaneous (SQ)--important to use proper route

o Proper handling and use

1. READ LABEL --storage, expiration, route of administration, withdrawal

2. Sterile technique--clean needles and syringes, proper size, clean injection site

Animal Health Management

Part C -- Role of Management in Animal Health

At the beginning of this course, we examined a number of different Management Systems used in livestock production. Now we will examine how differing systems may affect animal health and what general things can be done to minimize disease in any production system.

Type of Animal Production System

Confinement vs open range -- The spread of most diseases is greater when large numbers of animals are in close proximity. Range animals, however, may have greater exposure to intermediate hosts for parasites such as the liver fluke, and to toxic plants. The quality of feedstuffs may not be as good and may lead to metabolic disease.

All-in/all-out vs continuous production in total confinement systems -- All-in/all-out production breaks the cycle of disease agents, and prevents the spread to differing age groups, the younger of which are usually more susceptible. Groups of animals kept together throughout their productive life don't fight as much, because they don't have to continually re-establish the social pecking order.

Feedlot cattle on high protein diet, finishing swine on high protein diet -- If these animals go off feed for 1-2 days and are then reintroduced to same high protein diet, it can result in health problems such as rumen acidosis (grain overload), or gastric ulcers

Herd Protection and Biosecurity -- General Considerations

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Control outside traffic-people & vehicles--provide boots and coveralls for visitors Control birds, rodents, stray animals Good animal isolation--good fences Quarantine sick animals -- have sick pen capabilities Necropsy dead animals to determine cause of death Good animal identification, production, reproduction and health records

Sanitation Program

Physically clean facilities and equipment -- organic matter provides a good environment for growth of microbes, prevents effective use of disinfectants, fumigants Use disinfectants/fumigants between batches of animals -- USE THESE PRODUCTS PROPERLY (can cause burns, fumigants can kill)

Other sanitary measures

Prompt removal and proper disposal of dead animals Clean equipment-feeders, waterers Clean source of water, feed No standing water--mud holes, wet stalls, pens, etc. Clean, dry bedding

Vaccination Program

It is important to establish a vaccination program to prevent diseases that are endemic in the area in which the herd or flock is being reared. Consult your veterinarian to design the most cost-efficient protection plan. Preconditioning of calves and other animals is important to assure the vaccines are effective.

New Animal Introductions

Purchase animals from a reputable source -- check production and reproduction records, disease program, look at entire herd, not just the animal you want to purchase. Isolate and blood test new additions; a minimum 3 week quarantine with a retest at end of quarantine is recommended; consult your veterinarian for specific recommendations for the animal species and diseases of concern. Health papers for purchased animals Use AI to eliminate the need to purchase animals

Keep abreast of your industry; establish a good working relationship with your veterinarian, university extension service, and feed representatives.

Productivity and Nutrition

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The objective of this unit of study is to establish a common understanding of some nutrition basics and an appreciation for proper livestock nutrition. Students are strongly recommended to take additional courses in nutrition for a more complete knowledge of nutitional requirements and techniques used in formulating and balancing rations. There are six basic classes of nutrients that must be considered in forumulating diets; water, protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. In Frank B. Morrison's Feeds & Feeding, a nutrient is defined as "Any feed constituent or group of feed constituents of the same general chemical composition that aids in support of animal life."

A number of factors can make an understanding of livestock nutrition very confusing.

Many (most) feedstuffs or ingredients in a ration contain more than one of the six basic nutrients. For instance, a kernel of corn contains all six basic nutrients:

o Water -- 13-15% when dried for storage

20-35% field moisture at harvest or if stored as high moisture corn

o Protein -- 7-9% crude protein is a typical value

o Carbohydrate -- mainly in starch portion of the kernel

o Fat -- mainly in the oil portion

o Vitamins

o Minerals

Commonly used feed ingredients may vary considerably in the content of the six basic nutrients. The example of corn from above demonstrates that the water content can vary widely, as can other perimeters. Some varieties of corn contain high levels of specific nutrients, such as lysine or oil.

The unique physiology and metabolism of different animals enables some to utilize some feed ingredients to their benefit while other animals of a different species cannot.

o Nonprotein nitrogen sources can be converted to amino acids and from amino acids to protein by ruminants and hindgut fermenters; monogastric animals cannot utilize these feedstuffs.

o Fiber (roughages - hay, grasses) can be broken down by ruminants and hindgut fermenters to provide an energy source; monogastric animals cannot utilize these feedstuffs.

o Some feed constituents are essential for certain species, but not for others. Proline and glycine are essential amino acids and must be added to poultry diets; other species can synthesize them from other amino acids.

There are "linkages" or relationships between different basic nutrients. o Selenium (a mineral) is linked to Vitamin E; they share many "duties" in the

body and one can often be substituted for the other. o Fats, carbohydrates and proteins can all be used to provide energy to the body

and can be additive in meeting the energy requirements of an animal. (Protein will be converted to energy producing subunits if fed in excess of it's basic metabolic needs.)

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o Calcium and Phosphorus must be fed at the appropriate "ratio" for maximal utilization and to prevent interference with other mineral metabolism.

No single feed ingredient can supply all 6 basic nutrients an animal needs to survive and be productive.

o One must "balance" the ratio of different feed ingredients to meet the individual animal's needs.

o The nutrient needs of an animal varies depending upon the species, age, stage of lifecycle, etc.

In addition to meeting an animal's basic nutrient requirements, a diet must also meet the "3 P's" to be useful as a livestock feed.

o Palatable -- must be edible, accepted, and eaten by the animal o Profitable -- if the livestock producer cannot make a profit feeding certain

ingredients, he/she won't be in business very long. Approximately 75% of the out-of-pocket costs in livestock production is feed costs.

o Productive -- animals eating the diet must be productive. The least cost ration may just barely meet the animal's nutrient requirements, but not allow the animal to function at it's most productive level. The optimal ration is athe ration that can be produced for the least cost for the benefit returned in animal performance (growth, productivity, longevity, reproductive performance, etc.)

Six Classes of Nutrients

1. Water

The Most Critical Nutrient! o Functions in transport, chemical reactions, temperature maintenance,

lubrication, etc. Water deprivation ---> dehydration ---> electrolyte imbalance ---> death Requirements vary from one species to another. For example, the desert rat requires

very little, while the dairy cow may require 25-29 gallons/day. Management problems leading to lack of water

o bad taste (high sulfur content) o don’t know how to use or cannot find waterer o stray voltage at water source

2. Carbohydrates (CHO)

Functions o energy source o building block for other nutrients o dietary excess stored as fat

Two main components of carbohydrates o Crude fiber (cellulose mainly) o Nitrogen-free extract (soluable sugars, starches)

Differences between monogastric, hindgut fermenter and ruminant

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o Ruminants and hindgut fermenters have microorganisms in the rumen or hindgut that can break down crude fiber (cellulose) into useable products; monogastrics cannot utilize most crude fiber.

o All livestock are capable of breaking down the soluable sugars and starches. Management Problems

o poor quality feedstuffs o improper ration balancing

3. Fats (lipids)

Functions Energy (stored at higher conc./g than CHO) Source of heat, insulation, body protection (cushioning) Essential fatty acids (immune function, CLA-anticancer link?)

Sources o Oils (soybean oil, corn oil, fish oil) o By product fats (lard or tallow from livestock rendering)

provides cheap energy source reduces dust in feed manufacturing and animal feeding increases feed palatability

4. Proteins

Most expensive ingredient in ration, need decreases as animal matures Source of Essential Amino Acids (number, type and level of amino acids required

varies with animal species) o Functions -- basic structural unit, needed in metabolism, hormone, antibody

and DNA production When fed in exess, converted to energy, fat Monogastric vs. ruminant

o True protein is composed of amino acids o Crude protein contains both true protein and other nitrogenous products (non-

protein nitrogen) o Non-protein nitrogen can be converted by rumen bacteria to true protein

(cheaper source of protein for the ruminant animal)

5. Minerals

Two classes o Major minerals -- Ca, P, Na, Cl, Mg, K, S o Minor (Trace minerals) -- Co, Cu, F, I, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, Zn

The need for supplementation of minor minerals such as Se and F varies with the region

Functions -- skeleton, protein synthesis, oxygen transport, fluid and acid-base balance in body, enzyme reactions

Mineral/mineral and vitamin/mineral interactions o Ca - Vitamin D o P - Vitamin D o Co - Vitamin B12 o Se - Vitamin E

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Both deficiencies and excesses can lead to disease

6. Vitamins

Two classes

o Water soluble -- B & C o Fat soluble -- A, D, E, K

Functions -- most vitamins have multiple functions in body involving metabolism, enzyme reactions, etc.

Requirements increase with age Both deficiencies and excesses lead to disease

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