Various Stages

Man as Nomad and Cave Dweller (Up to 10,000 B. C.) Earth estimated to be formed about 4 billion years ago Homo Sapiens (the one existing species of man) believe to date

from about 500,000 B. C. Earliest man did not settle anywhere as they wandered around in

search of food Did not know how to construct buildings so lived in the open Occasionally took shelter on top of trees to protect themselves from

wild animals.

Man as Nomad and Cave Dweller(Up to 10,000 B.C.) Later man began to live in caves by the side of rivers,

lakes and springs Sites protected by rivers, swamps or elevated terrain

preferred Caves not used as places for fixed residence When food gathering in the vicinity became difficult,

early man moved to another location.

Towards Settled Habitation (Up to 10,000 B. C. - 5,000 B. C.) Man learned to practice cultivation Could stay at one place and produce food Began to settle down near the fields cultivated by

them Choose fertile lands and where water was available

in plenty Learned to build huts and mud houses

Towards Settled Habitation (Up to 10,000 B. C. - 5,000 B. C.) Some of the earliest settlements began to take shape Settlements then consisted of groups of houses built by

the side of agricultural fields, a shrine and a burial ground.

Some inhabitants continued to live in caves and wander around for hunting animals - more as a pastime rather than as a necessity

The Common Habitat and Onset of Civilisation Inhabitants organized as a community under a

recognized leader Began to get the first lessons of civilized living Started learning to provide for themselves the three

basic necessities of life - food, clothing and shelter

Shifting Cultivation Shift to new location after experiencing decrease in

fertility after successive cultivation Later learned that land regained fertility if it is left

uncultivated for few years Began to cultivate fields by rotation Thus managed to stop shifting practice and settled

down at on place

Food Surplus Learned to make manure out of night soil and animal

droppings Greatly increased food production As food became abundant, health of people improved Death rate dropped, birth rate increased and

population of many settlements began to multiply rapidly through the natural process

Beginning of permanent settlement Assured food supply through agriculture encouraged

man to permanently settle by the side of the fields he cultivated

Compact settlement since agriculture could support up to 35 persons per sq. km as compared to 15 persons per sq. km applicable to hunting and food gathering societies

Favorable Locations for Settlements Favorable environment for human existence and

survival Climate not very harsh Epidemics not frequent Land fertile

Good quality of water available in plenty River Valleys as popular places for settled habitation

Why River Valleys Land was fertile, water and food (fishes and prongs)

extracted from rivers, and soft clay good for constructing huts

River also used later as means of transportation First settlements in the river valleys of India, China,

Egypt, and areas known as the Fertile Crescent (modern Iraq, Syria, Jordan and Israel)

Other Factors Considered for Siting Settlements Took care to locate on higher ground for better

drainage, protection from floods and reasons of security Spacing between settlements to leave space for future

expansion

Division of Labour As food became abundant, all the inhabitants were

not required to work on the fields Others thus began to practice various occupations Working population got divided among farmers,

cattle and poultry breeders, fishermen, shepherds craftsmen(carpenters, potters, painters, engravers, makers of tools, weapons and other implements), and weavers

Some engaged in taming and domestication of animals for bearing load, plough fields, protecting property and as source of milk, meat and wool

Barter System The most ancient form of trading Those who were not farmers were supplied food in

exchange of goods they produced Shepherds got grains in exchange for milk, weavers

for cloth, potters for utensils, and craftsmen for tools and implements

Initially practiced within the community Later as river and land routes developed for

transportation, goods began to be exchanged across communities

Trading With transportation, reputation of some of the goods

produced by craftsmen of particular villages began to travel far and wide

As the demand of goods increased, trading of such goods began to grow.

Traders emerged as a new class of people, trading as a new occupation and market place as the new physical component of settlements.

Social Stratification Early traders most probably belonged to the hunting

tribe - people already used to traveling They were also recognised as leaders as they

provided protection to the community against wild animals

After they began trading activity,they accumulated goods and became wealthy

They also accumulated knowledge as they traveled long distances and met many people

Their hold on the community increased and became quite powerful. One of them became a chieftain

New Physical Features The chieftain built for himself a castle which towered

over the other buildings,more so because it was built at the highest point in the village

The rich traders and wealthy farmers built their houses near the castle - the new distinguishing feature and a status symbol

Relatively poor artisans and ordinary peasants occupied quarters on the periphery

The community was divided between the rich and the poor and the two social classes occupied different sections of the settlements

New Physical Features The rich and the poor gradually grew antagonistic to

each other The rich became concerned about their life and

property Built a wall around their castle and thus created

fortified castle Man had originally learned to ward of danger from

beasts and wild animals but now was afraid of being attacked by fellow human beings

The Walled Settlements The strife between the people of the same

settlement later supplemented by that between the people of different settlements

The rich settlements were exposed to the danger of being raided by outsiders

The wall around the settlement was built in addition to the one already existing around the castle

This effectively curbed physical spread of settlements

People living outside moved in The density of population began to rise

Subjugation of Peasants The external threat brought forth the necessity of

internal unity Need for mutually defending themselves But the new organization of the community was such

that it resulted in the subjugation and exploitation of a large majority of peasants by a small minority of the rich - the so called nobles

The Chieftain claimed a share in the agricultural surplus in return for the protection provided by him to the community

Initially it could be described as the beginning of the taxation system that was perhaps willingly done

Placing more resources at the disposal of the Chieftain meant better equipped army and better protection for the community

Soon the beneficent role of the Chieftain was corrupted by his lust for power

As his resources increased and he became more powerful, he began to demand a larger share of the agricultural surplus

Ultimately leaving barely minimum for the survival of the peasant and his family

Chieftain was supported in his exploitative pursuits by a large number of military and army officers, governors, viziers, tax-gatherers, and soldiers

Role of the Priests and New Physical Structuring When use of physical power was not enough to ensure

complete obedience, the same was achieved by exploiting the religious sensibilities of the people

The shrine moved within the precincts of the citadel Priests were begun to be identified with the Chieftain Often, the Chieftain even assumed the role of a priest The Chieftain became all powerful and people willingly

obeyed whatever he commanded He elevated himself to the status of the king - one who

commanded a territory recognized as his kingdom The castle grew into a fort and the shrine into a temple

Labour Specialisation Under the centralised command of the king, many large

scale constructions such as protective walls, moats, forts and temples, network of irrigation channels, cisterns and reservoirs were completed

Mines were found for quarrying building materials Timber began to be used in buildings in combination with

other materials Labour Specialisation was carried a step further New occupation groups such as engineers, construction

labourers, carpenters, miners and transporters (boatmen, sailors, loaders and cart men), merchants ( including money-lenders and bankers), soldiers and priests were added

Caste Differentiation Members assumed or were assigned specific

functions by the ruler Persons assigned jobs such as scavenging and

cobbling were assigned low status in the society, paid minimal wages and remained poor

Whereas, people performing religious, administrative and intellectual functions were accorded high status, were paid high salaries and became rich

They were considered to be belonging to high caste categories

Community was not only divided into rich and poor but also caste managed

Language, Art and Technology Man developed new skills in art to create carvings,

engravings and paintings Developed a kind of common language Learned the use of metals and acquired an array of

new implements Used these houses to make bigger houses, temples

and tombs

Community Structure Labour specialisation New occupations – teachers, advocates, judges,

government servants New class of people – philosophers, scientists,

administrators, political leaders, dramatists, sculpture artists, architects and town planners

Distinct social classes Non-agricultural occupations expanded at a faster

rate

Community Structure

Invention of new means of transport Expansion of trade Merchants organised themselves in the from of

guilds Development of art and literature Acquisition of wealth and knowledge A general sense of appreciation for civic concerns Structural transformations continued over

subsequent civilisations and cultural phases

The Urban Settlement The village evolved into its urban counterpart Difficult to say when the first urban settlement existed According to some historians, first settled habitation

existed as early as about 13,000 B. C. First known settlement as claimed by archaeologists was

Jericho in modern Israel and was established in 7,800 B. C.

First indisputable permanent settlement inhabited by farming community was Jarmo in Khurdistan area of Iraq during 7,000 and 6,500 B. C.

The first identifiable urban settlements are believed to have existed by 3,500 B. C.

Physical Form of Urban Settlement A common core consisting of the castle, fortress,

fort, the temple, and houses of the nobles and the priests

A public square which generally formed part of the core

A market place and perhaps a school Tombs, statues, rock sculptures, colonnades,

obelisks, fountains, parks, gardens and canals Protective inner and outer walls with moats and

monumental gates

Physical Form of Urban Settlement

Dwellings of the common people Theatre, government offices, gymnasiums, judicial

courts and institutions of higher learning (added during the Greek Period)

Networks of water supply, sewerage, drainage, transportation systems, bath houses, coliseums, and circuses (added by the Romans)

Church became the central focus of medieval towns. Monasteries became new centre of activity Warehouses to store the wealth of the town Guild halls and Town halls

A nucleated settlement is a town or a city or a village that has formed around a certain point. This point could be anything that is important. A nucleated settlement has building closely grouped together. It refers to grouping of houses around an area called a nucleus.

A dispersed settlement is an area in which people settle but there homes are far away from each other it is now said to be a scattered area. It is mostly located in hilly areas and extensive flat lands.

A linear settlement is a type of settlement whereby people settle and build homes along a transport route. It is usually caused due to the fact that people can be able to get easy access to transport themselves and their goods and services. The houses are often scattered over a large area. It is located along tracks, roads, railway lines and river banks.

Better opportunities for acquiring farms for self and children Cheap purchase of farmland Instant wealth (as in California Gold Rush) More job opportunities Higher pay Prepaid travel (from relatives) Better welfare programmes Better schools Join friends and relatives who have already moved Build a new nation (historically) Build specific cultural or religious communities Political freedom Cultural richness  

Emigration is the act of leaving one's country or region with the intent to settle permanently in another. It is the same as immigration but from the perspective of the country of origin. Human movement in general is termed migration. There are many reasons why people might choose to emigrate; these reasons can be divided into "pull" factors and "push" factors. Better economic opportunity is an example of a "pull" factor, as is a quest for a better climate. Fears of poverty or of religious or political discrimination are "push" factors. Seeking refuge from conditions not directly of one's making is interim to possible emigration.

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When we see it from an economist point of view, the picture is quite clear – people immigrate to gain ‘Financial Stability and Better Future Prospects.’ It is as simple as that!

Here is an example – if another country is offering better future anticipations, higher wages and a polished lifestyle, any person would think of immigrating to the other country! And why not!

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A wide range of political reasons are arrayed with the term ‘immigration.’ People immigrate to maintain a global presence amongst various countries. Moreover, few think that they are not decked with ample political freedom, so they immigrate to other countries in search of the same. Some change their citizenship to gain a new identity, some to get political rights and others for a better living ambiance.

Every person is decked with a different persona. Extroverts and work-oriented personalities are more likely to immigrate alone as compared to those who are introvert and family-oriented. The later ones have higher chances of immigrating with their families, rather than alone!

Lack of employment or entrepreneurial opportunities Lack of political or religious rights Persecution or intolerance based on race, religion,

gender or sexual orientation Lack of freedom to choose religion, or to choose no

religion Shortage of farmland; hard to start new farms

(historically) Oppressive legal/political conditions Struggling or Failing economy Military draft, warfare Famine or drought Cultural fights with other cultural groups Expulsion by armed force or coercion

Emigration has had a profound influence on the world in the 18th, 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. Some noted examples include the millions of people who left Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries or the recent emigration of Mexicans into the United States.

The term "emigrate" usually suggests voluntary movement. However, involuntary migration refers to groups that are forced by their enemies to leave through population transfer or ethnic cleansing.

Many British cities still have street plans that were laid down hundreds of years ago. The roads cannot cope with the ever-increasing numbers of cars and other vehicles. This can cause massive congestion problems, especially at "rush hour".

Solutions to the problems have included improving public transport (e.g. the trams of Manchester); introducing park and ride schemes (e.g. Oxford); pedestrianization (e.g. Exeter & Oxford); encouraging people to share cars into work and building ring roads (e.g. Watford).

In Athens (Greece) they have tried an extreme form of control by only allowing cars with odd numbers on their number plates into the city on one day, and then cars with even numbers the next day. Unfortunately this has led many people to own two cars, one with an odd number and one with an even one!

settlements are limited in their outwards growth by the fact that the city encompasses them, and due to the fact that businesses want to locate as close to the centre as they possibly can. This has led to land prices rising to astronomical amounts. The only solution seen by most businesses is to build upwards, which is why urban settlements can be characterised by the presence of skyscrapers.

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The major pollution seen in urban areas is air pollution, or smog. This pollution is mainly caused by the fumes given off by traffic and industry.

The most famous example of where this pollution haze can be seen is over Los Angeles, but most of the large cities of the world experience it too. Poor air quality can lead to an increase in the cases of asthma and bronchitis.

Air is not the only thing polluted in cities. Water can be badly polluted, and so has to be carefully treated before being drunk. It's a horrible thought, but most of the water that you drink in London has already been drunk by 7 other people

Banning heavy vehicles from small settlements; developing cleaner fuels, and providing more litter bins in settlements.

Some cities have encouraged the growth of out-of-town shopping centres to help traffic, land price and pollution problems, by taking some of the focus away from the settlements. However this can also have the negative effect of causing the settlement to decline.

High Standard of Living: Now some people give high emphasis on ‘High Standard of Living.’ It is often seen that parents send their children abroad to attain a better lifestyle. The reality is that they try their level-best to provide better career prospects and lifestyle to their children which they themselves might not have acquired in their lives. And ‘immigration’ is the perfect answer to their concerns.

Education: Other countries are attired with a huge range of educational opportunities. Be it top-class universities, high schools, colleges, professional institutes or no matter what, students can get themselves enrolled in any of them in accordance with their preference levels.

Start of a Series: If sociologists are to be believed, it is a chain of events. The first person immigrates and sends “Happily Settled” information to his loved ones living in the native country. And then what… others also immigrate to the same country (or probably a better one) to enhance their future prospects

Glory be to GOD