Epidemiology of chlamydiosis in animals in India- Temporal and spatial distribution

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CHLAMYDIOSIS IN ANIMALS IN INDIA: TEMPORAL

AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION

Arati KapdiDivision of Veterinary Public

Health.&

Bhoj R SinghDivision of Epidemiology

Indian veterinary research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122, India

Synonyms

Ornithosis

PsittacosisParrot fever

History

In 1893, in Paris “flu like “ disease is transmitted from parrots to man. Nocard isolated Salmonella psittacosis, as causal agent of psittacosis.

In 1929- 1930, first pandemic of psittacosis in human being occurred in USA and Europe by green Amazon parrot.

1932-1st case of zoonotic psittacosis transmitted by chiken was reported (Meyer)

1940- psittacosis was recorded in domestic pigeon (Pinkerton). 1966-Chlamydiae were identified as bacteria (not viruses).

Classification

Order-Chlamydiales

Family-Chlamydiaceae

Genus-Chlamydia

Genus-Chlamydophilla (Everett,1998)

CONTINUE…..Genus-Chlamydia (hosts) Genus- Chlamydophila (hosts)

Species Species

C. trachomatis (human) Cp. psittaci (avian)

C. suis (pig) Cp. felis (cats) C. muridrum (mouse and hamster) Cp. abortus(sheep, goat and cattle)

Cp. caviae (guinea-pigs) Cp. pecorum (sheep, cattle and pig) Cp. pneumoniae (human)

(EVERETT et al.,1999; LONGBOTTOM and COULTER, 2003)

MICROBIOLOGY

Obligatory intracellular bacteria The organism are non-motile, spherical, Gram- negative and have

a cell wall. (A. Rodolakis, K. Yousef Mohamad 2010) Chlamydia is a “energy parasites” (Moulder,1969)

Chlamydia psittaci

COMPARISON OF CHLAMYDIAL ELEMENTARY BODY & RETICULATE BODY

Characteristic Elementary body Reticulate bodySize 0.2 -0.4 0.6-1.5Morphology Electron dense core; rigid Fragile, pleomorphicInfectivity to host Infectious NoninfectiousRNA:DNA Ratio 1:1 3:1Metabolic activity Relatively inactive Active, replicating stage Projections Few More

Chlamydophila species

Principal host Clinical sign/disease

Cp. psittaci Birds Ornithosis-pneumonia, conjunctivitis, pericarditis

Cp. abortus Sheep, goat, cattle Abortion, stillbirth, epididymitis

Cp. felis Cats Conjunctivitis, pneumonia, chronic salpingitis

Cp. caviae Guinea-pigs Conjunctivitis, genital tract infection

Cp. pneumoniae

Human, koala, horses

Respiratory disease

Cp. Pecorum Ruminant, swine, koala

Intestinal infection, conjunctivitis, urinary tract infection, encephalomyelitis, arthritis

( Veterinary Microbiology, 2010)

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DETERMINANT

Agent factor• Species• Reservoir

Host factor

• Age• Sex• Immunity• Occupation

Environmental factor• Stress• Management

MODE OF TRANSMISSION

Inhalation -Dried infective droppings -Secretions or dust from feathers

Direct contact -Handling of plumage and tissue of infected birds -Improper disposal of infected carcasses, aborted fetus or placenta

Trans-ovarian transmission in birds

(Diseases of Animals Transmissible to man-D.C.Thapliyal 1999 )

(iiiiiiiUnrestricted entry of infected animals in farms and migration of animals from one place to another in indiscriminate manner

Improper cleaning of utensils, equipment, bedding of cattle and sheep farms, contaminated water and feed.

Cp. psittaci may be transmitted by lice, mites and flies. (Longbottom and Coulter, 2003)

Intestinal tract in some species appears to be the natural habitat for Chlamydia. (Intas Polivet, 2000)

Transmission

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR FACILITATED TRANSMISSION

Incubation period : Lasts 1-2 weeks. The elementary form of the organism is highly resistant outside the host

and can survive in dried feces for many months. Latent infection are common and contagious. Shipping, crowding chilling, breeding and other stressful factors may

activate shedding of the infectious agent. Chlamydiae are distributed widely in nature, pandemics of chlamydiosis

that occurred between 1929 and 1930 involved at least 12 countries. (Moulder, 1964). Between 1931-63 as many as countries including India reported the occuurence of chlamydiosis. (Meyer, 1965).

In an serological survey in India, it was found that about 34% of goats and 28% of sheep carry antibodies against C. psittaci. (Diseases of Animals Transmissible to man, D.C.Thapliyal, 1999)

SEROPREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIOSIS IN INDIA

sheep goats cattle buffaloes0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%69% 69%

52%

28%

Animals(Diseases of Animals Transmissible to man-D.C.Thapliyal 1999)

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

YEAR-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF CHLAMYDIAL ABORTIONS IN SHEEP AND

GOATS IN IVRI, U.P.

1973 1974 19750

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

72

17 150 1 3

sheepgoat

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

Year (Indian J. Vet. Path. 3, 6-10)

PREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIOSIS IN FERAL BIRDS IN HIMACHAL

PRADESH

Pigeons Parrots Crows0

5

10

15

20

25

30

9.09

22.22

16.36

26.31

18.18 19951997

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

Birds (J. Appl. Anim. Res., 1997)

YEAR-WISE, OUTBREAKS OF CHLAMYDIAL ABORTION IN GOAT

FLOCK AT CSBF, AVIKANAGAR

1977 1978 1979 198002468

101214161820

20

7.645.86 5.84

goat

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

Year (Sharma and Lonkar 1982)

OUTBREAK OF CHLAMYDIOSIS AMONG MIGRATORY SHEEP AND GOATS IN

HIMACHAL PRADESH-1996Species Disease

conditionType of samples collected

No. of positive Samples/No. of samples collected

Ovine Abortion Vaginal swabs 3/6Weak lambing -do- 3/3

Caprine Abortion Vaginal swabs 8/14Weak lambing -do- 3/3Enteritis Fecal swabs 5/7

Intestinal pieces 2/2Pneumonia Lung pieces 2/2Mastitis Mastitis milk 1/3

(Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. Dis. Vol.17, 1996)

CHLAMYDIOSIS IN ANIMALS AND BIRDS IN HIMACHAL PRADESH -2001

Sheep(m

igratory)

Sheep(fa

rms)

GoatsCatt

le

Buffaloes

Yaks

Churus(Yak

x Catt

le)

Horses

Chikens

0102030405060708090

44.16

63.63

27.27

55.12 53.57

85.71

50.9853.57

33.77

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

Animals and Birds(Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 2001 )

SERO-PREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIOSIS AMONG ANIMALS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

SHEEP GOAT BUFFALO COW2002

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

26.71

32.7

21.62

18.34

(Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 2002; Indian Vet. J., 2002)

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

ISOLATION OF C.PSITTACI FROM CERVIDAE IN NORTH-WESTERN HIMALAYAN REGION

Common name

Zoological name

Sample processed Successful isolation

Tissue Faecal Total Tissue Faecal Total

Barking deer Muntiacus muntjak

0 14 14 0 3 3

Hog deer Axis porcinus O 9 9 0 0 0

Musk deer Moschus chrysogaster

0 3 3 0 1 1

Sambhar Cervus unicolor 4 24 28 3 6 9

Spotted deer Axis axis 0 1 1 0 0 0

Total 4 51 55 3 10 13

(Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect.Dis., 2005)

SEROPREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIA PSITTACI IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN

HARYANA STATE

Year Sheep Goats

1971 8.08% 4.45%

1979 23.53% 22.45%

Breed No, positive/No. tested

Percentage

Exotic (Rambouillet) 4/52 7.7%

CrossbreedNali x Rambouillet (NR)

3/26 11.5%

Sonadi x Corriedale (SX)

5/64 7.8%

Total 12/142 8.5%

Serum samples from sheep and goats –Hissar and Karnal.

Sera from 7 rams from Bhubaneshwar (Orissa) Sera from 11 goats from Avikanagar(Rajasthan) (Indian J. Anim. Sci 50(9),Sept.1980 )

Blood sample from exotic and crossbred rams from the Central Sheep Breeding Farm, Hissar (Indian J. Anim. Sci, 1999 )

SERO-EVIDENCE OF CHLAMYDIOSIS AMONG LIVESTOCK DURING 2002

Bovines Ewes Rams Goats Pigs0

102030405060708090

10082.9

95.2 10089

69.2Hyderabad(andhra Pradesh)Vijaywada(Andhra pradesh)Ludhiana (Punjab)Palampur(Himachal Pradesh)

(Indian journal of Animal Science, 2004)

Animal

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

PREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIOSIS IN DIFFERENT STATES

Hyderabad

(andhra

Pradesh

)

Vijayw

ada(A

ndhra Prad

esh)

Ludhiana(P

unjab)

Palampu

r(Him

achal

Pradesh

)0

102030405060708090

85.277

27.2 25.7 Prevalence

state

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

(Indian journal of Animal Science, 2004)

Himachal Pradesh 14.73%

Andhra Pradesh 4.91%

Jammu & Kashmir 12.5%

Maharashtra8.33%

Punjab 1.45%

Seroprevalence of chlamydiosis in different states during 2002-2011

(Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916)

MEAN SEROPREVALENCE VALUES OF EACH ANIMAL SPECIES

cattle buffaloes sheep goat0

5

10

15

20

25

4.65

0.93

9.82

19.33

Prev

alen

ce (%

)

Animals

(Veterinary World, EISSN: 2231-0916)

CHLAMYDIOSIS IN SPITI PONIES OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

Of 29 serum sample of Spiti ponies (20 females and 9 males) from an organized farm at Kamand, District Mandi, having history of abortions, two (6.89%) serum samples from aborted mares were positive for Chlamydia psittaci. ( Centaur, 2007 )

The sero-prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci in horses and mules in Himachal Pradesh was observed to be 16.66 and 23.80 per cent respectively. ( Katoch and Sharma, 2006 )

SEROPREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIOSIS IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH DURING 2009

On analysis of Serum samples randomly collected from 172 free-ranging yak from six different yak tracts of Arunachal Pradesh overall prevalence of chlamydiosis in yak is 35%.

The prevalence of Cp. Abortus specific antibodies was significantly higher in yak cows (41%) than among bulls (25%).

( Rev Sci Tech. 2009 )

DIAGNOSIS

Microscopic examination Culture technique Histopathologic findings Tests for Antibody Detection - Direct Complement-Fixation (CF) Test - Elementary-Body Agglutination (EBA) - Agar Gel Precipitation Test Tests for Antigen Detection -Immunofluorescent-Staining Tests -Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) Polymerase chain reaction

TREATMENT

Tetracycline or fluoroquinolones (e.g., enrofloxacin) are generally the drugs of choice.

Chlortetracycline is the drug of choice for treatment to eliminate clinical disease and fecal shedding.

Infected birds should receive 0.5% chlortetracycline in cooked mash or pelletted feed continuously for at least 45 days.

(ARNSTEIN and MEYER, 1968)

VACCINE

No vaccine is available for avian chlamydiosis. Both live (Ovilis Enzoowax ® or Cevac® Chlamydia) and

inactivated vaccines for Cp. abortus have been developed.( Rodolakis, 2010 )

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Take measures to protect persons at high risk from becoming infected. Maintain accurate records of all bird-related transactions. Do not purchase or sell birds that have signs of AC. Practice preventive husbandry. Prevent the spread of infection. Proper disposal of carcass. Use disinfection measures.

1:1,000 dilution of quaternary ammonium compounds. 70% isopropyl alcohol 1% Lysol 1:100 dilution of household bleach Chlorophenols

( CDC, 1998 )

CONCLUSION

Chlamydiosis is emerging zoonotic disease. It is widely prevalent among domestic and wild animals

and birds in some states of India. Heavy economic loss due to occasional outbreak. It can be prevented by o Proper hygienic measure, o Regular testing of animals and birdso Separation of the infected animals and birdso Quarantine of new animal and birds before entering in

the farm.

MORE ABOUT INDIAN SCENARIOYear Animals State Reference1985 Sero-prevalence of

chlamydiosis in sheep, goats, cattle and buffaloes

PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab

Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. Dis., 1985

1986 Perinatal chlamydiosis in sheep and goats

Regional station IVRI, Palampur (H.P.)


1988 Outbreak of Chlamydial pneumonia in Gaddi Goats

Himachal Pradesh

Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Dis., 1988

1988 Chlamydial conjunctivitis in Jersey calves


Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 1988

CONTINUE…..Year Animals States Reference1993 Chlamydiosis in

birdsPAU, Ludhiana, Punjab

Indian Journal of Animal Science, 1993

1993 Chlamydiosis in calves–one month of age having diarrhoea and pyrexia


Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology, 1993

1995 Chlamydiosis in goats

Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)

Indian Vet. J., 1998

1996 Chlamydia psittaci in pneumonic lung specimens from sheep and goats

Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, H.P.


CONTINUE….Year Animals States References

1997 Isolation of Cp. psittaci from domestic poultry

Palampur (H.P.) Indian J. Poult. Sci., 1997

1997 Screening of rats(3/12), wall lizards(10) and frogs(14) for prevalence of Cp. psittaci



1997 Two out of five (40%) sera from dogs harboured antibodies to Cp. psittaci



CONTINUE….Year Animals States Reference1998 Role of sexual

transmission of Chlamydial infection

Central Sheep Breeding Farm, Hisar

INTAS POLYVET, 2000

2000 Chlamydiosis among domestic poultry and Wild carriers



2000 Concurrent oubreak of chlamydiosis and aflatoxicosis among chickens.C.psittaci is30%(6/20) birds


INTAS POLYVET, 2002

CONTINUE……..

Year Animals States Reference

2002 Evidence of chlamydiosis among dairy animals with reproductive problem is 8 animals out of 106 samples


INTAS POLYVET, 2002

2003 Seroprevalence of chlamydial infections among buffaloes is 18 out of 207 samples

Himachal Pradesh Buffalo Bulletin, 2003

Health & Medicine

Epidemiology of chlamydiosis in animals in India- Temporal and spatial distribution