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Title:TwoWarYearsinConstantinople

SketchesofGermanandYoungTurkishEthicsandPolitics

Author:HarryStuermer

Translator:E.Allen

ReleaseDate:November6,2019[EBook#60638]

Language:English

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TWOWARYEARSIN

CONSTANTINOPLESketchesofGermanandYoungTurkish

EthicsandPolitics

BY

DR.HARRYSTUERMER

LATECORRESPONDENTOFTHEKÖLNISCHEZEITUNGINCONSTANTINOPLE(1915-16)

TRANSLATEDFROMTHEGERMAN

E.ALLENANDTHEAUTHOR

NEWYORKGEORGEH.DORANCOMPANY

COPYRIGHT,1917,BYGEORGEH.DORANCOMPANY

PRINTEDINTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA

DECLARATION

Theundersignedherebydeclares on his swornword of honour that inwritingthisvolumehehasbeeninnowayinspiredbyoutsideinfluence,andthathehasneverhadanydealingswhatsoever,materialorotherwise,eitherbeforeorduringthewar,withanyGovernment,organisation,propaganda,orpersonalityhostiletoGermanyorTurkeyorevenofaneutralcharacter.Hisconsciencealonehasurgedhimtowriteandpublishhisimpressions,andhehopesthatbysodoinghemayperformaservicetowardsthecauseoftruthandcivilisation.

Moreover,hecangive formalassurance thathehasexpresslyavoidedmakingthe acquaintance of any person resident in Switzerland until his manuscriptshouldhavebeensenttopress.

Furthermore,hehasbeenactuatedbynopersonalmotivesinthusgivingpublicexpression to his experiences and opinions, for he has no personal grievance,eithermaterialormoral,againstanypersonwhatsoever.

sig

Dr.H.Stuermer

GENEVA,June1917.

PREFACE

WHILE the author of this workwaswaiting on the frontier of Switzerland forfinal permission from the German authorities to enter that country, Germanycommittedhersecondgreatcrime,herfirsthavingcompletelymisseditsmark.Shehadbeguntorealisethatshewasbeateninthegreatconflictwhichshehadsowantonlyprovokedwith that characteristicoverconfidence in thepowerofher own militarism and disdainful undervaluation of themorale and generalcapacitiesofherenemies.Infinalrenunciationofanylastremnantsofhumanityinhermethods,shewasnowmakingadyingefforttohelpheralreadylostcausebyaruthlessextensionofherpolicyofpiracyatseaandagratificationofallherbrutalinstinctsincompleteviolationoftherightsofneutralcountries.

It is therefore with all the more inward conviction, with all the more urgentmoralpersuasion,thattheauthormakesuseoftherareopportunityofferedhimbyresidenceinSwitzerlandtorangehimselfboldlyonthesideoftruthandshowthat thereare stillGermanswho find it impossible tocondoneeven tacitly themoral transgression and political stupidity of their own and an alliedGovernment.Thatisthesolepurposeofthispublication.

Regardlessoftheconsequences,heholdsittobehisdutyandhisprivilege,justbecausehe isaGerman, tomakea frankstatement, from thepointofviewofhuman civilisation, of what have become his convictions from personalobservationsmadeinthecourseofsixmonthsofactualwarfareandpracticallytwoyearsofsubsequentjournalisticactivity.HespentthetimefromSpring1915toChristmas1916inTurkey,andwillofcourseonlydealwithwhatheknowsfrom personal observation. The following essays are of the nature merely ofsketchesandmakenoclaimwhatevertocompleteness.

With regard to purely German politics and ethics, therefore, the author willconfinehimselftoafewindicationsandimpressionsofapersonalkind,buthecannot forget the rôleGermanyhasplayed inTurkeyasanallyof thepresentYoungTurkishGovernment,norcanheignoreGermany'sresponsibilityfortheatrocities committed by them. The author publishes his impressions with aperfectlyclearconscience,secureintheconvictionthatastherepresentativeofaGermanpaperheneveroncewroteasinglewordinfavourofthiscriminalwar,and that during his stay of more than twenty months in Turkey he neverconcealedhistrueopinionsassoonashehaddefinitelymadeuphismindwhatthesewere.

On the contrary, he was rather dangerously candid and frank in speaking to

anyonewhowantedtolistentohim—somuchso,thatitisalmostamiraclethatheeverreachedaneutralcountry.Afterthewarhewillbeinapositiontoappealtothetestimonyofdozensofpeopleofhighstandinginallwalksoflifethatinboththoughtandactionadeepclefthasalwaysdividedhimfromhiscolleagues,andthathehaseverardentlylongedforthemomentwhenhemight,freelyandwithout fear of consequences, do his bit towards the enlightenment of thecivilisedworld.

Maytheselines,writteninallsincerityandherebysubmittedtothetribunalofpublicopinion,freetheauthoratlastfromtheburdenofsilentreproachheapedon him by a mutilated, outraged, languishing humanity, of being a GermanamongthousandsofGermanswhodesiredthiswar.

Severalmonths have passed since the original text of theGerman andFrencheditions of this little book was written. Baghdad was taken by British troopsbeforethelastchapteroftheGermanmanuscripthadbeencompleted,andsincethenmilitaryoperationshavebeenmoreandmore in favourof theEntente.Anumber of important political events have occurred, such as the RussianRevolutionandtheentryoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaintothewar.

Further developments of Russian politics may yet have a direct effect on thefinalsolutionoftheproblemssurroundingthedefeatedOttomanEmpire.Buttheauthor has preferred tomaintain the original text of his book,written early inMarch this year, and tomake no changeswhatever in the conclusions he hadthenarrivedatasaresultofthefreshimpressionshecarriedawayfromTurkey.

CONTENTS

PAGECHAPTERI

AttheoutbreakofwarinGermany—TheGerman"world-politicians" (Weltpolitiker)—German and Englishmentality—The "place in the sun"—England'sdeclarationofwar—GermanmethodsinBelgiumandAlsace-Lorraine—Prussian arrogance—Militaristicjournalism 17

CHAPTERII

To Constantinople—Pro-Turkish considerations—ThedilemmaofaGallipolicorrespondent—UnderGermanmilitarycontrol 35

CHAPTERIII

The great Armenian persecutions—The system of TalaatandEnver—AdenunciationofGermanyasacowardlyandconsciencelessaccomplice 42

CHAPTERIV

Thetideofwar—Enver'soffensiveforthe"liberationoftheCaucasus"—The Dardanelles Campaign; the fate ofConstantinople twice hangs in the balance—Nervoustension in international Pera—Bulgaria's attitude—Turkish rancour against her former enemy—Germanillusions of a separate peace with Russia—KingFerdinand's time-serving—Lack of munitions in theDardanelles—Amysteriousdeath:apoliticalmurder?—The evacuation of Gallipoli—The Turkish versionof victory—Constantinople unreleased—Kut-el-Amara—Propagandafor the"HolyWar"—Aprisonerofrepute—LoyaltyofAnglo-Indianofficers—Turkishcommuniquésandtheirworth—ThefallofErzerum—Official lies—The treatment of prisoners—Politicalspeculation with prisoners of war—Treatment ofenemy subjects—Stagnation and lassitude in thesummer of 1916—The Greeks in Turkey—Dread ofGreek massacres—Rumania's entry—Terribledisappointment—The three phases of the war forTurkey 75

CHAPTERV

The economic situation—Exaggerated Entente hopes—Hunger and suffering among the civil population—The system of requisitioning and the semi-officialmonopolists—Profiteering on the part of the

Government clique—Frivolity and cynicism—The"Djemiet"—The delegates of the GermanZentraleinkaufsgesellschaft (Central PurchasesCommission)—A hard battle between German andTurkish intrigue—Reform of the coinage—Papermoneyand itsdepreciation—Thehoardingofbullion—TheRussianroublethebestinvestment 107

CHAPTERVI

German propaganda and ethics—The unsuccessful "HolyWar"andtheGermanGovernment—"TheHolyWar"a crime against civilisation, a chimera, a farce—Underhanddealings—TheGermanEmbassythedupeof adventurers—The morality of German Pressrepresentatives—A trusty servant of the GermanEmbassy—Fineofficialdistinctionsofmorality—TheGermanconceptionoftherightsofindividuals 126

CHAPTERVII

Young Turkish nationalism—One-sided abolition ofcapitulations—Anti-foreigneffortsatemancipation—Abolitionofforeignlanguages—Germansimplicity—The Turkification of commercial life—Unmistakableintellectualimprovementasaresultofthewar—Tradepolicyandcustoms tariff—Nationalproduction—Thefounding of new businesses in Turkey—Germanysupplanted—Germanstarvation—CapitulationsorfullEuropean control?—The colonisation and forcibleTurkification ofAnatolia—"The properties of peoplewho have been dispatched elsewhere"—The"Mohadjirs"—Greek persecutions just before theGreatWar—The"discovery"ofAnatolia, thenucleusoftheOttomanEmpire—Turkeyfindsherselfatlast—Anatoliandirt anddecay—The"GreaterTurkey"andthe purely Turkish Turkey—Cleavage orconcentration? 151

CHAPTERVIII

Religionandrace—TheIslampolicyofAbdul-Hamidandof theYoung Turks—Turanism and Pan-Islamism aspolitical principles—Turanism and the QuadrupleAlliance—Greed and race-fanaticism—Religioustraditionsandmodernreforms—Reformin the law—A modern Sheikh-ul-Islam—Reform andnationalization—The Armenian and GreekPatriarchates—The failure of Pan-Islamism—Thealienation of the Arabs—Djemal Pasha's "hangman'spolicy"inSyria—Djemalasa"Pro-French"—DjemalandEnver—DjemalandGermany—Histruecharacter—The attempts against the Suez Canal—Djemal'smurderousworknearscompletion—ThegreatArabianand Syrian Separatist movement—The defection oftheEmirofMeccaandthegreatArabiancatastrophe 176

CHAPTERIX

Anti-war and pro-Entente feelings among the Turks—Turkish pessimism about the war—How wouldAbdul-Hamid have acted?—A war of preventionagainst Russia—Russia and a neutral Turkey—TheagreementabouttheDardanelles—Apeacefulsolutionscorned—Alleged criminal intentions on the part oftheEntente;theexampleofGreeceandSalonika—Tobe or not to be?—German influence—Turkey stakesonthewrongcard—Theresults 209

CHAPTERX

Theoutlook for the future—The consequences of trustingGermany—TheEntente'sdeathsentenceonTurkey—The social necessity for this deliverance—Anatolia,the new Turkey after the war; forecasts about theTurkishrace—TheTurkishelementinthelostterritory—RussiaandConstantinople;internationalguarantees—Germany, at peace, benefits too—Farewell to theGerman "World Politicians"—German interests in avictorious and in a defeated Turkey—The German-Turkish treaty—A paradise on earth—The Russian

commercial impulse—The new Armenia—WesternAnatolia, the oldGreek centre of civilisation—GreatArabiaandSyria—ThereconciliationofGermany 258

Appendix 283

TWOWARYEARSINCONSTANTINOPLE

CHAPTERI

At the outbreak of war in Germany—The German "world-politicians"(Weltpolitiker)—German and English mentality—The "place in thesun"—England'sdeclarationofwar—GermanmethodsinBelgiumandAlsace-Lorraine—Prussianarrogance—Militaristicjournalism.

ANYONEwho,likemyself,setfootonGermansoilforthefirsttimeafteryearsofsojourn in foreign lands, and more particularly in the colonies, just at themoment thatGermanywasmobilisingfor thegreatEuropeanwar,mustsurelyhave been filled, as I was, with a certain feeling of melancholy, a slightuneasiness with regard to the state of mind of his fellow-countrymen as itshoweditselfinthesedramaticdaysofAugustinconversationsinthestreet,incafés and restaurants, and in the articles appearing in the Press.WeGermanshave never learnt to think soundly on political subjects. Bismarck's politicalheritage, although set forth in most popular form in his Thoughts andRecollections, a book that anyone opposing this war from the point of viewrather of prudence than of ethics might utilise as an unending source ofpropaganda,hasnotdescended toour rulers inanysortof living form.Butanunbounded political naïveté, an incredible lack of judgment and ofunderstandingofthepointofviewofotherpeoples,whohavetheirraisond'êtrejustasmuchaswehave, theirvital interests, theirstandpointofhonour—havenot prevented us from trying to carry on a grand systemofWeltpolitik (worldpolitics).TheaverageeverydayGermanhasneverreallyunderstoodtheEnglish—eitherbeforeorduringthewar;inthelatter'scolonialpolicy,which,according

topan-Germanideas,hasnootheraimthantosnatchfromusour"placeinthesun"; in their conception of liberty and civilisation, which has entailed suchmighty sacrifices for them on behalf of their Allies; when we trod BelgianneutralityunderfootandthoughtEnglandwouldstandandlookon;atthetimeofthedebatesaboutuniversalservice,whenpracticallyeveryGerman,eveninthehighestpoliticalcircles,wasreadytowagerthattherewouldbearevolutioninEnglandsoonerthananygeneralacceptanceofConscription;andcomingdowntomorerecentevents,whenthelatesthugeBritishwarloanprovidedtheonlyfitandproperanswertoGermanfrightfulnessatsea.

Letmeheresayawordonthesubjectofcolonialpolicy,onwhichImayperhapsbeallowedtospeakwithacertainamountofauthorityafterextendedtravel inthe farthest corners of Africa, and from an intimate, personal knowledge ofGerman as well as English and French colonies. Germany has less colonialterritorythantheoldercolonists,itistrue.ItisalsotruethattheGermanstrugglefor the most widespread, the most intensive and lucrative employment of theenergies andcapabilitiesofourhighlydevelopedcommercial land is justified.Butattheriskofbeingdubbedasabsolutelylackinginpatriotism,Ishouldliketopointoutthatinthefirstplacetheresourceswehadatourdisposalinourowncolonialterritoryintropicalandsub-tropicalAfrica,littleexploitedastheythenwere, would have amply sufficed for our commercial needs and colonisingcapacities—though possibly not for our aspirations after world power! Andsecondly,theveryliberalcharacterofEngland'stradeandcolonialpolicydidnothinder us in any way from reaching the top of the commercial tree even inforeigncolonies.

Anyone who knows English colonies knows that the British Government,wherever it has been possible to do so politically, that is, in all her colonieswhich are already properly organised and firmly established as British, hasalwaysmet in amostgenerous and sympatheticwayGerman, and indeed anyforeign, trade or other enterprises. New firms, with German capital, werereceived with open arms, their excellence and value for the young countryheartily recognised and ungrudgingly encouraged; not the slightest shadow ofany jealousy of foreign undertakings could ever exist in aBritish colony, andeveryGermancouldbeassureasanEnglishmanhimselfofbeingjustlytreatedineverywayandencouragedinthemostgenerousfashioninhiswork.

Thousands of Germans otherwise thoroughly embued with the national spiritmake no secret of the fact that they would far rather live in a British than aGermancolony.Tooofteninthelatterthenewcomerwasmetateverypointby

anexaggeratedbureaucracyandmadetofeelbysomeofficialthathewasnotareserve officer, and consequently a social inferior. Hints were dropped todiscourage him, and inquiries were even made as to whether he had enoughmoneytobookhispassagebacktowherehecamefrom!

Far be it fromme towish to depreciate by thesewords the value of our owncolonialefforts.AspioneersinAfricawewereworkingontheverybestpossiblelines,butweshouldhavebeencontenttogoonlearningfromthemuchsuperiorBritish colonial methods, and should have finished and perfected our owndomain instead of always shouting jealously about other people's. I am quiteconvinced that another ten years of undisturbed peaceful competition andGermany,withherownveryconsiderablecolonialpossessionsontheonehand,andthepossibilityontheotherofpushingcommercialenterpriseonthehighestscalenotonlyinindependentoverseasstatesbutunderthebeneficentprotectionofEnglishrulewithitstruefreedomandrealfurtheranceoftrade"uplift,"wouldhave reached her goal much better than by means of all the sword-rattlingWeltpolitikofthePan-Germans.

Itistruethatinterritorynotyetproperlyorganisedorguaranteed,politicallystilldoubtful, and in quite new protectorates, especially along the routes to India,where vital English interests are at stake, and on the much-talked-of PersianGulf,Englandcouldnot,untilhermainobjectwasfirmlysecured,meet in thesamefairwayGermandesireswithregardtocommercialactivity.Andthereshehas more than once learnt to her cost the true character of the GermanWeltpolitik.

Thatistherealmeaning,atanyratesofarascolonialpoliticsareconcerned,oftheGerman-Englishcontestfora"placeinthesun."NoonewhounderstandsitarightcouldevercondonetheoutgrowthsofourWeltpolitik,howevermuchhemight desire to assist German ability to find practical outlet in all suitableoverseas territory, nor could he ever forget the wealth of wonderful deeds,wroughtintheserviceofhumancivilisationandfreedom,Englishmencanplacetotheircredityearsbeforeweeverbegan.Withsuchconsiderationsofjusticeinview, we should have recognised that there was a limit to our efforts afterexpansion,andasamatteroffactweshouldhavegonefurtherandfaredbetter—inadecadeweshouldhaveprobablybeenreallywealthy—fortheEnglishintheiropen-handedwaycertainlyleftusasurprisingamountofroomforthefreeexerciseofourcommercialtalents.

IhaveintentionallygivenanillustrationonlyofthecolonialsideoftheproblemaffectingGerman-Englishrelations,sothatImayavoiddealingwithanysubject

Idonotknowfrompersonalobservation.

Itwas this English people, that, in spite of all their egoism, have really donesomething for civilisation, that the German of August 1914 accused of beingnothingbutanationofshopkeeperswithacowardly,narrow-mindedpolicythatwas unprepared to make any sacrifice for others. It was this people that theGermanofAugust1914—andhisspokesmanvonBethmann-Hollweg,wholaterthoughtitnecessarytodefendhimselfagainstthechargeof"havingbroughttoomuchethicsintopolitics"—expectedtostandbyandseeBelgiumoverridden.Itwas this same England that we believed would hold back even when theChancellor found it impossible to apply to French colonial possessions theguaranteehehadgivennot to aimat any territorial conquests in thewarwithFrance!

Andsoitwaswithallthemoregrimness,withallthemoregravity,thatonthatmemorablenightofAugust4ththeterribleblowfell.TheEnglishdeclarationofwarenteredintotheverysouloftheGermanpeople,whostoodasasacrificetoa political miscalculation that had its roots less in a lack of thought andexperiencethaninaboundlessarrogance.

AboutthesametimeIwasawitnessofthoselaughablesceneswhichtookplaceonthePotsdamerPlatzinBerlin,where,incompletemisjudgmentofthewholepoliticalsituationJapanesewere carried shoulder highby the enthusiastic andworthy citizens of Berlin under the erroneous impression that these obviousarch-enemies of Russia would naturally be allies of Germany. Every Germanthatwasnotblindtothetrendoftrue"world-politics"mustsurelyhaveshakenhis head over this lamentable spectacle. A few days afterwards Japan sent itsultimatumagainstKiao-Tchao!

Itwasthesameincapabilityofthinkingintermsoftrueworld-politicsthatleduslatelytobelievethatwemightfindsupportersinMexicoandJapanofthepiracywe indulged in as a result of America's intervention in the war, the sameincapabilitythatblindedustotheeffectourmethodsmusthaveonotherneutralssuch as China and the South American States. And although one admits thepossibilityofamiscalculationbeingmade,yetamiscalculationwith regard toEngland'sattitudewasnotonly theheightofpoliticalstupidity,butshowedanabsenceofmoralsense.ThemomentEnglandenteredthewar,Germanylostthewar.

And while the world-politicians of Berlin, having recovered from their firstdismay,weremakingjokesaboutthe"nationofshopkeepers"anditslittlearmy

whichtheywouldjust"havearrested";whilealittlelaterthemilitaryeventsuptoSt.Quentin and theBattle of theMarne seemed to justify the idlemockerswhoknewnothingofEnglandandhadneverevenventured theirnosesoutofGermany,—thosewhohadlivedinthecolonieswereutteringwarningsagainstanykindofoptimism,andsomealreadyfeltthewarwouldendbadlyforus.

I belonged to the latter group. I expressedmy conviction in this direction asearlyasAugust6th,1914,inaletterwhichIwrotefromBerlinformyfather'sbirthday. In it Imaintained that in spite of all our brilliantmilitary successes,whichwouldcertainlynotlast,thiswarwasamistakeandwouldassuredlyendin failure forGermany.Littera scriptamanet.Never from thatmoment have IbelievedinfinalvictoryforGermany.SlowlybutsurelythenIveeredroundtothepositionthatIcouldnolongerevendesirevictoryforGermany.

Naturally I did my military duty. I saw the fearful crime Germany wascommitting, yet I hurried to the front with the millions who believed thatGermanywasinnocentandhadbeenattackedwithoutcause.Therewasnothingelsetobedone,anditmustofcourseberememberedthatmyfinalrupturewithGermany did not take place all of a sudden. After a few months of war inMasuriaIwasreleasedasunfitforactiveserviceastheresultofasevereillness.

Ofallthemanyepisodesofmylifeatthefront,noneissodeeplyimpressedonmymemory as the silentwar ofmutual hatred Iwagedwithmy immediatelysuperiorofficer,atrueprototypeofhisrace,atruePrussian.Icanstillseehim,amanoffifty-fiveorso,who,inspiteofformeractiveservice,hadonlyreachedtherankoflieutenant,andwho,ashetoldmehimselfrightatthebeginning,inverymisplacedconfidence,rushedintoactiveserviceagainbecauseinthiswayhe could get really good pay and would even have a prospect of furtherpromotion.

ThisLieutenantStein toldme tooof the firstweeks inBelgium,whenhehadbeen in command of a company, and I can still hear him boasting about hiswarlikepropensities,andhowhisteacherhadsaidabouthimwhenhewasaboy"hewascapableofstealinganaltar-clothandcuttingituptomakebreechesforhimself."

"Whenwewantedtodoanycommandeeringortoplunderahouse,"sohetoldme,"therewasaverysimplemeans.AmanbelongingtomycompanywouldbeorderedtothrowaBelgianriflethroughanopencellarwindow,thehousewouldthenbesearchedforweapons,andevenifwefoundonlyoneriflewehadorderstoseizeeverythingwithoutmercyandtodriveouttheoccupiers."Icanstillsee

thecreaturestandinginfrontofmeandrelatingthisandmanyasimilartaleinthesefirstdaysbeforeheknewme.Ihaveneverforgottenit;andIthinkIowemuchtoLieutenantStein.HehelpedmeonthewayIwaspredestinedtogo,forhadInotjustreturnedfromthecoloniesandforeignlands,imbuedwithliberalideas,andfromthefirsttornbygravedoubts?

The Lieutenant may be an exception—granted; but he is an exceptionunfortunatelybuttoooftenrepresentedinthatarmyofmillionsonitsinvadingmarch into unhappyBelgium, among officers and non-commissioned officers,whom,atanyratesofarasactiveserviceisconcerned,everyonewhohasservedin theGermanArmywill agreewithme in calling on the average thoroughlybrutal.LieutenantSteingavememyfirstrealdeepdisgustofwar.HeisatypethatIhavenotinvented,andhewilleasilybeidentifiedbytheGermanmilitaryauthoritiesfromhissignatureonmymilitarypassasoneofthosearch-Prussianswhosuddenlyreadoptamartialair,suddenlyreviveandcomeintotheirelementagain,althoughtheymaybesicklyoldvaletudinarians—thekindofmenwhoincivil lifeareprobablyenthusiasticmembersof the"GermanColonialSociety,"the "Naval Union," and the "Pan-German Association," and ardent world-politiciansoftheale-benchtype.

IfoundhisstoriesafterwardsconfirmedtotheletterbyoneofthemostfamousGermanwar-correspondents,PaulSchweder,theauthorofthefour-volumeworkentitledAt ImperialHeadquarters.With anaïveté equal to Lieutenant Stein's,andtrustingnodoubttomythenofficialpositionascorrespondentofaGermanpaper,hegavemedescriptionsofBelgianatrocitiescommittedbyoursoldiersandtheresultsofoursystemofoccupationthat,inalltheirhorriblenakedness,put everything that ever appeared in theEntente newspapers absolutely in theshade.

As early as the beginning of 1916 he told me the plain truth that we werepracticallystarvingBelgiumandthat thecountrywasreallyonlykeptalivebythe Relief Commission, and that we were attempting to ruin any BelgianindustrywhichmightcompetewithoursbyasystematicremovalofmachinerytoGermany.AndthatwasbeforethetimeoftheDeportations!

Schweder'sdescriptionsdealt for themostpartwith thesexualmoralityofoursoldiers in the trenches. In spite of severe punishments, so he assured me,thousands and thousands of cases occurred of women and young girls out ofdecentBelgianandFrench familiesbeingoutraged.Thesoldieronshort leavefromthefront,withtheprospectofaspeedyreturntothefirst-linetrenchesanddeathstaringhimintheface,didnotcarewhathappened;theunhappyvictims

wereforthemostpartsilentabouttheirshame,sothatthecasesofpunishmentwereveryfewandfarbetween.

While I was at the front I heard extraordinary things, for which I had againdetailedconfirmationfromSchweder,whoknewthewholeoftheWesternFrontwell, about the German policy of persecution in Alsace-Lorraine. There thesystem was to punish with imprisonment not only actions but opinions. Theauthoritiesdidnotevenscrupletoimprisongirlsoutofhighly-respectedhouseswhohadperhapsmade someharmless remark inyouthful ignorance, and shutthemupwithcommoncriminalsandprostitutestoworkouttheirlongsentence.Such scandalous acts, which are a disgrace to humanity, Paul Schwederconfirmedbythedozenorrelatedatfirst-hand.

Hewasintelligentenough,too,aswasevidentfromthemanystatementsmadeby him in confidential circles, to see through the utter lack of foundation, themendacity,theimmoralityofwhathewroteinhisbooksmerelyforthesakeoffilthy lucre; but when I tried one day to take on a bet with him that Verdunwouldnotfall,hetookhisrevengebyspreadingthereportinConstantinoplethatIwasanPro-Entente, anddoinghisutmost to intrigueagainstme.That is theGermanwar-correspondent'sideaofmorality!

When I was released from the army in the beginning of 1915, I joined theeditorial staff of the Kölnische Zeitung and remained for some weeks inCologne.Ihavenotretainedanyveryspecial impressionsof thisperiodofmyactivity, except perhaps the recollection of the spirit of jingoistic PrussianismthatI—beingaBadener—hadscarcelyevercomeacrossbeforeinitsfullglory,and, from the many confidential communications and discussions among theeditorial staff, the feeling that even then there was a certain nervousness andinsecurityamongthosewho,intheirleadingarticles,informedthepublicdailyoftheirabsoluteconfidenceinvictory.

One curious thing at this time, perhapsworthy ofmention,was the disdainfulcontempt with which these Prussians—even before the fall of Przemysl—regarded Austria. But the scornful and biting commentaries made behind thescenes in the editorial sanctum at the fall of this stronghold stood in moststrikingcontrasttowhatthepaperswroteaboutit.

Later,whenIhadalreadybeenalongtimeinTurkey,ahumorousincidentgavemerenewedopportunityofseeingthisPrussianspiritofunboundedexaggerationofselfanddepreciationofothers.TheincidentisatthesametimecharacteristicofthespiritofmilitarismwithwhichtherepresentativesoftheGermanPressare

thoroughlyimbued,inspiteoftheopportunitiesmostofthemhavehadthroughlongvisitstoothercountriesofgainingalittlemoresavoirfaire.

Onebeautifulsummerafternoonatapromenadeconcertinthe"PetitChamps"atPeraIintroducedanAustrianLieutenantofDragoonsIknew,belongingtooneofthebestregiments,toourBalkancorrespondentwhohappenedtobestayinginConstantinople:"LieutenantN.;HerrvonM."Thecorrespondentsatdownatthetableandrepeatedverydistinctly:"Lieutenant-ColonelvonM."Itturnedoutthat he had been a second lieutenant in the Prussian Army, and had pushedhimself up to this wonderful rank in the Bulgarian Army, instinctivelycombining journalism and militarism. My companion, however, with trueAustriancalm,tooknottheslightestnoticeofthecorrection,didnotspringupandgreethimwithanenthusiastic"Ah!mydearfellow-officer,etc.,"butbegananordinarysocialconversation.

WouldanyonebelievethatnextdayoldHerrvonM.tookmeroundlytotaskforsittingatthesametableasanAustrianofficerandappearinginpublicwithhim,and informed me quasi-officially that as a representative of the KölnischeZeitungIshouldassociateonlywiththeGermancolonyinConstantinople.

I wonder which is the most irritating characteristic of this type of mind—itsoverbearingattitudetowardsourAllies,itsjingoistic"ImperialGerman"cant,orits wounded dignity as a militarist who forgets that he is a journalist and nolongeranofficer?

CHAPTERII

In Constantinople—Pro-Turkish considerations—The dilemma of aGallipolicorrespondent—UnderGermanmilitarycontrol.

AFEWdaysafterthefallofPrzemyslIsetoutforConstantinople.IleftGermanywith a good deal of friendly feeling towards the Turk. I was even quite welldisposed towards theYoungTurks, although I knewand appreciated theharmcausedbytheirrégimeandthereproacheslevelledagainstitsince1909.Atanyrate, when I landed on Turkish soil I was certainly not lacking in goodwilltowardstheGovernmentofEnverandTalaat,andnothingwasfurtherfrommythoughts than to prejudice myself against my new sphere of work by any

preconceivedcriticism.

IncomparisonwithAbdul-HamidIregardedtherégimeoftheYoungTurks,inspiteofall,asabigstepinadvanceandanecessaryone,andthepartingwordsofoneofouroldeditors,athoroughconnoisseurofTurkey,lingeredinmyearswithoutverymucheffect.Hesaid:"YouaregoingtoConstantinople.Youwillsoonbeabletoseeforyourself themoralbankruptcyof theYoungTurks,andyouwillfindthatTurkeyisnothingbutadeadbodygalvanisedintoaction,thatwillonly last as longas thewar lasts andweGermans supply thegalvanisingpower."Iwouldnotbelieveit,andwenttoTurkeywithanabsolutelyopenmindtoformmyownopinion.

Itmustalsoberememberedthatallthepro-TurkishutterancesofEasternexpertsofallshadesandnationalitieswhoemphasisedthefactthattheTurkswerethemostrespectablenationoftheEast,werenotwithouttheireffectuponme;alsoIhadreadPierreLoti.IwasdeterminedtoextendtotheTurkishGovernmentthestrong sympathy I already felt for the Turkish people—and, let me hereemphasise it, still feel. To undermine that sympathy, to make me lose myconfidenceinthisrace,thingswouldhavetogobadlyindeed.TheywentworsethanIeverthoughtwaspossible.

Iwentfirstofall tothenewTurkishfront in theDardanellesandtheGallipoliPeninsula, where everything was ruled by militarism and there was but littleopportunity toworry aboutpolitics.The combinedattackby sea and landhadjust begun, and I passed the next few weeks on the Ariburnu front. I foundmyself in the entirely new position of war-correspondent. I had now to writeprofessionallyaboutthiswar,whichIdetestedwithallmyheartandsoul.

Well,Isimplyhadtomakethebackfittheburden.WhateverIdidordidnotdo,IhavecertainlytheclearsatisfactionofknowingthatIneverwroteasinglewordinpraiseofwar.Onewillunderstandthat,inspiteofmyinwardconvictionthatGermanybyunloosingthewaronEuropehadcommittedaterriblecrimeagainsthumanity,inspiteofmyconsciousnessofactinginawrongcause,inspiteofmydeepdisgustofmuch that Ihadalreadyseen, Iwasstill interested inTurkey'sfightforexistence,butfromquiteanotherstandpoint.

AsanobjectiveonlookerIdidnothavetobeanabsolutehypocritetodojusticetomyjournalisticdutiestomypaper.IgottoknowtheTurkishsoldierwithhisstoicalheroismindefence,andthebrilliantattackingpowersandcourageoftheAnatolianswith theirblindbelief in theirPadishah,as theywere rushed to thedefence of Stamboul and hurled themselves in a bayonet charge against the

Britishmachine-gunsunderahailofshellsfromthesea.IgainedahighopinionofTurkishvalourandpowersofresistance.Ihadnoreasontostintmypraiseorwithholdmy judgment. Inmess-tents and at various observation-posts Imadethe personal acquaintance of crowds of thoroughly sympathetic and likeableTurkishofficers.Letmementionbutone—EssadPasha,thedefenderofJannina.

I found quite enough material on my two visits to Gallipoli during variousphasesofthefightingtowriteaseriesoffeuilletonswithoutanyglorificationofmilitarismandpoliticalaims. Iconfinedmyself towhatwasofgeneralhumaninterest,towhatwaspicturesque,whatwasdramaticinthestrugglegoingoninthisuniquetheatreofwar.

ButeventhenIwasbeginningtohavemyownopinionaboutmuchthatIsaw;Iwasalready tornbyconflictingdoubts.AlreadyIwasbeginning toaskmyselfwhethermy sympathieswould not gradually turnmore andmore definitely tothosewhowerevainlystormingthesestrongTurkishfortsfromthesea,underadeadlymachine-gunfire, for thecauseof truecivilisation, thecauseof liberty,wasmanifestlyontheirside.

Ihadopportunity,too,ofmakingcomparisonsfromthedeadandwoundedandthefewprisonerstherewerebetweenthevalueofthehumanmaterialsacrificedoneitherside—ontheone,bravebutstupidAnatolians,accustomedtodirtandmisery; on the other cultured and highly civilised men, sportsmen from thecolonieswhohadhurriedfromthefarthestcornersoftheearthtofightnotonlyfortheBritishcause,butforthecauseofcivilisation.

ButatthattimeIwasnotyetripeforthedecisionforceduponmelaterbyotherthings that I sawwithmy own eyes; I had not yet reached that deep inwardconviction that Ishouldhave tomakeabreakwithGermany.Theonly thingIcould do and felt compelled to do then was to pay my homage not only toTurkish patriotism and Turkish bravery, but to the wonderful courage andfearlessnessofdeathshownbythosewhomatthattimeIhad,asaGerman,toregardasmyenemies;thisIdidoverandoveragaininmyarticles.

I saw, too, the first indications of other things. Traces of themost outspokenjingoismamongTurkishofficersbecamegraduallyapparent,andmorethanoneTurkishcommanderpointedout tomewith ironicalemphasis that thingswentjustassmoothlyandpromptlyinhissector,wheretherewasnoGermanofficerincharge,asanywhereelse.

On my second visit to the Dardanelles, in summer, I heard of considerablequarrels over questions of rank, and there was more than one outbreak of

jingoisticarroganceonthepartofbothTurkishandGermansubalterns,leadingin some cases even to blows and consequent severe punishment forinsubordination.TheclimaxwasreachedinthescandalofsupplantingGeneralWeber, commanding the "Southern Group" (Sedd-ul-Bahr) by Vehib Pasha, agrim and fanatical Turk. In this case the Turkish point of view prevailed, forGeneral Liman von Sanders, Commander-in-Chief of theGallipoliArmy,wasdeterminednot to losehispost,andagreedslavishlywithall thatEnverPashaordained.

Fromother fronts, such as the Irak and the "Caucasus" (whichwas becomingmoreandmoreapurelyArmeniantheatreofwar,withoutlosingthatchimericaldesignationintheofficialreports!),therecameevenmoresignificanttales;thereGermanandTurkishofficersseemedtolivestillmoreofacat-and-doglifethanin the Dardanelles. Of course under the iron discipline of both Turks andGermans, these unpleasant occurrenceswere never allowed to come to such apassthattheywouldinterfereinanywaywithmilitaryoperations,buttheywereofsignificanceassymptomsofadeepdistrustoftheGermanseveninTurkishmilitarycircles.

CHAPTERIII

The great Armenian persecutions—The system of Talaat and Enver—Adenunciation of Germany as a cowardly and consciencelessaccomplice.

INspiteofall,IreturnedtoConstantinoplefrommyfirstvisittotheDardanelleswith very little diminution of friendly feeling towards the Turks. My firstexperiencewhen I returned to the capital was the beginning of theArmenianpersecutions.Andhere Imayaswellsayatonce thatmy loveforpresent-dayTurkeyperished absolutelywith this unique example in the history ofmodernhumancivilisationofthemostappallingbestialityandmisguidedjingoism.This,morethaneverythingelseIsawontheGerman-Turkishsidethroughoutthewar,persuadedmetotakeuparmsagainstmyownpeopleandtoadoptthepositionInowhold.Isay"German-Turkish,"forImustholdtheGermanGovernmentasequally responsible with the Turks for the atrocities they allowed them tocommit.

Here in neutral Switzerland, where so many of these unfortunate Armenianshave taken refuge and such abundance of information is available, so muchmaterialhasbeencollectedthatitisunnecessaryformetogointodetailsinthisbook.Sufficeittosaythatthenarrationofalltheheart-rendingoccurrencesthatcame tomy personal knowledge duringmy stay in Turkey, without my eventryingtocollectsystematicinformationonthesubject,wouldfillabook.Tomydeep sorrow I have to admit that, from everything I have heard from reliablesources—from German Red Cross doctors, officials and employees of theBaghdadRailway,membersoftheAmericanEmbassy,andTurksthemselves—although they are but individual cases—I cannot regard as exaggerated suchappalling facts and reports as are contained for example in Arnold Toynbee'sArmenianAtrocities.[1]

Inthislittlebook,however,whichpartakesmoreofthenatureofanessaythanan exhaustive treatise, my task will be rather to determine the system, theunderlying political thought and the responsibility of Germany in all thesehorrors—massacres,theseductionofwomen,childrenlefttodieorthrownintothesea,prettyyounggirlscarriedoff intohousesof ill repute, thecompulsoryconversion toIslamandincorporation inTurkishharemsofyoungwomen, theejection from their homes of eminent and distinguished families by brutalgendarmes,attackswhileonthemarchbypaidbandsofrobbersandcriminals,"emigration"tonotoriousmalariaswampsandbarrendesertandmountainlands,victims handed over to the wild lusts of roaming Bedouins and Kurds—in aword, the triumphof thebasest brutality andmost cold-blooded refinement ofcrueltyinawarofexterminationinwhichhalfamillionmen,andaccordingtosomeestimatesmanymore,haveperished,while theremainingoneandahalfmillionofthismostintelligentandculturedrace,oneoftheprincipalpioneersofprogress in the Ottoman Empire, see nothing but complete extinction staringtheminthefacethroughtheruptureoffamilyties,thedeprivationoftheirrights,andeconomicruin.

TheArmenianpersecutionsbegan inall theircruelty,practicallyunannounced,inApril 1915.Certain events on theCaucasus front,which no number of liescould explain away, gave the Turkish Government the welcome pretext forfallinglikewildanimalsontheArmeniansoftheeasternvilajets—theso-calledArmeniaProper—andgettingtoworktherewithoutdeferencetoman,woman,or child.Thiswas called "the restoration of order in thewar zone bymilitarymeasures, rendered necessary by the connivance of the inhabitants with theenemy, treacheryandarmedsupport."The first twoor threehundred thousandArmeniansfellinthefirstroundingup.

ThatinthoseoutlyingdistrictssituateddirectlyontheRussianfrontieranumberofArmeniansthrewintheirlotwiththeadvancingRussians,noonewillseektodeny,andnotasingleArmenianIhavespokentodeniesit.Butthe"ArmenianVolunteerCorps" thatfoughtonthesideofRussiawascomposedfor themostpart—thatatleasthasbeenprovedbeyonddoubt—ofRussianArmenianssettledinTranscaucasianterritory.

SofarastheTurkishArmenianstakingpartareconcerned,noreasonablebeingwould think of denying Turkey as Sovereign State the formal right of takingstringent measure against these traitors and deserters. But if I expresslyrecognisethisright,Idosowiththebigreservationthatthefrightfulsufferingsundergone for centuries by a people left by their rulers to the mercy ofmarauding Kurds and oppressed by a government of shameless extortioners,absolutelyabsolvethesedesertersintheeyesofthewholecivilisedworldfromanymoralcrime.

AndyetIwouldwillinglyhavegonesofarforthebenefitoftheTurks,inspiteoftheirterribleguilttowardsthispeople,asperhapstokeepmyowncounselonthesubject,ifithadmerelybeenacaseoftheexecutionofsomehundredsundermartiallaworthecarryingoutofothermeasures—suchasdeportation—againsta coupleof thousandArmenians and these strictly confined tomen. It is evenpossiblethatEuropeandAmericawouldhavepardonedTurkeyfortakingevenstronger steps in the nature of reprisals ormeasures of precaution against themaleinhabitantsofthatpartofArmeniaProperwhichwasgraduallybecomingawarzone.Butfromtheverybeginningthepersecutionswerecarriedonagainstwomen and children as well as men, were extended to the hundred thousandinhabitants of the six eastern vilajets, and were characterised by such savagebrutality that the methods of the slave-drivers of the African interior and thepersecution ofChristians underNero are the only thing that can be comparedwiththem.

Every shred of justification for the Turkish Government in their attempt toestablish this as an "evacuation necessary for military purposes and for theprevention of unrest" entirely vanishes in face of suchmethods, and I do notbelievethatthereisasingledecentGerman,cognisantofthefactsofthecase,who is not filledwith real disgust of theYoungTurkishGovernment by suchcold-bloodedbutcheryoftheinhabitantsofwholedistrictsandthedeportationofotherswiththeexpresspurposeoflettingthemdieenroute.Anyonewithhumanfeelings,howeverpro-Turkishhemaybepolitically,cannotthinkotherwise.

This "evacuation necessary formilitary purposes" emptiedArmenia Proper of

men.HowoftenhaveTurksthemselvestoldme—Icouldmentionnames,butIwillnotexposemyinformants,whowereonthewholedecentexceptionstotherule, to the wrath of Enver or Talaat—how often have they assured me thatpracticallynotasingleArmenian is tobe found inArmenia!And it isequallycertainthatscarcelyonecanbeleftaliveofallthathordeofdeportedmenwhoescapedthefirstmassacresandwerehunteduphillanddowndaleinastateofstarvation,exposedtoattacksbyKurds,decimatedbyspottedtyphus,andfinallyabandoned to their fate in the scorchingdesertsofNorthernMesopotamia andNorthernSyria.Onehasonly to read thestatisticsof thepopulationof thesixvilajetsofArmeniaProper todiscover thehundredsof thousandsofvictimsofthiswholesalemurder.

Butunfortunatelythatwasnotall.TheTurkishGovernmentwentfarther,muchfarther.Theyaimedat thewholeArmenianpeople,notonly inArmenia itself,butalso in the"Diaspora," inAnatoliaProperand in thecapital.Theywereatthat time some hundred thousand. In this case they could scarcely go on theprincipleof"evacuationofthewarzone,"fortheinhabitantswerehundredsofmilesbothfromtheEasternfrontandfromtheDardanelles,sotheyhadtoresorttoothermeasures.

They suddenly andmiraculously discovered a universal conspiracy among theArmenians of the Empire. It was only by a trick of this kind that they couldsucceedincarryingouttheirsystemofexterminatingtheentireArmenianrace.The Turkish Government skilfully influenced public opinion throughout thewholeworld, and then discovered, nay, arranged for, local conspiracies. Theythen falsified all thedetails so that theymight goon formonths inpeace andquietwiththeircampaignofextermination.

Inaseriesofsemi-officialarticlesinthenewspapersoftheCommitteeofYoungTurks itwasmadequite clear thatallArmeniansweredangerous conspiratorswho,inordertoshakeofftheOttomanyoke,hadcollectedfirearmsandbombsand had arranged,with the help of English andRussianmoney, for a terribleslaughterofTurksonthedaythattheEnglishfleetovercamethearmiesontheDardanelles.

Imusthere emphasise the fact that all the arguments theTurkishGovernmentbrought against the Armenians did not escape my notice. They were indeedevidentenough inofficial and semi-officialpublicationsand in thewritingsofGerman "experts on Turkey." I investigated everything, even right at thebeginningofmystayinTurkey,andalwaysfromathoroughlypro-Turkishpointofview.Thatdidnotpreventmehowever,fromcomingtomypresentpointof

view.

HerrZimmermann, the Secretary of State for ForeignAffairs, has only got torefertothedateofhislettertotheeditorialstaffofmypaper,inwhichhespeaksofmy confidential report to the paper on this subjectwhichwent through hishandsandarousedhisinterest,andhewillfindwhatopinionsIheldasearlyasthe summer of 1916 on the subject of the Armenian persecutions—and thiswithoutmyhavinganyparticularsympathyfortheArmenians,foritwasnottillmuchlater thatIgot toknowthemandtheirhighintellectualqualities throughpersonalintercourse.

HereIcanonlygivemyfinaljudgmentonalltheseprosandcons,andsaytothebest of my knowledge and opinion, that after the first act in this drama ofmassacreanddeath—thebrutal"evacuationofthewarzone"inArmeniaProper—themeanest,thelowest,themostcynical,mostcriminalactofrace-fanaticismthat the history of mankind has to show was the extension of the system ofdeportation, with its wilful neglect and starvation of the victims, to furtherhundredsofthousandsofArmeniansintheCapitalandInterior.Andthesewerepeople who, through their place of residence, their surroundings, their socialstatus, their preoccupation inwork andwage-earning,were quite incapable oftakinganyactivepartinpolitics.

Othersofthem,again,belongedtofamiliesofhighsocialstandingandculture,bound to the land by a thousand ties, coming of awell-to-do, old-establishedstock, and from traditional training and ordinary prudence holding themselvesscrupulouslyapart fromall revolutionarydoings.Allweresurroundedbya farsuperiornumberofinhabitantsbelongingtootherraces.

This diabolical crime was committed solely and only because of the Turkishfeelingofeconomicandintellectualinferioritytothatnon-Turkishelement,forthe set purpose of obtaining handsome compensation for themselves, andwasundertakenwith thecowardlyacquiescenceof theGermanGovernment in fullknowledgeofthefacts.

OfthislongchainofcrimeIsawatleastthebeginningthousandsoftimeswithmyowneyes.HardlyhadIreturnedfrommyfirstvisittotheDardanelleswhenthesepersecutionsbegan in thewholeofAnatoliaandeven inConstantinople,andcontinuedwithbutslight intermissionsofaweekor twoatdifferent timestillshortlybeforeIleftConstantinopleinDecember1916.

ThatwasthetimewhenintheflourishingwesternvilajetsofAnatolia,beginningwith Brussa and Adabazar, where the well-stocked farms in Armenian hands

must have been an eyesore to a Government that had written "forciblenationalisation" on their standard, the whole household goods of respectablefamilieswere throwninto thestreetandsoldforamerenothing,because theirownersoftenhadonlyanhourtilltheywereroutedoutbythewaitinggendarmeandhustledoffintotheInterior.Thefittingsofthehouses,naturallyunsaleablein the hurry, usually fell to the lot of marauding "mohadjis" (Mohammedanimmigrants),who,oftenenougharmedto the teethby the"Committee,"beganthedisturbanceswhichwerethenexposedas"Armenianconspiracies."

Thatwasthetimewhenmothers,apparentlyinabsolutedespair,soldtheirownchildren,becausetheyhadbeenrobbedoftheirlastpennyandcouldnotlettheirchildrenperishonthatterriblemarchintothedistantInterior.

HowmanycountlesstimesdidIhavetolookonatthattypicalspectacleoflittlebandsofArmeniansbelongingtothecapitalbeingescortedthroughthestreetsofPeraby twogendarmes in their raggedmurkygreyuniformswith their typicalbrutal Anatolian faces, while a policemanwho could read andwritemarchedbehind with a notebook in his hand, beckoning people at random out of thecrowd with an imperious gesture, and if their papers showed them to beArmenians,simplyherding theminwith therestandmarching themoff to the"Karakol"ofGalata-Seraï,thechiefpolice-stationinPera,wherehedelivereduphisdailybagofArmenians!

ThewaytheseimprisonmentsanddeportationswerecarriedonisamoststrikingconfutationoftheclaimsoftheTurkishGovernmentthattheywereactingonlyinrighteousindignationoverthediscoveryofagreatconspiracy.Thisisentirelyuntrue.

Withthemostcold-bloodedcalculationandmethod,thenumberofArmenianstobedeportedweredividedoutoveraperiodofmanymonths,indeedonemaysayover nearly a year and a half. The deportations only began to abatewhen thedownfallof theArmenianPatriarchate in summer1916dealt the finalblow tothe social life of theArmenians.Theymoreor less ceased inDecember 1916withthegathering-inofallthosewhohadformerlypaidthemilitaryexemptiontax—amongthemmanyeminentArmenianbusinessmen.

Whatcanbe saidof the "righteous, spontaneous indignation"of theArmenianGovernmentwhen,forexample,oftwoArmenianportersbelongingtothesamehouse—brothers—oneisdeportedto-dayandtheothernottillafortnightlater;orwhenthenumberofArmenianstobedeliveredupdailyfromacertainquarterofthetownisfixedatadefinitefigure,saytwohundredorathousand,asIhave

beentoldwasthecasebyreliableTurkswhowereinfulltouchwiththepoliceorganisationandknewthesystemofthesedeportations?

Oftheebbandflowof thesepersecutions,all thatcanbesaid is that thedailynumber of deportations increased when the Turks were annoyed over someRussianvictory,andthatthebanishmentsmiraculouslyabatedwhenthemilitarycatastrophes ofErzerum,Trebizond, andErzindjan gave theGovernment foodfor thoughtand led themtowonder ifperhapsNemesiswasgoing toovertakethemafterall.

And then the method of transport! Every day towards evening, when theseunfortunatecreatureshadbeencollected in thepolice-stations, thewomenandchildrenwerepackedintoelectric-tramswhilethemenandboyswerecompelledto go off on foot to Galata with a couple of blankets and only the barestnecessitiesfortheirterriblejourneypackedinasmallbag.Ofcoursetheywerenotallpoorpeoplebyanymeans.

Thisdirefatemightbefallanyoneanydayoranyhour,fromthecaretakerandthetradesmantomembersofthebestfamilies.Iknowcaseswheremenofhigheducation,belongingtoaristocraticfamilies—engineers,doctors,lawyers—werebanishedfromPerainthisdisgustingwayundercoverofdarknesstospendthenightontheplatformsoftheHaidar-Pashastation,andthenbepackedoffinthemorningontheAnatolianRailway—ofcoursetheypaidfortheirticketsandalltravelling expenses!—to the Interior,where theydiedof spotted typhus, or, inrare cases after their recovery from this terriblemalady,were permitted, afterendlesspleading,toreturnbrokeninbodyandsoultotheirhomesas"harmless."Among these bands herded about from pillar to post like cattle there werehundredsandthousandsofgentle,refinedwomenofgoodfamilyandofperfectEuropeancultureandmanners.

For the most part it was the sad fate of those deported to be sent off on anendlessjourneybyfoot,tothefar-offArabianfrontier,wheretheyweretreatedwith the most terrible brutality. There, in the midst of a population whollyforeign and but little sympathetic to their race, left to their fate on a barrenmountain-side, without money, without shelter, without medical assistance,withoutthemeansofearningalivelihood,theyperishedinwantandmisery.

The women and children were always separated from the men. That was thecharacteristicofallthedeportations.Itwasanattempttostrikeattheverycoreof theirnationalbeingandannihilate thembythetearingasunderofall familyties.

ThatwashowaverylargepartoftheArmenianpeopledisappeared.Theywerethe"personstransportedelsewhere,"astheeleganttitleofthe"ProvisionalHan"ran, which gave full stewardship over their well-stocked farms to the"Committee" with its zeal for "internal colonisation" with purely Turkishelements.Inthiswaythegreatgoalwasreached—theforciblenationalisationofalandofmixedraces.

WhileAnatoliawasgraduallyemptiedofall the forces thathadhithertomadefor progress, while the deserted towns and villages and flourishing fields ofthose who had been banished fell into the hands of the lowest "Mohadjr"—hordesofthemostdissipatedMohammedanemigrants—thatstreamofunhappybeingstrickledonevermoreslowlytoitsdistantgoal,leavingthedeadbodiesofwomenandchildren,oldmenandboys,asmilestonestomarktheway.Thefewthat did reach the "settlement" alive—that is, the fever-ridden, hunger-strickenconcentration camps—continually molested by raiding Bedouins and Kurds,graduallysickenedanddiedaslowerandevenmoreterribledeath.

Sometimes even this was not speedy enough for theGovernment, and a caseoccurredinAutumn1916—absolutelyverifiedbystatementsmadebyGermanemployees on the Baghdad Railway—where some thousands of Armenians,broughtasworkers to thisstretchof railway,simplyvanishedonedaywithoutleavingatrace.Apparentlytheyweresimplyshippedoffintothedesertwithoutmoreadoandtheremassacred.

This terrible catalogue of crime on the part of the Government of Talaat is,however,inspiteofallcensorshipandobstruction,beingdealtwithofficiallyinall quarters of the globe—by theAmericanEmbassy atConstantinople and inneutralandEntentecountries—andattheconclusionofpeaceitwillbebroughtasanaccusationagainstthecriminalbrotherhoodofYoungTurksbyamercilesscourtofallthecivilisednationsoftheworld.

I have spoken to Armenians who have said to me, "In former times the oldSultan Abdul-Hamid used to have us massacred by thousands. We weredelivered over by well-organised pogroms to the Kurds at stated times, andcertainly we suffered cruelly enough. Then the Young Turks, as Adana 1909shows, startedonabloodshedof thousands.But afterwhatwehave justgonethroughwelongwithallourheartsforthedaysoftheoldmassacres.Nowitisno longer a case of a certain number ofmassacred; now ourwhole people isbeing slowly but surely exterminated by the national hatred of an apparentlycivilised, apparently modern, and therefore infinitely more dangerousGovernment.

"Nowtheygetholdofourwomenandchildrenandsendthemlongjourneysonfoot to concentration camps in barren districts where they die. The pitifulremains of our population in the villages and towns of the Interior,where thelocalauthoritieshavecarriedoutthecommandsofthecentralGovernmentmostzealously, are forciblyconverted to Islam, andouryounggirls are confined inTurkishharemsandplacesoflowrepute.

"Therace is tovanish to thevery lastman,andwhy?Because theTurkshaverecognisedtheirintellectualbankruptcy,theireconomicincompetence,andtheirsocial inferioritytotheprogressiveArmenianelement, towhichAbdul-Hamid,inspiteofoccasionalmassacres,knewwellenoughhowtoadapthimself,andwhichheevenutilisedinallitspowerinhighofficesofstate.Becausenowthattheythemselvesarebeingdecimatedbyawearyandunsuccessfulwarofterriblebloodshedthatwaslostbeforeitwasbegun,theyhopeinthiswaytoretainthesympathy of their peoples and preserve the superiority of their element in theState.

"Thesearenotsporadicoutburstsofwrath,as theywere in thecaseofHamid,but a definitely thought-out politicalmeasure against our people, and for thisveryreasontheycanhopefornomercy.Germany,aswehaveseen,toleratestheannihilationofourpeople throughweaknessandlackofconscience,andif thewar lastsmuch longer theArmenian peoplewill have ceased to exist. That iswhywelongfortheoldrégimeofAbdul-Hamid,terribleasitwasforus."

Hasthereeverbeenagreatertragedyinthehistoryofapeople—andofapeoplethathaveneverheldanyillusionsastopoliticalindependence,wedgedinastheyare between two Great Powers, and who had no real irredentistic feelingstowardsRussia, and, up to themomentwhen theYoungTurks betrayed themshamefullyandbroke the tiesofcomradeship thathadbound themtogetherasrevolutionaries against the old despotic system of Abdul-Hamid, were asthoroughlyloyalcitizensoftheOttomanEmpireasanyoftheotherpeoplesofthisland,exceptingperhapstheTurksthemselves.

Ihopethatthesefewwordsmayhavegivensufficientindicationofthespiritandoutcomeofthissystemofextermination.Ishouldliketomentionjustonemoreepisode which affected me personally more than anything I experienced inTurkey.

Oneday in the summerof1916mywifewentoutaloneaboutmidday tobuysomethinginthe"GrandRuedePéra."WelivedafewstepsfromGalata-SeraïandhadplentyofopportunityfromourbalconyofseeingthebandsofArmenian

deportees arriving at the police-station under the escort of gendarmes.Familiaritywithsuchsightsfinallydulledoursympathies,andwebegantothinkof them not as episodes affecting human individuals, but rather as politicalevents.

Onthisparticularday,however,mywifecamebackto thehousetremblingallover.Shehadnotbeenabletogoonhererrand.Asshepassedthe"karakol,"shehadheardthroughtheopenhalldoortheagonisinggroansofatorturedbeing,adull wailing like the sound of an animal being tormented to death. "AnArmenian,"shewasinformedbythepeoplestandingatthedoor.Thecrowdwasthendispersedbyapoliceman.

"IfsuchscenesoccurinbroaddaylightinthebusiestpartoftheEuropeantownof Pera, I should like to know what is done to Armenians in the uncivilisedInterior,"mywifeaskedme."IftheTurksactlikewildbeastshereinthecapital,so that a woman going through themain streets gets a shock like that to hernerves,thenIcan'tliveinthisfrightfulcountry."Andthensheburstintoafitofsobbingandletlooseallherpent-uppassionagainstwhatsheandIhadhadtowitnessformorethanayeareverytimewesetafootoutofdoors.

"Youarebrutes,youGermans,miserablebrutes,thatyoutoleratethisfromtheTurks when you still have the country absolutely in your hands. You arecowardlybrutes,and Iwillneverset foot inyourhorriblecountryagain.God,howIhateGermany!"

It was then, when my own wife, trembling and sobbing, in grief, rage, anddisgustatsuchcowardliness,flungthisdenunciationofmycountryinmyteeththat I finally and absolutely brokewithGermany.Unfortunately I had knownonlytoolongthatithadtocome.

I thought of the conversations I had had about the Armenian question withmembers of the German Embassy in Constantinople and, of a very differentkind,withMr.Morgenthau,theAmericanAmbassador.

IhadneverfeltfullyconvincedbytheprotestationsoftheGermanEmbassythattheyhaddonetheirutmosttoputacheckonthemurderousattacksonharmlessArmeniansfarfromthetheatreofwar,whofromtheirwholesurroundingsandtheirsocialclasscouldnotbeinapositiontotakeanactivepartinpolitics,andon the cold-blooded neglect and starvation ofwomen and children apparentlydeportedfornootherreasonthantodie.TheattitudeoftheGermanGovernmenttowardstheArmenianquestionhadimpressedmeasamixtureofcowardiceandlackofconscienceontheonehandandthemostshort-sightedstupidityonthe

other.

The American Ambassador, who took the most generous interest in theArmenians, and has done somuch for the cause of humanity in Turkey, wasnaturally much too reserved on this most burning question to give a Germanjournalist like myself his true opinion about the attitude of his Germancolleagues.ButfromthemanyconversationsanddiscussionsIhadwithhim,Igatherednothing thatwould turnmefromtheopinionIhadalreadyformedoftheGermanEmbassy, and I had given him several hints ofwhat that opinionwas.

TheattitudeofGermanywas,inthefirstplace,asIhavesaid,oneofboundlesscowardice.ForwehadtheTurkishGovernmentfirmlyenoughinhand,fromthemilitary aswell as the financial and political point of view, to insist upon theobservanceof thesimplestprinciplesofhumanity ifwewanted to.Enver,andstillmoreTalaat,whoasMinisterof the InteriorandreallyDictatorofTurkeywasprincipallyresponsiblefortheArmenianpersecutions,hadnootherchoicethan to followGermany's lead unconditionally, and theywould have acceptedwithoutanyhesitation,ifperhapswithalittlegrumbling,anydefiniterulingofGermany'sevenonthisArmenianquestionthatlaysoneartheirhearts.

FromhundredsofexamplesithasbeenprovedthattheGermanyEmbassynevershowed anyunduedelicacy for evenperfectly legitimateTurkish interests andfeelingsinmattersaffectingGermaninterests,andthattheyalwaysgottheirownway where it was a question, for example, of Germans being oppressed, orsuperseded by Turks in the Government and ruling bodies. And yet I had tostandandlookonwhenourEmbassywasnotevencapableofgrantingherdueandproperrights toaperfectly innocentGermanladymarried toanArmenianwhohadbeendeportedwithmanyotherArmenians.Sheappealedforredresstothe German Embassy, but her only reward was to wait day after day in thevestibuleoftheEmbassyforhercasetobeheard.

Turks themselveshave foundcynicalenjoyment in thismeasurelesscowardiceof ours and compared itwith the attitude of theRussianGovernment,who, iftheyhad found themselves ina similarposition toGermany,wouldhavebeenprepared,inspiteoftheCapitulationsbeingabolished,tomakeapoliticalcase,ifnecessary,outoftheprotectionduetoonepoorRussianJew.Turkshave,verypolitelybutnonethelessdefinitely,madeitquitecleartomethatatbottomtheyfeltnothingbutcontemptforourpolicyoflettingthingsslide.

Ourattitudewascharacterised,secondly,bylackofconscience.Tolookonwhile

lifeandproperty,thewell-beingandcultureofthousands,aresacrificed,andtocontentoneselfwithweakformalprotestswhenoneisinapositiontotakemostenergetic command of the situation, is nothing but the most criminal lack ofconscience,andIcannotgetridofthesuspicionthat,inspiteofthefineofficialphrasesonewassooftentreatedtointheGermanEmbassyonthesubjectofthe"Armenian problem," our diplomats were very little concerned with thepreservationofthispeople.

What leadsmetobringthis terriblechargeagainst them?Thefact thatIneversawanythinginallthispotheronthepartofourdiplomatswhenthevenerableold Armenian Patriarch appeared at the Embassy with his suite after someparticularly frightful sufferings of the Armenian population, and begged withtearsinhiseyesforhelpfromtheEmbassy,howeverlate—andIassistedmorethanonceatsuchscenesintheEmbassyandlistenedtotheconversationsoftheofficials—IneversawanythingbutconcernaboutGermanprestigeandoffendedvanity.AsfarasIsaw,therewasneveranyconcernforthefateoftheArmenianpeople.ThefactthattimeandagainIheardfromthemouthsofGermansofallgrades,fromthehighesttothelowest,sofarastheydidnothavetokeepstrictlyto the official German versions, expressions of hatred against the Armenianswhichwere based on themost short-sighted judgment, had no relation to thefacts of the case, and were merely thoughtless echoes of the official Turkishstatements.

And cases have actually been proved to have occurred, from the testimony ofGerman doctors and Red Cross nurses returned from the Interior, of Germanofficers light-heartedly taking the initiative in exterminating and scattering theArmenians when the less-zealous local authorities who still retained someremnants of human feeling, scrupled to obey the instructions of "Nur-el-Osmanieh"(theheadquartersoftheCommitteeatStamboul).

The case is well known and has been absolutely verified of the scandalousconduct of two German officers passing through a village in far AsiaMinor,where theArmenianshad taken refuge in their houses andbarricaded them topreventbeingherdedofflikecattle.Theorderhadbeengiventhatgunsweretobeturnedonthem,butnotasingleTurkhadthecouragetocarryoutthisorderand fire on women and children. Without any authority whatsoever, the twoGerman officers then turned to and gave an exhibition of their shootingcapacities!

Suchshamefulactsareofcourse isolatedcases,but theyareonaparwith theopinionsexpressedabouttheArmenianpeoplebydozensofeducatedGermansofhighposition—nottospeakofmilitarymenatall.

A case of this kind where German soldiers were guilty of an attack onArmenians in the interior of Anatolia, was the subject of frequent officialdiscussionattheGermanEmbassy,andwasfinallybroughttothenoticeoftheauthorities inGermanybyGrafWolff-Metternich, a reallyhigh-principled andhumane man. The material result of this was that through the unheard-ofcowardiceofourGovernment,thisman—whoinspiteofhisageandincontrastto the weak-minded Freiherr vonWangenheim, and criminally optimistic hadmademany an attempt to get a firmer grip of the TurkishGovernment—wassimply hounded out of office by the Turks and weakly sacrificed without astrugglebyBerlin.

What,finally,isonetothinkofthespiritofourGermanofficialsinregardtotheArmenian question, when one hears such well-verified tales as were told meshortly before I left Constantinople by an eminent Hungarian banker (whosenameIwillnotreveal)?Herelated,forexample,that"aGermanofficer,withthetitleofBaron,andcloselyconnectedwiththemilitaryattaché,"wentonedaytothebazaarinStamboulandchoseavaluablecarpetfromanArmenian,whichhehadputdowntohisaccountandsenttohishouseinPera.Thenwhenitcametopaying for it, he promptly set the price twenty pounds lower than had beenstipulated, and indicated to the Armenian dealer that in view of the good

understandingbetweenhimself(theofficer)andtheTurkishPresidentofpolice,hewoulddowellnot to troublehimfurther in thematter! Ionlycite thiscasebecauseIamunfortunatelycompelledtobelieveinitsabsoluteauthenticity.

Shortsighted stupidity, finally, is how I characterised the inactive tolerationonthe part of our Imperial representatives of this policy of extermination of theArmenianrace.OurGovernmentcouldnothavebeenblindtothebreakingfloodof Turkish jingoism, and no one with any glimmer of foresight could havedoubtedforamomentsincethesummerof1915thatTurkeywouldonlygowithussolongassheneededourmilitaryandfinancialaid,andthatweshouldhavenoplace,notevenapurelycommercialone,inafullyturkifiedTurkey.

Inspiteofthelamentationsoneheardoftenenoughfromthemouthsofofficialsoverthiswell-recognisedandunpalatablefact,wetoleratedtheexterminationofaraceofoveroneandahalfmillionofpeopleofprogressiveculture,withtheEuropeanpointofview, intellectuallyadaptable, absolutely free from jingoismand fanaticism, and eminently cosmopolitan in feeling; we permitted thedisappearance of the only conceivable counterbalance to the hopelesslynationalistic, anti-foreign Young Turkish element, and through our cowardiceandlackofconsciencehavemadedeadlyenemiesofthefewthatwillrisefromtheruinsofaracethatusedtobeinthoroughsympathywithGermany.

An intelligentGermanGovernmentwould, in face of the increasingly evidentYoung Turkish spirit, have used every means in their power to retain thesympathiesof theArmenians,andindeedtowinthemingreaternumbers.TheArmenians waited for us, trembled with impatience for us, to give a definiteruling.Theirdisappointment,theirhatredofusisunboundednow—andrightlyso—and if aGermanever againwants to takeupbusiness in theEast hewillhavetoreckonwiththisafflictedpeoplesolongasoneofthemexists.

To answer theArmenian question in theway I have done here, one does notnecessarilyneedtohavetheslightestlikingortheleastsympathyforthemasarace.(Ihave,however,intimatedthattheydeserveatleastthatmuchfromtheirhigh intellectual and social abilities.) One only requires to have a feeling forhumanitytoabhorthewayinwhichhundredsofthousandsoftheseunfortunatepeoplewere disposed of; one only requires to understand the commercial andsocialneedsofavastcountrylikeTurkey,soundevelopedandyetsocapableofdevelopment, to place the highest value on the preservation of this restless,active,andeminentlyusefulelement;oneonlyrequires toopenone'seyesandlookat the factsdispassionately todenyutterly andabsolutelywhat theTurkshave tried tomake theworld believe about theArmenians, in order that they

might go on with their work of extermination in peace and quiet; one onlyrequires to have a slight feeling of one's dignity as a German to refuse tocondonethepitifulcowardiceofourGovernmentovertheArmenianquestion.

Themixtureofcowardice,lackofconscience,andlackofforesightofwhichourGovernmenthasbeenguilty inArmenianaffairs isquiteenough tounderminecompletely the political loyalty of any thinking man who has any regard forhumanity and civilisation. EveryGerman cannot be expected to bear as light-heartedlyasthediplomatsofPeratheshameofhavinghistorypointtothefactthattheannihilation,witheveryrefinementofcruelty,ofapeopleofhighsocialdevelopment,numberingoveroneandahalfmillion,wascontemporaneouswithGermany'sgreatestpowerinTurkey.

InlongconfidentialreportstomypaperImadeperfectlycleartothemthewholepositionwithregardtotheArmenianpersecutionsandthebrutaljingoisticspiritof theYoungTurks apparent in them.TheForeignOffice, too, took notice ofthesereports.ButIsawnotraceofthefruitsofthisknowledgeintheattitudeofmypaper.

Thedeterminationnevertore-entertheeditorialofficesofthatpapercametomeonthatdramaticoccasionwhenmywifehurledherdenunciationofGermanyinmy teeth. I at leastoweapersonaldebtofgratitude to thepoormurderedandtortured Armenians, for it is to them I owe my moral and politicalenfranchisement.

FOOTNOTES:

[1]This andotherworkson the subject came tomynotice for the first timea fewdaysbeforegoingtopress.Beforethat(inTurkey,Austria,andGermany)theywerequiteunprocurable.

CHAPTERIV

The tideofwar—Enver'soffensive for the"liberationof theCaucasus"—TheDardanellesCampaign;thefateofConstantinopletwicehangsinthe balance—Nervous tension in international Pera—Bulgaria'sattitude—Turkish rancour against her former enemy—German

illusions of a separate peace with Russia—King Ferdinand's time-serving—LackofmunitionsintheDardanelles—Amysteriousdeath:apoliticalmurder?—TheevacuationofGallipoli—TheTurkishversionof victory—Constantinople unreleased—Kut-el-Amara—Propagandafor the "HolyWar"—Aprisoner of repute—Loyalty ofAnglo-Indianofficers—Turkishcommuniquésandtheirworth—ThefallofErzerum—Officiallies—Thetreatmentofprisoners—Politicalspeculationwithprisoners of war—Treatment of enemy subjects—Stagnation andlassitude in the summer of 1916—TheGreeks in Turkey—Dread ofGreek massacres—Rumania's entry—Terrible disappointment—ThethreephasesofthewarforTurkey.

ITwillbenecessarytodevoteafewlinestoareviewoftheprincipalfeaturesofthewar, so far as it affected the life of theTurkish capital, in order to have amilitary and political background forwhat I saw among the Turks duringmytwentymonths'stayintheircountry.TothatIwilladdashortdescriptionoftheeconomicsituation.

WhenIarrivedinConstantinople,TurkeyhadalreadycompletedherfirstwintercampaignintheCaucasus,andhadrepelledtheattackoftheEntentefleetontheDardanelles, culminating in the events ofMarch 18th, 1915.ButEnver Pashahadcompletelymisjudgedtherelationbetweenthemeansathisdisposalandthetask before himwhen, out of pure vanity and amad desire for expansion, heundertookapersonallyconductedoffensivefor"theliberationoftheCaucasus."The terrible defeats inflicted on the Turkish army on this occasionwere keptfromtheknowledgeofthepeoplebyarigorouscensorshipandthefalsificationof the communiqués. This was particularly the case in the enormous TurkishlossessustainedatSarykamish.

Enverhadput this greatCaucasusoffensive inhandout of purewanton folly,thinkingbysodoingtowinlaurelsforhimselfandtohavesomethingtangibletoshowthoseTurkishultra-NationalistswhoalwayshadaneyeonTurkestanandTuran and thought that now was the time to carry out their programme of a"GreaterTurkey."Itwasthismadundertaking,boundasitwastocometogrief,thatfirstshowedEnverPashainhistruecolours.Ishallhavesomethingtosayabouthischaracterinanotherconnection,whichwillshowhowgravelyhehasbeenover-estimatedinEurope.

From the beginning of March 1915 to the beginning of January 1916 thesituationwaspractically entirely commandedby thebattles in theDardanelles

andGallipoli.Ithasnowbeenacceptedasarecognisedfacteveninthecountriesbelonging to theEntente that the sacrificeofa fewmoreshipsonMarch18thwouldhavedecidedthefateoftheDardanelles.Totheirgreatastonishmentthegallant defenders of the coast forts found that the attackhad suddenly ceased.Dozens of the German naval gunners who were manning the batteries ofChanakkalé on thatmemorable day toldme later that they had quitemade uptheirminds the fleetwouldultimatelywin,and that they themselvescouldnothave held out much longer. Such an outcome was expected hourly inConstantinople,andIwastoldbyinfluentialpeoplethatallthearchives,storesofmoney,etc.,hadalreadybeenremovedtoKonia.

Itisaremarkablefactthatforasecondtime,inthefirstdaysofSeptember,thefate of Constantinople was again hanging in the balance—a fact which is nolonger a secret in England and France. The British had extended their linenorthwards fromAriburnu to Anaforta, and a heroic dash by the Anzacs hadcaptured the summit of the Koja-Jemen-Dagh, and so given them directcommand of the whole peninsula of Gallipoli and the insufficiently protectedDardanelles forts behind them. It is still a mystery to the people ofConstantinoplewhytheBritishtroopsdidnotfollowupthisvictory.Thefactisthat this time again the money and archives were hurried off fromConstantinople to Asia, and a German officer in Constantinople gave me theentertaininginformationthathehadreallyseriouslythoughtofhiringawindowintheGrand'RuedePéra,sothatheandhisfamilymightwatchthetriumphalentryoftheEntentetroops!Itwouldbeeasiertoenjoythejokeofthisifitwerenotovershadowedbysuchfearfultragedy.

I have already indicated the dilemma in which I was placed on my first andsecondvisitstotheGallipolifront.Iwastornbyconflictingdoubtsastowhommysympathiesoughtultimatelytoturnto—totheheroicTurkishdefender,whowasindeedfightingfortheexistenceofhiscountry,althoughinanunsuccessfuland unjust cause, for Germanmilitarism and the exaggerated jingoism of theYoungTurks,ortothosewhowereofficiallymyenemiesbutwhom,knowingasIdidwhowasresponsibleforthegreatcrimeofthewar,Icouldnotregardassuch.

InthoseSeptemberdaysIhadalreadyhadsomeexperienceofTurkishpoliticsandtheirdefianceofthelawsofhumanity,andmysympathieswereallforthosethousands of fine colonial troops—suchmen as one seldom sees—sacrificingtheir lives in one last colossal attack,which if it hadbeenprolonged even foranotherhourmighthavesealedthefateoftheStraitsandwouldhavemeantthe

first decisive step towards the overthrow of our forces; for the capture ofConstantinoplewouldhavebeenthebeginningoftheend.Iamnotashamedtoconfessthat,GermanasIam,thatwastheonlyfeelingIhadwhenIheardoftheBritish victory and the subsequent British defeat at Anaforta. The Battle ofAnaforta was the last desperate attempt to break the resistance in theDardanelles.

WhilethemenofStamboulandAnatolia—thenucleusoftheOttomanEmpire—were defending the City of the Caliph at the gate of the Dardanelles, withreinforcements fromArab regiments when they were utterly exhausted in theautumn, the other half of the metropolis, the cosmopolitan Galata-Pera, wastrembling for the safetyof the attackingEntente troops, and lived through thelongmonths ina stateofcontinual tension, longingalways for themomentofrelease.

There was a great deal of nervous calculation about the probable attitude ofBulgariaamongboththeTurksandthethousandsofthoroughlyilloyalcitizensof theOttomanEmpire composing thepopulationof the capital.From lackofinformationandalsoasaresultofBulgaria'slongdelayindeclaringherattitude,anundueoptimismruledrightuptothelastmomentamongthosewhodesiredtheoverthrowoftheTurks.

TheBulgarianquestionwascloselyboundupwiththequestionofthemunitionssupply.TheTurkishresistanceonGallipoli threatened tocollapse through lackofmunitions,andgeneralinterestcentred—withveryvarieddesireswithregardto the outcome—on the rare ammunition trains that were brought throughRumaniaonly after an enormous expenditure ofTurkishpowers of persuasionandtheapplicationofanyamountof"palm-oil."

IwaspresentatSedd-ul-Bahrat thebeginningofJuly,when,owingto lackofammunition, the German-Turkish artillery could only reply with one shot toevery tenBritish ones,while the insufficiently equipped factories ofTop-hanéandZeitun-burnu, under the control ofGeneral Pieper,Director ofMunitions,wereturningoutasmanyshellsaswaspossiblewiththeinferiormaterialattheirdisposal, and theTurkish fortresses in the Interior had to send their supply ofoften very antiquated ammunition to the Dardanelles. The whole dramaticimportofthesituation,whichmightanydaygiverisetoepoch-makingevents,wasonlytooevidentinConstantinople.ItisnottobewonderedatthateveryonelookedforwardwithfeverishimpatiencetoBulgaria'sentryeitherononesideortheother.

But, in spite of all this, the Turks could scarcely bear the sight of the firstBulgariansoldierswhoappearedinautumn1915infulluniforminthestreetsof"Carihrad."Thenecessary surrender of the land along theMaritza right to thegatesoftheholycityof"Edirne"(Adrianople)wasbutlittletothelikingoftheTurkishpatriots,andeventhesuccessfulissueoftheDardanellescampaign,onlymade possible by Bulgaria's joining the Central Powers, was not sufficient towintherealsympathiesoftheTurksfortheirnewallies.

It was not until much later that the position was altered as a result of thecombinedfightinginDobrudja.Practicallyrightuptotheendof1916,thereal,short-sighted, jingoistic Turk looked askance at his new ally and viewedwithirritationanddistrust thedesecrationofhis sacred"Edirne," the symbolofhisnationalrenaissance,whiletheambitionofallpoliticianswastobringBulgariaonedaytoasurrenderofthelostterritoryandmore.

Even in 1916 I found Young Turks, belonging to the Committee, who stillregarded the Bulgarians as their erstwhile cunning foe and as a set ofunscrupulous,unsympatheticopportunistswhomightagainbecomeamenacetothem.They even admitted that theSerbswere "infinitely nicer enemies in theBalkanwar," and appealed to themverymuchmore than theBulgarians. ThelatePrinceYussufIzzedinEffendi,ofwhosetragicdeathIshallspeaklater,wasalwaysadeclaredopponentofthecessionoftheMaritzaterritory.

ThepossibilityofBulgaria'svoluntarilysurrenderingthisterritoryandpossiblymuchmore throughextendingherownpossessionswestward ifGreece joinedtheEntente, had a great deal to dowithTurkey's attitude during thewhole of1916,andgoesfartoexplainwhyshedalliedsolongovertheideaofalienatingGreece,andusedallsortsofchicaneryagainsttheOttomanandHellenicGreeksin Turkey. Another and much more important factor was, as we shall see,fundamentalrace-hatredandavarice.

As thequestionas towhichsideBulgariawas to joinwasofdecisivemomentfor Turkish politics, I may perhaps be permitted to add a few details frompersonal information. I had an interesting sidelight on theGerman attempts towin overBulgaria from awell-informed source in Sofia. Everyonewasmuchpuzzledover theapparentclumsinessof theGermanAmbassador inSofia,Dr.Michahelles, in his diplomatic mission to gain help from Bulgaria. KingFerdinand, of course,made great difficulties, and at a very early stage of theproceedingsheturnedtothePrimeMinister,Radoslavoff,andsaid:"AwaywithyourGerman Jews!Whydon't you take the goodFrenchgold?" (referring, ofcourse,totheofferedFrenchloan).

Thekingwascunningenoughinhisownway,buthewasapoorpoliticianandutterlyvacillating,forhehadnosortofidealstoliveuptoandwaspromptedbyaspiritofunworthyopportunism,and itneededRadoslavoff's threatof instantresignation to bring him to a definite decision. The transference shortlyafterwards of the German Ambassador to a northern post strengthened theimpressioninconfidentialcirclesinSofiathathehadbeenlackingindiplomacy.

ThetruthwasthathehadreceivedmostcontradictoryinstructionsfromBerlin,whichdidnotallowhimtodohisutmosttowinBulgariafortheGermancause.The Imperial Chancellor seems even then—it was after the great Germansummer offensive against Russia—to have given serious consideration to thepossibilityofaseparatepeacewithRussia,andwasquiteconvincedthatRussiawould never lay down arms without having humiliated Bulgaria, should thelatterproveatraitortotheSlaviccauseandturnagainstSerbia.

In diplomatic circles in Berlin this knowledge and the decision—so naïve inview of all their boastedWeltpolitik—to pursue the quite illusory dream of aseparate peace with Russia, seemed to outweigh, at any rate for some time,anxietywithregard to thestateofaffairs inGallipoliand thecomplete lackofmunitionsshortlytobeexpected,andlamedtheirinitiativeintheirdealingswithBulgaria.

Itisprobablynotgenerallyknownthathereagainthemilitarypartyassumedtheleadinpolitics,andtooktheBulgarianmatterinhandthemselves.Inthespaceofnotimeatall,Bulgaria'sentryontheGermansidewasanaccomplishedfact.ItwasColonelvonLeipzig, theGermanmilitaryattachéat theConstantinopleEmbassy, thatclinchedthematterat thecriticalmomentbyajourneytoSofia,andthewholethingwasarrangedinlessthanafortnight.Butthatjourneycosthimhis life.Onthewaybackto theTurkishcapitalHerrvonLeipzig—oneofthe nicest and most gentlemanly men that ever wore a field-grey uniform—visited the Dardanelles front, and on the little Thracian railway-station ofUzunköprühemethisdeathmysteriously.Hewasfoundshotthroughtheheadinthebarelittlewaiting-roomofthismiserablewaysidestation.

ItsohappenedthatonmywaytotheDardanellesonthatdayattheendofJune1915,Ipassedthroughthis littlestation,andwasthesoleEuropeanwitnessofthis tragic event, which increased still further the excitement already hangingover Constantinople in these weeks of lack of ammunition and terribleonslaughtsagainstGallipoli,andwhichhadalreadyrisentofever-heatoverthenervous rumours that were going the rounds as to Bulgaria's attitude. Theoccurrence,ofcourse,wasusedbypoliticalintriguersfortheirownends.

Iwroteawarmandtrulyheartfeltappreciationof thisexcellentmanandgoodfriend,whichwas published inmy paper at the time, and it was not till longafterwards,weeks, indeed,aftermy return, that Ihadany idea that thesuddendeathofHerrvonLeipzigonhis returnfromamissionof thehighestpoliticalimportancewas lookeduponby theGermananti-Englishparty as theworkofEnglishspiesintheserviceofMr.Fitzmaurice,whowasformerlyattheEnglishEmbassyinConstantinople.

Iwas an eye-witness of the occurrence, or rather, Iwas beside theColonel aminuteafterIheardtheshot,andsawtheholeinhisrevolver-holsterwherethebullethadgonethrough.IheardthefrankevidenceofalltheTurkspresent,fromthepolicemanwhohadarrivedfirston thescene to thestaffdoctorwhocamelater,andIimmediatelytelegraphedtomypaperfromthesceneoftheaccident,givingthemmyimpressionoftheaffair.

OnmyreturntoConstantinopleIwasinvitedtogiveevidenceunderoathbeforetheGermanConsulateGeneral,andthereonemayfindthewrittenevidenceofwhatIhadtosay:apureandabsoluteaccident.

I must not omit to mention here that the German authorities themselves inConstantinopleweresothoroughlyconvincedthattheideaofmurderwasoutofthequestion, thatColonelvonLeipzig'swidow,who,believing thisversionofthe story, hurried to Turkey, tomake her own investigations, had the greatestdifficultyinbeingofficiallyreceivedbytheEmbassyandConsulate.Ihadalonginterviewwith her in the "Pera Palace,"where she complained bitterly of hertreatmentinthisrespect.Ihavetarriedalittleoverthistragicepisodeasitshowsall the political ramifications that ran together in the Turkish capital and thedramaticexcitementthatprevailed.

The day came, however, when the Entente troops first evacuated Anaforta-Ariburnu,andthen,afteralongandprotractedstruggle,Sedd-ul-Bahr,andsotheentireGallipoliPeninsula.TheDardanellescampaignwasatanend.

The impossibility of ever breaking down that solid Turkish resistance, thesufferingsof thesoldierspracticallystarved todeath in the trenchesduring thecoldwinterstorms,thedifficultiesofobtainingsuppliesofprovisions,drinkingwater,ammunition,etc.,withafrozenseaandharbourlesscoast,anxietyaboutthesuperiorheavyartillerythattheenemykeptbringingupaftertheoverthrowof Serbia—everything combined to strengthen the Entente in their decision toputanendtothecampaigninGallipoli.

The Turkish soldiers had now free access to the sea, for all the British

Dreadnoughtsandcruisershaddisappeared;thewarlikeactivitywhichhadragedformonthson thenarrowGallipoliPeninsulasuddenlyceased;Austrianheavyand medium howitzers undertook the coast defence, and a garrison of a fewthousand Turkish soldiers stayed behind in theNarrows for precaution's sake,whilethewholehugeGallipoliarmyinanendlesstrainwasmarchedofftotheTaurustomeettheRussianadvancethreateninginArmenia.

But Constantinople remained "unrelieved." And from that moment a dullresignation, adrearywaiting forone scarcelyknewwhat, disappointment, andpessimism took the place of the nervous tension that had been so apparent inthosewhohadbeenlongingforthefalloftheTurkishcapital.

ButtheTurksrejoiced.Itisscarcelytobewonderedatthattheytriedtoconstruethefailureof theGallipoliaffairasawonderfulanddazzlingvictoryforIslamoverthecombinedforcesof theGreatPowers.It isonlyinlineofcoursewithTurkishofficialuntruthfulnessthat,inshamelessperversionoffacts,theytalkedglibly of the irresistible bayonet attacks of their "ghazi" (heroes) and ofthousandsofEnglishmentakenprisonerorchasedbackintothesea,whereasitwas awell-known fact even in Pera that the retreat had been carried out in amostmasterlywaywithpracticallynolossoflife,andthattheTurksthemselveshadbeencaughtnappingthistime;buttolieishuman,andtheTurksowedittotheir prestige to have an unmistakable and great military victory to form thebasisofthat"HolyWar"thatwassolongingettingunderweigh;andwhenallissaidanddone,theirtrulyheroicdefencereallywasavictory.

Theabsurdthingaboutalltheselieswasthewaytheywerefoistedonapublicwhoalreadyknewthetruestateofaffairsandhadnothingwhatevertodowiththe"HolyWar."

TheTurksmadeevenmoreofthesecondpieceofgoodfortunethatfelltotheirlot—the fall of Kut-el-Amara. General Townshend became their cherishedprisoner, and was provided with a villa on the island of Halki in the Sea ofMarmora,withastaffofTurkishnavalofficerstoactasinterpreters.

In the neighbouring and more fashionable Prinkipo he was received bypracticallyeveryonewithopenarms,andonceevenaconcertwasarranged inhishonour,whichwasattendedbytheéliteofTurkishandLevantineSociety—theTurksbecauseoftheirvanityandprideintheirimportantprisonerofwar,theLevantinesbecauseof their political sympathywithGeneralTownshend,who,althoughthereagainsthiswill,seemedtobringthemabreathofthatworldtheyhadlostallcontactwithfornearlytwoyearsandforwhichtheylongedwiththe

mostardentandpassionatedesire.

On the occasion of the Bairam Festival—the highest Musulman festival—in1916,theTurkishGovernmentmadeapointofsendingagroupofaboutseventyAnglo-IndianMohammedanofficers,whohadbeentakenprisoneratthefallofKut andwere now interned in Eski-Shehir, to the "CaliphCity of Stamboul,"wheretheywereentertainedfortendaysindifferentTurkishhotelsandshowneverythingthatwouldseemtobeofvaluefor"HolyWar"propagandapurposes.

I had the opportunity of conversingwith some of these Indian officers in thegardenofthe"PetitChamps,"wheretheirappearanceoneeveningmadeamosttremendous sensation. I had of course to be very discreet, for we weresurrounded by spies, but I came away firmly convinced that, in spite of theirgood treatment, which was of course not without its purpose, and mostunceasinganddeterminedeffortstoinfluencethem,theTurkishpropagandasofar as these Indian officers was concerned had entirely failed and that theirloyalty to England remained absolutely unshaken. Will anyone blame me, if,angryanddisgustedasIwasatalltheseTurkishintrigues—itwasshortlyafterthat dramatic scene of the tortured Armenian which called forth thatdenunciationofGermanyfrommywife—IsaidtoagroupoftheseIndians—justthisandnothingmore!—thattheyshouldnotbelieveallthattheTurkstoldthem,and that the result of the war would be very different from what the Turksthought? One of the officers thanked me with glowing eyes on behalf of hiscomradesandhimself,andtoldmewhatacomfortmyassurancewasto them.They had nothing to complain of, he said, save being cut off from all newsexceptofficialTurkishreports.

TheverymostthateventhewildestfancycouldfindineventslikeGallipoliandKut-el-Amara was brought forward for the benefit of the "Holy War," but,despite everything, the propaganda was, as we have seen, a hopeless failure.ReversessuchasthefallofErzerum,Trebizond,andErsindjan,onthecontrary,whichtookplacebetweenthetwoabove-mentionedvictories,havenevertothisday been even somuch as hinted at in the officialwar communiqués for theOttomanpublic.Forthecommuniquésforhomeandforeignconsumptionwerealwaysradicallydifferent.

It was not until very much later, when the Turkish counter-offensive againstBitlis seemed to be bearing fruit, that a fewmild indications of these defeatswere made in Parliament, with a careful suppression of all names, and thenewspapers were empowered to make some mention of a "purely temporaryretreat of no strategic importance" which had then taken place. The usual

stereotyped report of 3,000 or 5,000 dead that was officially given out aftereverybattlethroughoutthewholecourseofoperationsintheIrakscarcelycameoff in this case, however, and, to tell the truth, Erzerum and these countlessEnglish dead reported in the Irak did more than anything else to underminecompletely the people's already sadly shaken confidence in the official warcommuniqués.

Iftherewasarealvictorytobecelebrated,themoststringentpoliceorderswereissued that flagswere tobe flowneverywhere—oneverybuilding.Surely it isonlyinalandlikeTurkeythatonecouldseethecurioussightIwitnessedafterthefallofBucharest—thevictoriousflagsoftheCentralPowers,surmountedbythe Turkish crescent, flying even from the balconies of Rumanian subjects,becausetherehadbeenadefinitepolicewarningissuedthat,inthecaseofnon-compliancewiththeorder,thehouseswouldbeimmediatelyransackedandthefamilies inhabiting them sent off to the interior of Anatolia. Under thecircumstances, refusal to carryoutpoliceorderswas impossible.Thatwas theTurkishideaoftherespectduetoindividualliberty.

Thisgivesmeanopportunity tosaysomethingof the treatmentofprisoners. Imaysayinonewordthatitis,onthewhole,good.JusticecompelsmetoadmitthattheTurk,whenhedoestakeprisoners,treatsthemkindlyandchivalrously;buthetakesfewprisoners,forheknowsonlytoowellhowtowieldhisbayonetin thosemurderouschargeshemakes.Indeed,apartfromthefewhundredthatfell into theirhands in theDardanellesoron theRusso-Turkish front, togetherwith the crewsof a fewcaptured submarines, all theTurkishprisoners ofwarcomefromKut-el-Amara.

ButtheprimitiveTurkisalltoosadlylackinginthecomfortsoflifehimselftobeable toprovide themforhisprisoners.Without thehelpof theCommissionthatworksunder theprotectionof theAmericanEmbassy for the relief of theEntente prisoners, and sends piles of warm clothing, excellent shoes (whichrouse the special envy of the Turks), chocolate, cakes, etc., to the Anatoliancamps, these men, accustomed to European ways of life, would be in a sadplight.

TherepeatedandhumiliatingmarchingofprisonersofwarthroughthestreetsofConstantinople to show them off to the childish gaze of a people muchinfluenced by externals,might with advantage be dispensedwith. And it wascertainly not exactly kind tomakewounded English officers process past theSultan at the Friday's "Selamlik"; itwas rather too like slave-drivingmethodsandtheabusesoftheMiddleAges.

I was an unwilling witness of one most regrettable incident that took placeshortly before I left Constantinople. In this case the sufferings of someunfortunateprisonersofwarwerecruellyexploitedforpoliticalends.Awholetroupofabout2,000Rumanians,fromDobrudja,werehoundedupanddownthestreetsofPeraandStamboulinapurposelydestituteandexhaustedcondition,sothattheappearanceofthesepoorwretches,whohungtheirheadsdejectedlyandhad lost all traceofmilitarybearing,mightgive the impression that theTurkswere dealing with a very inferior foe and would soon be at the end of thebusiness.Thisishowtheauthoritiesweregoingtoincreasetheconfidenceofthedoubtingpopulation!

TheTurkishescorthadapparentlygiventheseprisonersnothingtodrinkontheway—although the Turk, being a greatwater-drinker himself, knows only toowellwhatamanneedsonadustyjourneyofseveraldaysonatransporttrain—for with my own eyes I saw dozens of them simply flinging themselves likeanimalsfull lengthonthegroundwhentheyreachedtheTaksimFountain,andtrying to slake their terrible thirst. It was with pitiable trickery like this—forwhichnodoubtEnverPashawasresponsible, for thesimpleTurkishsoldier ismuchtoogood-naturednottosharehisbreadandwaterwithhisprisoners—thatattemptsweremade,attheexpenseofallfeelingsofhumanity,tocheeruptheuneducatedmasses.

TheTurkishGovernment,however, apart froma fewcasesof reprisals,wheretheprisonerswere treated in anevenmorebarbaric andprimitivemanner,didnot,asageneralrule,gothelengthofinterningcivilians.Thiswasnotwithoutits own good grounds. In the first place, a very large part of the trade of thecountry lay in the hands of these Europeans, and they were consequentlyabsolutely indispensable to the Turks in their everyday commercial life;secondly, a Government that had systematically rooted out the Armenians,hanged Arabian notables, and brutally mishandled the Greeks, could scarcelydispense,intheeyesofEurope,withtheverylastpretenceofbeingmoreorlesscivilised;and,lastly,perhapsthefearofbeingbroughttobooklateronmayhavehad a restraining influence on them—we saw how growing anxiety about theRussian advance on the Eastern front led, at any rate for a time, to adiscontinuanceofArmenianpersecutions.

Besides all this, hundreds and thousands of Turks were resident in enemycountries, and of course the desirewas to avoid reprisals. So theGovernmentcontenteditselfwiththreatsandsubterfuges,afterafirstunsuccessfulattempttoexpose a large number of French subjects to fire from the enemy guns in

Gallipoli—a plan which failed entirely, owing to the energetic opposition ofofficialsof theAmericanEmbassywhohadaccompaniedthesechosenvictimsto Gallipoli. Every means was used, however, even announcements in thenewspapers and a Vote of Credit "for the removal of enemy subjects to theinterior,"tokeeptheswordofDamoclesforeverhangingovertheheadsofallsubjectsofEntentecountries,evenwomenandchildren.

From the fallofKut-el-Amaraup to the timeofRumania'sentry into thewar,there were no important episodes of a military or political nature from theparticularpointofviewofTurkey.(TheArabiancatastropheIwilldealwithinanotherconnection.)With theebband flowofwarandconstantanxietyaboutRussia's movements, time passed slowly enough. It was well known that theTurkishoffensivewasalreadyconsiderablyweakenedandthelackofmeansoftransportwasanopensecret.StarvationandspottedfeverragedattheFrontaswellasintheinteriorandthecapital.AsiaticcholeraevenmadeitsappearanceinEuropeanPera,butwasfortunatelysuccessfullycombatedbyvaccination.

FurtherdecisiveRussianvictoriesonthewestandtheGulfofAlexandrettawereexpectedafterthefallofErsindjian,fortheambitionandpersonalhatredagainsttheTurksof theGrandDukeNicolaiNicolajivitch,commanding thearmies inArmenia,wouldprobablystopshortatnothinglessthancompleteoverthrowofthe enemy.Simple-minded souls,whosegeographywasnot their strongpoint,reckonedhowlongitwouldtaketheRussianstogetfromAnatoliaandwhentheconquestofConstantinoplewouldtakeplace.

ThelessoptimisticamongthosewhowerepantingforfinalemancipationfromtheYoungTurkishmilitaryyokesettheirhopesontheentryofRumania.InallcirclesRumania'sprobableattitudewasfairlyclear,andnooneeverdoubtedthatshewouldbedrawnintothewar.

In consequence of the new operations after Rumania's declaration ofwar, therevivalof theoffensive inMacedonia, and theevents inAthens, all eyeswereturned again to the ever-doubtful Greece. The Greek element, Ottoman andHelleniccombined,inConstantinoplealonemaybereckonedatseveralhundredthousand.NeverweresympathiessogreatforVenizelos,neverwasthespiritofthe Irredenta so outspoken as among theGreeks inTurkey,whohad been thedupessince1909ofeverypossiblekindofYoungTurkishintrigue.Incontrasttothe Armenians, the great mass of whom thought and felt as loyal OttomancitizensrightuptotheveryendwhenTalaatandEnver'spolicyofexterminationsetinagainstthem—incontrasttotheseabsolutelyhelplessandthereforeallthemoreeasyvictimstotheTurkishnationallustofpersecution,theattitudeofthe

Greekcitizenswasallthemoremarked.

Since the Græco-Turkish war of 1912-13 and the impetus given to Pan-Hellenismby the successful issue of thewar, there is not one singleGreek ineithercountry—nomatterwhathissocialstanding—thathasnotardentlylookedforward to and desired the overthrow of Turkey. But the Greek is much tooclevertolethisfeelingsbeseen;andheisnotsounprotectedastheArmenian.And so up to the present time the Turk has confined himself more to smallintriguesagainst theGreekpopulation, except ina few remotedistricts—moreespecially the shores of theBlack Sea—wheremassacres like those organisedamongtheArmenianshavebeencarriedout,butonaverymuchsmallerscale.

SympathywithVenizelosandtheIrredentisticdesireforGreecetothrowinherlot with the Entente are counterbalanced, however, in the case of the GreekslivinginTurkey,bygraveanxietyastotheirownwelfareifitcametoabreakbetweenthetwocountries.TurkishhatredoftheGreeksknowsnobounds,anditwasnoidlefearthatmadetheGreeksinConstantinopletremble,inspiteoftheirsatisfactionpolitically,when the rumourswere afloat in autumn1916ofKingConstantine'sabdicationandGreece'sentryonthesideoftheEntente.

ButtheideasastohowtheTurkswouldacttowardstheminsuchacasewerediametrically opposed even among thosewho had lived in the country a longtime and knew the Turkish mind exactly. Many expected immediate Greekmassacresonthelargestscale;others,again,expectedonlybrutalintriguesandchicanery,economicruin;stillothers thought thatnothingatallwouldhappen,thattheTurkswerealreadytoodemoralised,andthatatanyrateinPerathefarsuperior Greek element would completely command the situation. This last Iconsideredmeremegalomaniac optimism in view of the fact that Turkeywasstillunbrokensofarasthingsmilitarywereconcerned,andIbelievethatthosepeoplewere rightwho believed thatGreece's entry on the side of theEntentewouldbe thesignal for thecarryingoutofatrocitiesagainstallGreeks,atanyrateinthecommercialworld.

It would be interesting to know which idea the German authorities favoured.That theeventwouldpassoffwithoutdamagebeingdone, theyapparentlydidnotbelieve,forinthosedayswhenGreece'sdecisionseemedtobeimminent,theformerGoebenandtheBreslau,whichhadbeenlyingatSteniaontheBosporus,werebroughtupwithallspeedandanchored justoff thecoastwith theirgunsturnedonPera,andtheGermangarrison,asIknewfromdifferentofficers,hadorderstobepreparedforanalarm.

DidtheGermansthinktheyweregoingtohavetoprotectTurksorGreeksinthecase of definite news fromAthens?Was itGermany's intention to protect theEuropean population, who had nothing to do with the impending politicaldecision,althoughtheymightsympathisewithit—wasitGermany'sintentiontoprotectthem,atanyrateinthisinstance,fromtheTurkishlustofextermination?Hadthesetwoships,nowknownastheJawuzSultanSelimandtheMidilli,notbelongedforalongtimetotheImperialOttomanNavy?

When Rumania flung off her shackles, there was great rejoicing in Pera, andeven the greatest pessimists believed that relief was near and would beaccomplishedwithintwomonthsatlatest.Butanotherandmoreterriblereverseabsolutely destroyed the last shred of anti-Turkish hope, and the victories inRumania, especially the fall of Bucharest, combined with the speech of theRussianministerTrepoff,hadtheeffectofsendingoversolidtothesideoftheGovernment even the few who had hitherto, at least in theory, formed anopposition,althoughapowerlessone.

Victories shared with the Bulgarians, too, did away with the last remains ofunfriendly feelings towards that people and consolidated the Turko-BulgarianAlliance. Indeed,onemaysay that forTurkey the thirdgreatphaseof thewarbeganwith the removalofalldangerof the fallofConstantinople through thecollapseoftheRumanianforces.

Thefirstcomprisedthetimeofthepowerfulattacksdirectedattheveryheartofthe Empire, its most vulnerable point, and ended with the English-Frenchevacuation ofGallipoli. The secondwas the period of alternate successes andreverses,almostatimeofstagnation,whenpracticallyallinterestwascentredontheRussianmenaceinAsiaMinorandtheeffortsmadetowithstandit.ItendedequallysuccessfullywiththeremovaloftheRussianmenacefromtheBalkans.Thethirdwillbethephaseofincreasinginternalweakness,ofthedissipationofstrength through the sendingof troops toEurope,of the successful renewalofthe English offensive in Mesopotamia, perhaps even of an English-FrenchoffensiveagainstSyriaandofthefinalrevoltofalltheArabianlands,usheredinbytheeventsintheHedjazandthefoundingofapurelyArabianCaliphate.Thethirdphasecannotlastlongerthantheyear1917;itwillmeanthedecisionofthewholeEuropeanwar.

CHAPTERV

The economic situation—Exaggerated Entente hopes—Hunger andsuffering among the civil population—The system of requisitioningand the semi-official monopolists—Profiteering on the part of theGovernment clique—Frivolity and cynicism—The "Djemiet"—Thedelegates of the German Zentraleinkaufsgesellschaft (CentralPurchasesCommission)—AhardbattlebetweenGermanandTurkishintrigue—Reformofthecoinage—Papermoneyanditsdepreciation—Thehoardingofbullion—TheRussianroublethebestinvestment.

DURINGtheentirecourseofthewarasIhavebrieflysketcheditintheforegoingpages,theeconomicsituationinthewholecountryandparticularlyinthecapitalbecamemore andmore serious.But, letme just sayhere, in anticipation, thatTurkey,beingapurelyagriculturalcountrywithaverymodestpopulation,canneverbebroughttosueforpeacethroughstarvation,nor,withGermanybackingandfinancingher,throughanygeneralexhaustionofcommercialresources,untilGermanyherselfisbroughttoherknees.Anyvictorymustbeapurelymilitaryand political one. The whole crux of the food problem in Turkey is that thepeoplesuffer,suffercruelly,butnotenoughforhungertohaveanyresultsintheshapeof an earlier conclusionof peace.This is the case alsowith theCentralPowers,astheEntentehaveunfortunatelyonlytoosurelyconvincedthemselvesnowaftertheirfirstillusionstothecontrary.

ThereisanotherelementintheTurkishquestiontoo—thelargemajorityofthepopulationareaheterogeneousmassofenslavedanddegeneratebeings,outcastsofsociety,plungedinthelowestsocialandcommercialdepths,entirelylackinginallinitiative,whocanneverbecomeafactorinanypoliticalupheaval,forinTurkeythiscanonlybelookedforfromthemilitaryortheeducatedclasses.IftheEntentePowersevercountedonTurkey'schronicstateofstarvationandlackof supplies coming to their aid in this war, they have made a sad mistake.Therefore inattempting tosketch ina fewpages theconditionsof lifeand theeconomicsituationinTurkey,myaimissolely tobring to light theunderlyingTurkishmethods,andtheethicsandspiritoftheYoungTurkishGovernment.

During the periods of the very acute bread crises, which occurred more thanonce, but notably in the beginning of 1916, some dozenmen literally died ofhungerdailyinConstantinoplealone.WithmyowneyesIhaverepeatedlyseenwomen collapsing from exhaustion in the streets. From many parts of theinterior, particularly Syria, therewere reliable reports of a still worse state of

affairs.Buteveninmorenormaltimestherewasalwaysadifficultyinobtainingbread,forthemeansofcommunicationinthatvastandprimitivelandofTurkeyareprecariousatbest,anditwasnoeasymatter toget thegraintransportedtothecentresofconsumption.

Then inConstantinople therewas a shortagenotonlyof skilled labour, butofcoal formillingpurposes.The resultwas that the townspeopleonly receivedadailyrationofaquarterofakilogramme(about8oz.—notaquarterofanoka,whichwouldbeabout10oz.)ofbread,whichwasmostlyofanindigestibleandoccasionally very doubtful quality—utterly uneatable by Europeans—althoughoccasionally it was quite good though coarse. If the poor people inConstantinople wanted to supplement this very insufficient allowance, theycoulddosowhenthingswereinaflourishingconditionatthepriceofabout2-1/2or3piastres(1piastre=about2-1/4d.)theEnglishpound,andlater4or5piastres.Eventhiswasfor themostpartonlyprocurablebyclandestinemeansfrom soldiers whowere usually willing to turn part of their bread ration intomoney.

Thisisaboutallthatcanbesaidaboutthefeedingofthepeople,forbreadisbyfarthemostimportantfoodoftheOriental,andthepricesoftheotherfoodstuffssoon reached exorbitant heights. What were the poor to feed on when rice,reckonedinEnglishcoinage,costroughlyfrom3s.2d.to4s.4d.anoka(about2-1/2lb.),beans2s.4d.theoka,meat3s.to4s.,andthecheapestsheep'scheeseandolives,hithertothemostcommonTurkishcondimenttoeatwithbread,roseto3s.and1s.8d.theoka?

Wages,ontheotherhand,wereludicrouslylow.WemayobtainsomeideaofthestandardoflivingfromthefactthattheGovernment,whoalwaysfavouredthesoldiers, did not paymore than 5 piastres (about 1s.) a day to the families ofsoldiersonactiveservice.Ihaveoftenwonderedwhatthepeoplereallydideat,and Iwas never able to come to any satisfactory conclusion, although I oftenwenttomarketmyselftobuyandseewhatotherpeoplebought.ItissignificantenoughthatjustshortlybeforeIleftConstantinople—thatis,afewweeksaftertheTurko-Bulgarian-Germanvictories inRumania and the fall ofBucharest—the price of bread in the Turkish capital, in spite of the widely advertised"enormoussupplies"takeninRumania,rosestillhigher.

IcannotspeakfrompersonalexperienceofwhathappenedafterChristmas1916in this connection, but everyone was quite convinced, in spite of the officialreport,thattheharvestof1916,despitethetremendousandpraiseworthyeffortsof theMinistryofAgriculture and themilitaryauthorities,would showavery

marked decrease as a result of the mobilisation of agricultural labour, therequisitioning of implements, and the shortage of buffaloes,which, instead ofploughingfields,werepullinggunsoverthesnow-covereduplandsofArmenia.There was a very general idea that the harvest of 1917 would be a horriblecatastrophe.AndyetIamfullyconvinced,andImustemphasiseitagain,that,inspiteofagriculturaldisaster,Turkeywillstillgoonasamilitarypower.

And now let us see what the Government did in connection with the foodproblem.AtacomparativelyearlystagetheyfollowedGermany'sexampleandintroducedbreadtickets,whichwerequitesuccessfulsolongastheflourlasted.In theautumnof1915they took theorganisationof thebreadsupplyfor largetownsoutofthehandsofthemunicipalities,andgaveitovertotheWarOffice.TheygotParliamenttovotealargefundtobuyupallavailablesuppliesofflour,and in view of the immense importance of bread as the chief means ofnourishmentofthemasses,theydecidedtosellitataveryconsiderablelosstothemselves,sothatthepriceofthedailyration(thoughnotofthesupplementaryration) remained very much as it had been in peace time. The Governmentalwaysfavoured thepurelyMohammedanquartersof the townso farasbreadsupplywasconcerned,andthepeoplelivinginFatihandotherpartsofStamboulwereverymuchbetteroffthantheinhabitantsofGræco-EuropeanPera.

ThenTalaatmadespeechesintheHouseonthefoodquestioninwhichhedidallinhispowertothrowdustintheeyesofthestarvingpopulation,buthedidnotreallysucceedinblindinganyoneastothetruestateofaffairs.InFebruary1916,whentherewaspracticallyafamineintheland,heevenwentsofarastodeclarein Parliament that the food supplies for the whole of Turkey had been soincreasedbyenormouspurchasesinRumania,thattheywerenowfullyassuredfortwoyears.

It was no doubt with cynical enjoyment that the "Committee" of the YoungTurksenlargedontheprivationsofthepeopleinsuchpublicationsasthesemi-officialTanin, inwhich thefollowingwonderfulsentimentappeared:"Onecanpassthenightinrelativebrightnesswithoutoilinone'slampifonethinksofthebrightandgloriousfuturethatthiswarispreparingforTurkey!"

One could have forgiven such cheap phrases if they had been a true, thoughpossiblymisguided,attempt toprovidecomfort infaceofrealwant;butat thesametimeassuchparagraphswereappearingintheTaninandthousandsofpoorTurkish households had to spend the long winter nights without the slightestlight,thousandsoftonsofoilwerelyinginConstantinoplealoneinthestoresoftheofficialaccapareurs.

This brings me to the second series of measures taken by the TurkishGovernmenttorelievetheeconomicsituation—thoseofanegativenature.Theirpositive measures are pretty well exhausted when one has mentioned theirtreatmentofthebreadcrisis.

The question of requisitioning is one of themost important in Turkish life inwar-time,andisnotwithoutitsludicrousside.InimitationofGermanwar-timemethods,eitherwronglyunderstoodorwittinglymisappliedbyOrientalgreed,theTurkishGovernmentrequisitionedprettywelleverythinginthefoodlineorin the shape of articles of daily use that were sure to be scarce and wouldnecessarily rise inprice.Butwhile in thecivilisedcountriesofCentralEuropethe supplies so requisitioned were sagely applied to the general good, themembersofthe"CommitteeofUnionandProgress"lookedwithfinecontemptand thegrimcynicismofarch-dictatorson theprivationsandsufferingsof thepeoplesolongastheydidnotactuallystarve,andusedthesuppliesrequisitionedforthepersonalenrichmentoftheirclique.

WhenIspeakofrequisitioning,Idonotmeanthenecessarymilitarycarryingoffofgrain,cattle,vehicles,buffaloes,andhorses,generalequipment,andsoon,inexchange for a scrap of paper to be redeemed after thewar (of very doubtfulvalueinviewofTurkey'sposition)—Idonotmeanthat,eventhoughthewayitwasaccomplishedbledthecountryfarmorethanwasnecessary,fallingasitdidin the country districts into the hands of ignorant, brutal, and fanaticalunderlings,andinthetownbeingcarriedoutwitheverykindofrefinementbythecentralauthorities.Toooftenitwasameansofviolent"nationalisation"anddeprivation of property and rights exercised especially against Armenians,Greeks,andsubjectsofotherEntentecountries.Iftherewasaparticularlynicevilla or handsome estate belonging to someone whowas not a Turk, soldierswereimmediatelybilletedthereundersomepretextorother,anditwasnotlongbeforetheseroughAnatolianshadreducedeverythingtorackandruin.

Idonotmeaneithertheterribledamagetocommerciallifebroughtaboutbythewaythemilitaryauthorities,incompletedisregardofagriculturalinterests,werealwaysseizingrailwaywaggons,andsocompletelylamingall initiativeonthepartoffarmersandmerchants,whosegoodswereusuallysimplyemptiedoutonthespot,exposedtoruin,ordisposedofwithoutanykindofcompensationbeinggiven.

What I do mean is the huge semi-official cornering of food, which must beregarded as typical of the Young Turks' idea of their official responsibilitytowardsthoseforwhomtheyexercisedstewardship.

The"BakalClique"("provisionmerchants,""grocers")wasknownthrough thewholeofConstantinople,andwaskeenlycriticisedbythemuchinjuredpublic.Itwas,firstofall,undertheofficialpatronageofthecityprefect,IsmetBey,acreatureof theCommittee; but later on,when they realised that direnecessitymadeacontinuanceofthissystemofcorneringquiteunthinkable,hewasmadethe scapegoat, and his dismissal from office was freely commented on in theCommitteenewspapersas"anactofdeliverance."TheCommitteethought thatthey would thus throw dust in the eyes of the sorely-tried people ofConstantinople.HundredsofthousandsofTurkishpoundswereturnedintocashintheshortestpossibletimebythissemi-officialsyndicate,attheexpenseofthestarvingpopulation,andfoundtheirwayintothepocketsoftheadministrators.

Thatwashow theYoungTurkishparvenuswere able to fulfil their onedesireandwriggletheirwayintothebestclubs,wheretheygambledawayhugesumsofmoney.Themethodwassimpleenough:whateverwaseatableoruseable,butcould only be obtained by import from abroad, was "taken charge of," andstarvation rations, which were simply ludicrously inadequate and quiteinsufficient for the needs of even the poorest household, were doled out by"vesikas"(theticketsystem).

Thegreatstockofgoods,however,wassoldsecretlyatexorbitantpricesbythecreaturesofthe"BakalClique,"whosimplycorneredthemarket.Thatishowithappened that in Constantinople, cut off as it was from the outer world andwithout imports, even at the end of 1916, with a population of well over amillion, therewere still unlimited storesof everythingavailable for thosewhocouldpayfancyprices,whilebythebeginningof1915thoselesswellendowedwith worldly goods had quite forgotten themeaning of comfort and the poorwerestarvingwithamplestoresofeverythingstillavailable.

In businesses belonging to enemy subjects the system of requisitioning, ofcourse,reachedaclimax,storesofallkindsworththousandsofpoundssimplydisappearing,withoutanyreasonbeinggivenforcarryingthemoff,andnothingofferedinexchange,butoneofthesefamous"scrapsofpaper."Caseshavebeenverified andwere freelydiscussed inPeraof ladies' shoes and ladies' clothingevenbeing requisitionedand turned into largesumsofcashby theconsequentriseinprice.

The profiteering of Ismet and company, who chose the specially productivecentreofthecapitalfortheirsystemofusury,wasnot,however,byanymeansan isolated case of administrative corruption, for exactly the same system ofrequisitioning, holding up and then reselling under private management at as

greataprofitaspossible,underlayandunderlies thegreat semi-officialYoungTurkishcommercialorganisation,withbranches throughout thewholecountry,knownasthe"Djemiet"andunderthedistinguishedpatronageofTalaathimself.

After IsmetBey's fall, the "Djemiet" tookover the supplyingof the capital aswell (with the exception of bread). We will speak elsewhere of this greatorganisation,whichisestablishednotonlyforwarpurposes,butservestowardsthe nationalisation of economic life. So far as the system of requisitioning isconcerned, it comes into the picture through its firm opposition to Germanmerchantswhoweretryingtobuyupstoresoffoodandrawmaterialsfromtheirally Turkey. The intrigues and counter-intrigues on both sides sometimes hadmostremarkableresults.

One of the really bright sides of life in Constantinople in war-time was theamusement one extracted from the silent and desperatewar continually beingwaged by the many well-fed gentlemen of the "Z.E.G."("Zentraleinkaufsgesellschaft," "Central Purchasing Commission") and theirminionswhotriedtorobTurkeyoffoodstuffsandrawmaterialforthebenefitofGermany, against the "Djemiet" and more particularly the Quartermaster-General, Ismail Hakki Pasha, that wooden-legged, enormously wealthyrepresentative of the neo-Turkish spirit—he was the most perfect blend ofOriental politeness and narrow-minded decision to do exactly the opposite ofwhathehadpromised.OntheTurkishside, thedetermination tosafeguard theinterestsoftheArmy,andinthecaseofthe"Djemiet"theeffortnottoletanyfoodstuffsoutofGermany—astandpoint thathasat last foundexpression inaformalprohibitionof all export—then thequestofpersonal enrichmenton thepart of the great "Clique"; on the German side, the insatiable hunger foreverything Turkey could provide that had been lacking for a long time inGermany: the whole thing was a wonderfully variegated picture of mutualintrigue.

Thegentlemenof the "Z.E.G.,"aftermonthsof inactivity spent in reviling theTurksandstudyingYoungTurkishandothermoralsandmannersbyfrequentingall the pleasure resorts in the place,managed at last to get the exports of rawmaterials seton the right road,andso itcameabout that the fabuloussums inGermanmoneythathadtobeputintocirculationinpaymentofthesegoods,inspite of Turkey's indebtedness to Germany, led to a very considerabledepreciationinthevalueoftheMarkeveninTurkeyforsometime.

Butuntiltheunderstandingastoexportswasfinallyarrivedat,thereweremanydramatic events in Constantinople, culminating in the Turks re-requisitioning,

with the help of armed detachments, stores already paid for byGermany andlyinginthewarehousesofthe"Z.E.G."andtheGermanBank!

On the financial side, apart from Turkey's enormous debt to Germany, thewonderfulattemptatareformandstandardisationofthecoinageinthemiddleofMay1916 isworthyofmention.The reform,whichwasasimplificationofhuge economic value of the tremendously complicated money system andintroducingatheoreticalgoldunit,mustberegardedchieflyasawarmeasuretopreventtherapiddeteriorationofTurkishpapermoney.

This last attempt, as was obvious after a few months' trial, was entirelyunsuccessful,andevenhastenedthefallofpapermoney,forthepopulationsoondiscoveredatthebackofthesedrasticmeasuresthethinlyveiledanxietyoftheGovernmentlestthereshouldbeafurtherdeterioration.Direpunishments,suchas the closing down of money-changers' businesses and arraignment before amilitarycourtfortheslightestoffence,weremetedouttoanyonefoundguiltyofchanginggoldorevensilverforpaper.

In November 1916, however, it was an open secret that, in spite of all theseprohibitions, there was no difficulty in the inland provinces and in Syria andPalestineinchangingagoldpoundfortwoormorepaperpounds.Instillmoreunfrequentedspotsnopapermoneywouldbeaccepted,sothatthewholetradeof the country simply came to a standstill. Even in Constantinople at thebeginningofDecember1916,paperstoodtogoldas100to175.

The Anatolian population still went gaily on, burying all the available silvermedjidiehs and even nickel piastres in their clay pots in the ground, becausebeingsimplecountryfolktheycouldnotunderstand,astheGovernmentwithallitsprayersandthreatsweresoanxioustheyshould,thatthroughoutTurkeyandin the greater andmightier and equally victoriousGermany, guaranteed papermoney was really much better than actual coins, and was just as valuable asgold! The people, too, could not but remember what had happened with the"Kaimé"aftertheTurko-Russianwar,whenthousandswhohadbelievedintheassurances of the Government suddenly found themselves penniless. InConstantinopleitwasafavouritejoketotakeoneofthenewpound,half-pound,or quarter-pound notes issued under German paper, not gold, guarantee andprintedonlyononesideandsay,"This[pointingtotherightside]isthepresentvalue,andthat[blankside]willbethevalueontheconclusionofpeace."

Eventhosewhowerebetterinformed,however,andsatatthereceiptofcustom,did exactly the same as these stupid Anatolian country-people; no idea of

patriotismpreventedthemfromcollectingeverythingmetaltheycouldlaytheirhandson,and,inspiteofallthreatsofpunishment—whichcouldneverovertakethem!—payingthehighestpriceinpapermoneyforeverygoldpiecetheycouldget.Theirargumentwas:"Onemustofcoursehavesomethingtoliveoninthetime directly following the conclusion of peace." In ordinary trade andcommerce,filthy,tornpapernotes,downtoapaperpiastre,camemoreandmoretobepracticallytheonlyexchange.

AdiscerningTurksaidtomeonce:"Itwouldbeaverygoodplansometimetohavethepolicesearchthesegreatmenforbullioneveryeveningontheirreturnfromtheofficialexchanges.Thatwouldbemoretothepointthananyreforminthecoinage!"

Thosewhocouldnotgetgold,bought roubles,whichwere regardedasoneoftheverybestspeculationsgoing,untilonedaytheTurkishGovernment,intheirannoyanceatsomeRussianvictory,suddenlydeportedtoAnatoliaarichGreekbanker of the name of Vlasdari, who was accused of having speculated inroubles,whichofcoursegavethemthedoublebenefitofgettingridofaGreekandseizinghisbeautifulestateinPera.

OnlythegreatestoptimistsweredeceivedintobelievingthatitwasaprofitabletransactiontobuyAustrianpapermoneyatthefabulouslylowpricetheAustrianKrone had reached against the Turkish pound, which was really neitherpoliticallynorfinanciallyinanybetterastate.Themembersofthe"CommitteeofUnionandProgress"hadofcourseshippedtheirgoldofftoSwitzerlandlongago.

CHAPTERVI

German propaganda and ethics—The unsuccessful "Holy War" and theGermanGovernment—"TheHolyWar"acrimeagainstcivilisation,achimera, a farce—Underhand dealings—The German Embassy thedupeofadventurers—ThemoralityofGermanPressrepresentatives—AtrustyservantoftheGermanEmbassy—Fineofficialdistinctionsofmorality—TheGermanconceptionoftherightsofindividuals.

NOW that we have given a rough sketch of the main events of the war as it

affected the economic life of the people, and have devoted a chapter to thatsinistercrime,theArmenianpersecutions,weshallleavetheYoungTurksforamomentandturntoanexaminationofGermanpropagandamethods.

It is a very painful task for a German who does not profess to be a "WorldPolitician," but really thinks in termsof true "world-politics," to dealwith themanyintriguesandmachinationsofourGovernmentintheirrelationtotheso-called"HolyWar" (Arab.Djihad),where in their quest of a vain illusion theystooped to the very lowestmeans. Practically all their hopes in that directionhave been sadly shattered. Their costly, unscrupulous, thoroughly unmoraleffortsagainstEuropeancivilisationinMohammedancountrieshaveresultedintheterrificcounter-strokeofthedefectionoftheArabsandthefoundationofapurelyArabianChaliphateunderEnglishprotection.ThusEnglandhasalreadywon a brilliant victory against Germany and Turkey in spite of Gallipoli andKut-el-Amara,althoughitseemsprobablethateventhesewillbewipedoutbygreaterdeedsonthepartoftheEntentebeforelong.OnecouldnothaveabetterexampleofGermany'stotalinabilitytosucceedinthesphereofworld-politics.

The so-called "Holy War," if it had succeeded, would have been one of thegreatest crimes against human civilisation that even Germany has on herconscience,rememberingaswedoherrecentruthless"frightfulness"atsea,andher attempt to setMexico and the Japanese against the land of most moderncivilisation and of greatest liberty. A successful "Djihad" spreading to all thelandsofIslamwouldhavesetbackbyyearsallthatcivilisationsopatientlyandsopainfullywon;itwouldnothavebeenatallcomparablewiththeEntente'suseof coloured troops in EuropewhichGermany deprecated so loudly, for in theHoly War it would have been a case of letting the wildest fanaticism looseagainstthearmiesoflawandorderandcivilisation;inthecaseoftheEntenteitwaspartofapurelymilitaryactiononthepartofEnglandandFrance,whoheldunder their swayall the inhabitants, colouredandotherwise,of thoseColonialregionsfromwhichtroopsweresenttoEuropeandtowhichtheywillreturn.

But the attempt against colonial civilisation did not succeed. The "Djihad,"proclaimedasitwasbytheTuranianpseudo-Chaliphandviolentlyanti-Entente,wasdoomedtofailurefromtheverystartfromitsobviousartificiality.Itwasamiserablefarce,orratheratragicomedy,thepresentendingofwhich,namelythedefection of the Arabian Chaliphate, is the direct contrary of what had beenaimedatwithsuchfanaticalurgencyandtheuseofsuchimmoralpropaganda.

The attempt to "unloose" theHolyWarwas due primarily to themost absurdillusions. Itwould seem that inGermany, the land of science, the homeof so

manyeminentdoctorsofresearch,eventhescholarshavebeenattackedbythatdisease of being dazzled by wild political illusions, or surely, knowing thecountriesofIslamoutside-inastheymust,theywouldlongagohaveraisedtheirvoicesagainstsucharrantfolly.Itwouldseemthatallherinherentknowledge,allherstudies,havebeenoflittleornoavailtoGermany,sothatmistakeaftermistakehasbeencommitted in therealmofworldpolitics. Itmaybesaid thatGermany,evenifsheweredoubtfuloftheissue,shouldstillnothaveleftuntriedthismeansofcripplingheropponents.TothatIcanonlyreplybypointingtotheactualpositionofaffairs,wellknowntoGermany,notonlyinEnglish,butalsoinFrenchandRussianIslamiccolonialterritory,whichshouldhaverenderedthe"Djihad"entirelyandabsolutelyoutofthequestion.

Let us take for example Egypt, French North-West Africa, and RussianTurkestan,nottospeakofthemasterlyEnglishcolonialruleinIndia,whichhasnowbeentestedandtriedforcenturies.AnyonewhohaseverseenEgyptwiththeareaunderculturepracticallydoubledundermodernEnglishrulebythehelpofeverykindoftechnicalcontrivanceforthebettermentofexistingconditions,and the skilful utilisation of all available means at an expense of millions ofpounds,withitsneedypopulationgivenanopportunitytoearnalivingwageandevenwealththroughalucrativecultivationofthelandunderconditionsthatareaparadisecomparedwithwhattheywereundertheTurkishruleofextortionanddespotism—anyone who has seen that must have looked from the verybeginning with a very doubtful eye on Germany's and Turkey's illusions ofstirringupthesewell-doingpeopleagainsttheirrulers.

ThesamethingoccursagainintheextendedterritoryofNorth-WestAfricafromtheAtlas lands to theGuinea coast andLakeChad,where France, as I knowfrom personal experience, stands on a high level of colonial excellence,developingall theresourcesof thecountrywithconsummateskill,shapingher"empirecolonial"more andmore into a shining gem in the crownof colonialendeavour,and,asIcantestifyfrommyownobservationsinMorocco,Senegal,the Niger, and the Interior of the Guinea territories of the "A.O.F." (AfriqueOccidentale Française), capturing the hearts of the whole population by heressential culture, and, last but not least, winning the Mohammedans by hercleverIslampolicy.

That, finally,Russia, at any rate from thepsychological standpoint, is perhapsthe best coloniser of FurtherAsia, evenGerman textbooks on colonial policyadmit unreservedly, and the glowing conditions that she has brought aboutespecially in the basin of Ferghana in Turkestan by the introduction of the

flourishing and lucrative business of cotton-growing are known to everyone.Onlypoliticiansofthemostwildlyfantastictype,whoseeeverywherewhattheywant to see, couldbelieve that in thiswar theTurkish "Turanistic"baitwouldeverhaveanyeffectinRussianCentralAsia,ormakeitsinhabitantsnowlivingin security, peace, and well-being wish back again the conditions whichprevailed under the Emirs of Samarkand, Khiva, and Bokhara. But Germany,whoshouldhavebeenwellinformedifanyonewas,believedallthesefantasticimpossibilities.

OnecouldletitpasswithaslightfeelingofirritationagainstGermanyifitweremerelyacaseofthefailureofthe"Djihad."Butunfortunatelythepropaganda,asstupidasitwasunsuccessful,exercisedinthisconnection,willbewrittendownforalltimeasoneoftheblackestandmostdespicablemarksagainstGermany'saccount in this war. In Turkey alone, the underhand manipulation for theunloosingofthe"HolyWar"andtheGermanPresspropagandasocloselyalliedwith it, indeed the whole way in which the German cause in the East wasrepresented journalistically throughout thewar,aresubjects fullof thesaddest,mostbitingirony,tosympathisewithwhichmustlowereveryGermanwhohaslivedintheTurkishcapitalintheeyesofthewholecivilisedworld.

InordertodemonstratetherôleplayedinthisaffairbytheGermanEmbassyatConstantinopleIwillnotmakeanexhaustivesurveybutsimplyconfinemyselfto a few episodes and outstanding features. An eminent German Red Crossdoctor,clear-sightedandreliable,whohadmanytalestotellofwhathehadseenin the "Caucasus" campaign, said tome one evening, as we sat together at apromenade concert: "Do you see that man in Prussian major's uniform goingpast? I met him twice in Erzerum last winter. The man was nothing but anemployeeinamerchant'sbusinessinBaku,andhadlearntRussianthere.Hehasneverdonemilitaryservice.Whenwarbrokeout,hehurriedtotheEmbassyinPeraandofferedhis services to stirup theGeorgiansandotherpeoplesof theCaucasusagainstRussia.Ofcoursehegotfullpowerstodowhathewanted,andguns and ammunition and piles of propaganda pamphlets were placed at hisdisposal so that hemight carry on hiswork from the frontier of the then stillneutral Turkey.Whole chests full of good gold coins were sent to him to bedistributed confidentially for propaganda purposes; of course he was his ownmostconfidentialfriend!HewentbacktoErzerumwithouthavingwonasinglesoulfor thecauseof the 'Djihad.'Thathasnotpreventedhis livingasa 'grandseigneur,'fortheEmbassyarenotyetdaunted,andnowthefellowstrutsaboutinamajor'suniform, lent tohim,althoughhehasneverbeenasoldier,so thatthecausemaygainstillmoreprestige."

Numerousexamplesof similarmeasuresmightbecited,and instanceswithoutnumber given, of the German Embassy being made the dupe of greedyadventurerswhotreatedthemasaninexhaustiblesourceofgold.Firstonewouldappear on the scene who announced himself as the one man to cope withAfghanistan,thenanotherwouldcomealongonhiswaytoPersiaandplaythegreatman"onaspecialmission"foratimeinPerawhilemoneybelongingtotheGermanEmpirewouldfind itsway intoallsortsof lowhaunts.Andso thingswentonfortwoyearsuntil,withtheArabiancatastrophe,eventheeyesofthegreatdiplomaticoptimistsofAyas-Pashamighthavebeenopened.

IwillonlymentionherehowevenabonafideconnoisseuroftheEastlikeBaronvonOppenheim,whohadalreadymadetoursofconsiderablevalueforresearchpurposes right across theArabianPeninsula, and so shouldhaveknownbetterthan to share these false illusions,doledout thousandsofmarks fromhis ownpocket—andmillionsfromtheTreasury!—tostirupthetribestotakepartinthe"Djihad," and how he returned to Pera from his propaganda tour with a realBedouin beard, and, still unabashed, took over the control of the GermanEmbassy's"NewsBureau,"whichkeptupthesemuch-deridedwartelegraphandpicture offices known in Pera and elsewhere by the non-German populace assacsdemensonges,andwhichfloodedthewholeoftheEastwithwaggonloadsof pamphlets in every conceivable tongue—in fact these, with guns andammunition, formed the chief loadof the bi-weekly "culture-bringing"Balkantrain!

Iwillonlycitetheoneexampleofthefar-famedMarioPassarge—arealApachetolookat.WithhisfriendFrobenius,theethnographerandGermanagent,wellknowntomepersonallyfromFrenchWestAfricaforhislikingforabsintheandnegrowomenandhisTeutonicbrusquenessemphasisedincomparisonwiththekindly, helpful French officials, as well as by hearsay frommany scandaloustales, Passarge undertook that disastrous expedition to the Abyssinians whichfailedso lamentably owing to the Italians, and then after its collapse came toTurkey as special correspondent of the Vossische Zeitung and managed toswindle his way through Macedonia with a false Italian passport to Greece,where he wrote sensational reports for his wonderful newspaper about theatrocitiesandlowmoraleofSarrail'sarmy—thesamenewspaperthathadmadeitself the laughing-stock of the whole of Europe, and at the same time hadmanagedtogettheGermanGovernmenttopursuefortwoyearstheshadowofaseparate peace with Russia, by publishing a marvellous series of "SpecialReportsviaStockholm,"onconditionsinRussiathatwerenothingbutatissue

of lies inspired by blind Jewish hate; if a tithe of them had been true,Russiawouldhavegoneunderlongago.

I need not repeat my own opinion on all the machinations of the GermanEmbassy,butIwillsimplygiveyouwordforwordwhataGermanPressagentin Constantinople (I will mention no names) once said to me: "It isunbelievable,"hedeclared,"whatamoboflowcharactersfrequenttheGermanEmbassynow.Thescumoftheearth,peoplewhowouldneverhavedaredbeforethewartohavebeenseenonthepavementsofAyas-Pasha,havenowfreeentry.Anydayyoucanseesomedoubtful-lookingcharacteraccostingtheporterattheEmbassy, whispering something in his ear, and then being ushered down thesteps to where the propaganda department, the news bureau, has its quarters.Therehegiveswonderfulassurancesofwhathecando,andpromisestostirupsomeMohammedanpeopleforthe"Djihad."Thenhewaitsawhileintheante-room,andisfinallyreceivedbytheauthorities;butthenexttimehecomestotheEmbassyhewalksinthroughthewell-carpetedmainentrance,andrequestsanaudience with the Ambassador or other high official, and we soon find himcomfortably equipped and settingoff on a 'specialmission' as the confidentialservantoftheGermanEmbassy."ButeventherecognitionofthesetruthshasnotpreventedthisjournalistfromeatingfromthecriboftheGermanEmbassy!

Icannotleavethisdisagreeablesubjectwithoutmakingsomementionofatypethat does more than anything to throw light on the morale of this Germanpropaganda.EveryoneinConstantinopleknows—orratherknew,forhehasnowfeathered his nest comfortably and departed to Germany with his money—MehmedZekki "Bey," thepublisher andchief editorof themilitarypaperDieNationalverteidigunganditscounterpartLaDéfense,publisheddailyinFrenchbut representative ofYoungTurkish-German interests.Hundreds of thosewhoknowZekkialsoknowthatheusedtobecalled"CapitaineNelkenyWaldberg."Fewerknowthat"Nelken"alonewouldhavebeenmoreinaccordancewithfact.

I will relate the history of this individual, as I know it from the mouths ofreliableinformants—themembersoftheEmbassyandtheConsulate.Nelken,aRoumanian Jew, a shopkeeper by trade, had been several times in prison forbankruptcy and fraud, and at last fled fromRoumania. He took refuge in theTurkishcapital,wherehecontinuedhisbusinessandmarriedaGreekwife.Hereagain he became bankrupt, as is only too clear from the public notice ofrestoration in the Constantinople newspapers, when his lucrative politicalactivityasthechampionofKrupp's,oftheGermancauseand"theholyGermanwar,"asmuchapurelypan-Germanicas Islamicaffair,providedhimwith the

wherewithaltopayoffhisformerdisreputabledebts.

Togobacktohishistory—withmoneywonbyfraudinhispocket,hedesertedhiswifeandwentoff,nodoubthavingmadeathoroughandmostprofessionalstudy of the subject in the low haunts of Pera, as a white-slave trader to theArgentine, and then—I rely formy information on an official of the GermanConsulateinPera—setupasproprietorofabrothel inBuenosAyres.Then,asoftenhappens,theArgentinespecialpolicetookhimintotheirservice,thinking,ontheprincipleof"settingathief tocatchathief," thathewouldhavespecialexperience for the post. Grounds enough there for him to add on the secondnameofhisfalsifiedpassport"NelkenyWaldberg"andtocallhimselfinEuropea"CapitainedelaGendarmerie"fromtheArgentine.

Fromtherehewent toCairoandediteda littleprivatepapercalledLesPetitesNouvelles Egyptiennes. For repeated extortion hewas sentenced to one year'simprisonment, but unfortunatelyonly incontumaciam, for he had already fledthecountry,not,however,beforehehadbeenpubliclysmackedon theface inthe"Flasch"beergardenwithoutofferingsatisfactionasan"ArgentineGeneral"should—a performance that was later repeated in every detail in Toklian'sRestaurantinConstantinople.

He told me once that he had been sentenced in this way because, on anunderstandingwiththethenGermanDiplomaticAgentinCairo,vonMiquel,hehadattackedLordCromer'spolicysharply,andthathispatronvonMiquelhadgivenhimthetimelyhinttoleaveEgypt.Iwillleaveittoone'simaginationtodiscover howmuch truth therewas in this former brothel-keeper's connectionwith official German "world-politics" and high diplomacy. From what I haveseenpersonallysince,IbelievethatZekki,aliasNelken,wasprobablyspeakingthe truth in this case, although it is certainly a fact that in German circles inCairo at that time ordinary extortion was recognised as being punishable byimprisonmentforaconsiderablelengthoftime.

Nelken then returned to Constantinople and devoted himself with unflaggingenergy to his previous business of agent. He turned to the Islamic faith andbecameacitizenoftheOttomanEmpirebecausehefounditmoreprofitablesotodo,andcouldthusescapefromhisformerliabilities.Theninspiteoflackofmeans,hemanagedtofoundamilitarynewspaper,which,however,soonpeteredout. Nelken became Mehmed Zekki and a journalist, and of course calledhimself"Bey."

Up to this point the history of this individual is nothing but a characteristic

extract from life as it is livedbyhundredsof rogues in theEast.Butnowwecome to somethingwhich is almost unbelievable andwhich leadsme to givecredence to his version of his relationswith vonMiquel,which after all onlyshowsmoreclearlythaneverthatGerman"world-politics"arenotabovemakinguseofthescumoftheearthfortheirintrigues.Infullknowledgeofthisman'swholeblackpast—asDr.WeberoftheGermanEmbassyhimselftoldme—theGerman Embassy with the sanction of the Imperial Government (this I knowfromlettersZekkishowedmeingreatgleefromtheForeignOfficeandtheWarOffice) appointed this fellow, whom all Pera said they would not touch withglovesonorwiththetongs,tobetheirconfidentialagentwithalargemonthlyhonorarium and to become a pillar of "theGerman cause" in theEast.And itcouldnotevenbesaidinextenuationthat themanhadanygreatdesireoranywonderfulvocation to representGermany, for—as theEmbassyofficialsaid tome—"WeknewthatZekkiwasadangerouscharacterandratherinclinedtotheEntenteattheoutbreakofwar,sowedecidedtowinhimoverbygivinghimasalaryratherthandrivehimintotheenemy'scamp."Soitsimplycomestothis,thatGermanybuysabankrupt,ablackmailer,aprocurer,abrothel-keeperwithcashtofighther"HolyWar"forher!

Aspublisher of theDéfense Zekki received a large salary fromGermany, onefrom Austria, afterwards cut down not from any excess of moral sense, butsimplyfromexcessofeconomy,andaveryconsiderablesumfromKrupp's.Asrepresentative ofGerman interests he did all he could to propitiate theYoungTurksbythemostfulsomeflattery,andmorerecentlyhewaspushinghardtogeton the Committee of Union and Progress. But the Turks jibbed at what theGerman Embassy had brought on themselves—seeing Zekki "Bey" movingabouttheirsacredhallswiththemostimposingnonchalanceandcondescension.Zekki himself once complained to me bitterly that in spite of his havingpresentedEnverPashawithavaluableclockwortheightyTurkishpoundswhichEnverhadacceptedwithpleasure,hewouldnotevenanswerawrittenrequestfromZekkicravinganaudiencewithhim.(This,incidentally,isamostexcellentexampleof theworkingofEnver'smind,amegalomaniacasgreedyashewasproud.)

ThemilitarydirectoroftheTurkishPresssaidtomeonce:"Weareonlywaitingforthefirst 'gaffe'inhispapertogetthisfilthycreaturehuntedoutofhislair,"and one day when through carelessness a small uncensored and really quiteharmless military notice appeared in print (everything is submitted to thecensor),theTurkishGovernmentgaveitshortshriftindeed,andbannedsinediethis "Ottoman" paper which lived by Krupp and the German trade

advertisements,andhadbecomeanadvocateoftheGermanEmbassy,becauseitwas paid in good solid cash for it. The paper was replaced by a new one inTurkishhands,calledLeSoir.

Icouldgoontalkingforagesfrommostintimatepersonalknowledgeaboutthisman,superbinhisownway.Hisdoingswerenotwithoutacertaincomicsidewhichamusedwhile itaggravatedone.Icouldmention,forexample,hisgreatlawsuitinGermanyin1916,inwhichhebroughtanaccusationoflibelagainstsomeGermanwhohadcalledhimablackmailerandacriminalwhohadbeenrepeatedlypunished.Hemanagedtowinthelawsuit—thatis,thedefendershadtopayafineoftwentymarks,becausetheevidencebroughtagainstZekkicouldnotbefolloweduptoEgyptonaccountofEngland'ssupremacyonthesea,andalsonodoubtbecausetheinterestsofKruppandtheGermanEmbassycouldnothavethischerishedblossomofGermanpropagandadisturbed!Soforhimatanyratethelackof"freedomoftheseas"hehadsooftenragedaboutinhisleadingarticleswasaveryappreciableadvantage.

The last timeI rememberseeing themanhewasengaged inanearnest tête-à-têteaboutthepropagationofGermanpolitical interestsbymeansofarmswiththe Nationalist Reichstag deputy, Dr. Streesemann, a representative of theGerman heavy goods trade and of German jingoism who had hastened toConstantinople for the furtherance of German culture. Most significantly, nodoubt in remembranceofhisdays inBuenosAyres,Zekkihadchosen for thisinterview the most private room of the HôtelModerne, a pension with a barwheresectcouldbehad;and theworthy representativeof theGermanpeople,probably nothing loth to have a change from his eternal "Pan-German" diet,acceptedhisinvitationwithalacrity.Ifollowedthetwogentlementomakemyown investigations, and I certainly got as much amusement, although in adifferent sense, as one usually does in such haunts. It was really mostentertaining towatchNelken the ex-Jew andYoungTurk,with his fez on hishead,noddingjoviallytoalltheGermanofficersattheneighbouringtables,andsettling the affairs of the realm with this Pan-German representative of thepeople.

I trustmyreaderswill forgiveme if, inspiteof thedistaste I feelathaving towrite this unsavoury chapter aboutGerman Press representatives and those inhighdiplomaticauthoritywhocommissionthem,IrelateonemoreepisodeofalikecharacterbeforeIclose.OneofthesewritersemployedintheserviceoftheGermanEmbassyhaddoneoneofhisfemaleemployeesaninjurywhichcannotbe repeatedhere.Hiscolleague—outofprofessional jealousy, theothersaid—

gave evidence against himunder oath at theGermanConsulate, and theotherbroughtachargeofperjuryagainsthim.TheGermanConsulate,inordernottolosesucha trustychampionof theGermancause fora trifle like thewoundedhonourofamerewoman—anArmeniantoboot!—simplysuppressedthewholecase,althoughallPerawasspeakingaboutit.

Against thiswehave thecase lateronofaGerman journalist,most jealousofGerman interests,whohadahighly importantdocumentstolenoutofhisdeskwithfalsekeysbyoneofhisclerksinthepayoftheYoungTurkishCommittee.The document was the copy of a very confidential report addressed to highofficial quarters in Germany, in which there were some rather moreuncomplimentaryremarksaboutEnverandTalaat thanappeared in theversionforpublicconsumption.AnEmbassylessnotoriouslycowardlythantheGermanonewouldsimplyhaveshielded theirman inconsiderationof the fact that thereportwasnevermeantforpublicationandofthereprehensiblewayithadbeenstolen andmade public.But our chicken-hearted diplomats allowed him to bedismissedindisgracebytheTurks,andsopracticallygavetheirofficialsanctiontothemeanestOrientalmethodsofespionage.

Ihave,however,nowcometotheconclusionfrominformationIhavereceivedthatGermancowardiceinthiscaseprobablyhadabackgroundofhypocrisyandmalice,forthissamejournalisthadspokenwithremarkablefreedom,notindeedasapro-Englander,butincontrasttoGermanandTurkishnarrow-mindedness,of how well he had been treated by the English authorities, and particularlyGeneralMaxwellintheexerciseofhisprofessioninCairo,wherehehadbeenallowed for fully five weeks, after the outbreak of war, to edit a Germannewspaper. (I have seen the numbers myself and wondered at the almostincredibleliberalityoftheEnglishcensorship.)InsteadofbeingsenttoMaltahehadbeentreatedmostfairlyandkindlyandgiveneveryopportunitytogetawaysafely toSyria.Of course thenarrationof events like thesewere ratheroutofplaceinour"GodPunishEngland"time,anditwasnodoubtonaccountofthis,apartfromallcowardice,thattheGermanEmbassymadetheirfinedistinctionsbetweenpersonalandpoliticalmoralityinthecaseoftheirPressrepresentative.

Wehave spokenofGermanpropaganda for the "HolyWar," as carriedoutbyindividuals aswell as by pamphlets and the Press. The Turkish capital saw avery appreciable amount of this in the shape of wandering adventurers andprinted paper. Several thousand Algerian, Tunisian, French West African,RussianTartar, andTurkestanprisonersofwarofMohammedan religion fromtheGerman internment campswere kept for weeks in Pera and urged by the

German Government in defiance of all the laws of the peoples to join the"Djihad"againsttheirownrulers.

TheyweretoldthattheywouldhavethegreathonourofbeingpresentedtotheCaliph in Stamboul; as devout Mohammedans they could of course not findmuchtoobjecttointhat.AwonderfullyattractivepicturewaspaintedforthemofthedelightsofsettlingintheflourishinglandsoftheEast,andlivingfreeofexpense instead of starving in prison under the rod of German non-commissioned officers till the far-distant conclusion of peace. One can wellimagine how such marvellous conjuring tricks would appeal to these poorfellows.

TheyhaverepeatedlytoldmethattheyhadbeenpromisedtobeallowedtosettleinTurkeywithoutanymentionbeingmadeofusingthemagainassoldiers.ButonceonthewaytoConstantinopletherewasnofurtherquestionofaskingthemwhat their opinion was of what was being done to them. They were simplytreatedasTurkishvoluntarysoldiersandsentofftotheFront, toArmenia,andtheIrak.Howfartheywereusedasrealfront-linesoldiersorinservicebehindthe lines I donotknow;what I doknow is that they leftConstantinople in asgreatnumbersastheycamefromGermany,armedwithriflesandfullyequippedfor service in the field. One can therefore guess how many of them became"settlers"astheyhadbeenpromised.Severaldaysrunningintheearlysummerof 1916 I saw them being marched off in the direction of the Haidar-PashastationontheAnatolianRailway.TheywereheadedbyaTurkishband,butonnot one single face of all these serried ranks did I see the slightest spark ofenthusiasm,andtheGermansoldiersandofficersescortingeachseparatesectionwere not exactly calculated to leave the impressionwith the public that thesewerezealotsfightingvoluntarilyfortheirfaithwhocouldnotgetfastenoughouttotheFronttobeshotorhangedbytheirformermasters!

InhersystemofrecruitinginthenewlyfoundedkingdomofPoland,Germanydemonstratedevenmoreclearlyofwhatshewascapableinthisdirection.

CHAPTERVII

Young Turkish nationalism—One-sided abolition of capitulations—Anti-foreign efforts at emancipation—Abolition of foreign languages—

German simplicity—The Turkification of commercial life—Unmistakable intellectual improvementasa resultof thewar—Tradepolicyandcustomstariff—Nationalproduction—Thefoundingofnewbusinesses in Turkey—Germany supplanted—German starvation—CapitulationsorfullEuropeancontrol?—ThecolonisationandforcibleTurkificationofAnatolia—"Theproperties of peoplewhohavebeendispatched elsewhere"—The "Mohadjirs"—Greek persecutions justbeforetheGreatWar—The"discovery"ofAnatolia,thenucleusoftheOttoman Empire—Turkey finds herself at last—Anatolian dirt anddecay—The "Greater Turkey" and the purely Turkish Turkey—Cleavageorconcentration?

FROM theGermanswenow turnagain to theTurks, to try to fathom theexactmentalityoftheYoungTurksduringthegreatwar,andtodiscoverwhatweretheintellectualsourcesfortheirvariousactivities.

To give a better idea of thewhole position Iwill just prefacemy remarks bystating a few of the outstanding features of the present Young TurkishGovernmentandtheirdependents.Theirfirstandchiefcharacteristicishostilitytoforeigners,butthisdoesnotpreventthemfrommakingeverypossibleuseoftheir ally Germany, or from appropriating in every walk of life anythingEuropean, be it a matter of technical skill, government, civilisation, that theyconsidermightbeprofitable.Secondlytheyarepossessedofanunboundedstoreof jingoism, which has its origin in Pan-Turkism with its ruling idea of"Turanism." Pan-Turkism,which seems to be the governing passion of all theleadingmen of the day, finds expression in two directions. Outwardly it is aconstantstrivingfora"GreaterTurkey,"amovementthatforalargepartinitsessence,andcertainly in its territorialaims,runsparallelwith the"HolyWar";inwardlyitisafanaticaldesireforageneralTurkificationwhichfindsoutletinpoliticalnationalisticmeasures, someofcriminalbarbarity,otherspartakingofthe nature of modern reforms, beginning with the language regulations and"internalcolonisation"andendingintheArmenianpersecutions.

It is worthy of note that of the two intellectual sources of the "Holy War,"namelyTuranism—whichonemightreverseandcallanextendedformofOld-Turkism—and Pan-Islamism, the men of the "Committee for Unity andProgress" have only made logical though unsuccessful use of the former,although theoretically speaking they recognise the value of the latter as well.WhileTurkishrace-fanaticism,whichfindspracticaloutletinTuranisticideas,isstilltheintellectualbackboneofofficialTurkeyto-dayandhastobebrokenby

thepresentwar,theYoungTurkishIslampolicyisalreadycompletelybankruptandcanthereforebestudiedheredispassionatelyinallitsaspects.Weproposetotreatthematterinsomedetail.

AllNew-TurkishNationalisticeffortsatemancipationhadasfirstprinciple theabolitionofCapitulations.ThewholeYoungTurkishperiodwehavehereunderreviewisthereforetobedatedfromthatday,shortlybeforeTurkey'sentryintothewar,whenthatinjunctionwasflungoverboardwhichEuropehadanxiouslyplaced for theprotectionof the interestsofEuropeansonaStatebut too littlecivilised. It was Turkey herself that did this after having curtly refused theEntente offer to remove the Capitulations as a reward for Turkey's remainingneutral.Germany,whowasequallyinterestedintheexistenceornon-existenceofCapitulations,nevermentionedthispainfulsubjecttoherallyforaverylongtime, and it was 1916 before she formally recognised the abolition ofCapitulations,longaftershehadlostallholdonTurkeyinthatdirection.

Asearlyassummer1915therewereclearoutwardindicationsinthestreetsofConstantinopleofasmoulderingNationalismreadytobreakoutatanymoment.Turkey,under the leadershipofTalaatBey,pursuedhercoursealong thewell-troddenpaths,andthefirstsphereinwhichtherewasevidenceofanattemptatforcible Turkification was the language. Somewhere toward the end of 1915TalaatsuddenlyorderedtheremovalofallFrenchandEnglishinscriptions,shopsigns, etc., even in themiddle ofEuropeanPera. In tramcars and at stopping-places theFrench textwasblockedout; boardswithpublicpolicewarnings inFrench were either removed altogether or replaced by unreadable Turkishscrawls;thestreetindicationsweresimplyabolished.TheauthoritiesapparentlythoughtitpreferablethattheLevantinepublicshouldgetintothewrongtramcar,shouldbreaktheirlegsgettingout,pickflowersintheparksandwanderroundhelplessly in amaze of unnamed streets rather than that the spirit of forcibleTurkificationshouldmakeeventheleastsacrificetocomfort.

Of the thousand inhabitants of Pera, not ten can read Turkish; but under thepressure of the official order and for fear of brutal assault or some kind ofunderhandtreatmentincaseofnon-compliance,theinhabitantsreallysurpassedthemselves, andbefore one could turn, all the namesover the shops hadbeenpainted over and replaced by wonderful Turkish characters that looked likedecorativeshieldsorsomethingof thekindpaintedintheredandwhiteof thenationalcolours.Ifonehadnotnotedtheentrancetotheshopandthelookofthewindowverycarefully,onemightwanderhelplesslyupanddowntheGrandRuedePéraifonewantedtobuysomethinginaparticularshop.

But the German, as simple-minded as ever where political matters wereconcerned, was highly delighted in spite of the extraordinary difficulty ofcommunallife."AwaywithFrenchandEnglish,"hewouldshout."GodpunishEngland;hurrah,ourTurkishbrothersarehelpingusandfavouringtheextensionoftheGermanlanguage!"

The answer to these pan-German expansion politicians and language fanatics,whosespiritualhomewasroundthebeer-tablesofthe"Teutonia,"wasprovidedbyaseconddecreeofTalaat'ssomeweekslaterwhenallGermannoticeshadtodisappear.Afew,whowouldnotbelievetheorder,heldoutobstinately,andthesignsremainedinGermantilltheywereeithersupplementedin1916,onaveryclear hint from Stamboul, by the obligatory Turkish language or later quitesupplanted.ItwasnottillsometimeaftertheGermanhaddisappeared—andthisisworthyofnote—that theGreek signsceased toexist.Greekhadbeenup tothat time the most used tongue and was the commercial language of theArmenians.

Then came the famous language regulations,which evenwent so far—with ayearofgracegrantedowingtotheextraordinarydifficultiesoftheTurkishscript—astodecreethatintheofficesofalltradeundertakingsofanypublicinterestwhatsoever, such as banks, newspapers, transport agencies, etc., the Turkishlanguage should be used exclusively for book-keeping and any writtencommunicationwithcustomers.Onecanimaginethe"OsmanicLloyd"andthe"German Bank" with Turkish book-keeping and Turkish letters written to anexclusively European clientèle! Old and trusty employees suddenly foundthemselvesfacedwiththechoiceoflearningthedifficultTurkishscriptorbeingturnedoutinayear'stime.Thepossibility—indeed,thenecessity—ofemployingTurkish hands in European businesses suddenly came within the range ofpracticalpolitics—andthatwasexactlywhattheTurkishGovernmentwanted.

ThearrangementhadnotyetcomeintooperationwhenIleftConstantinople,butitwashanging like the swordofDamoclesover commercialundertakings thathadhithertobeenpurelyGerman.Optimistsstillhopeditneverwouldcometothispassandwouldhavewelcomedanypolitical-militaryblowthatwouldputadamper on Turkey's arrogance. Others, believing firmly in a final Turkishvictory, began to learn Turkish feverishly. Be that as it may, the newarrangementswerehunguponthewallsofallofficesinthesummerof1916andcreatedconfusionenough.

Many other measures for the systematic Turkification of commercial life andpublic intercourse followed hard on this first bold step,which I need scarcely

mentionhere.And inspiteof theever-growingnumberofGermanofficials inthedifferentministries,partlyfoistedontheTurkishGovernmentbytheGermanauthorities, partly gladly accepted for themoment because the Turks had stillmuch to learn from German organisation and could profit from employingGermans, inspiteof theappointmentofanumberofGermanprofessorstotheTurkish University of Stamboul (who, however, as a matter of fact, like theGermanGovernment officials, had towear the fez and learnTurkishwithin ayear, and besides rousedmost unfavourable and anti-German comment in thenewspapers), it was soon perfectly evident to every unbiased witness thatGermany would find no place in a victorious Turkey after the war if the"CommitteeforUnionandProgress"didnotneedher.SomesortoflightmustsurelyhavebrokenoverthelastblindoptimismoftheGermansinthecourseofthesummerof1916.

HandinhandwiththenationalisticattempttocoerceEuropeanbusinessesintousingtheTurkishlanguagetherewentmorepracticalattemptstoturkifyalltheimportant branches of commerce by the founding of indigenous organisationsand the introduction of reforms ofmorematerial content than those languagedecrees. These efforts, in spite of the enormous absorption of all intellectualcapabilities and energies inwar and the clash of arms,were expressedwith atruly marvellous directness of aim, and, from the national standpoint, a trulycommendablemagnificenceofconception.

This latter has indeed never been lacking as a progressive ethnic factor inTurkish politics. The Turks have a wonderful understanding, too, of theimportance of social problems, or at least, as a sovereign people, they feelinstinctivelywhatinasocialconnectionwillfurthertheirsovereignty.ThewarwithitsenormousintellectualactivityhascertainlybroughtallthepoliticalandeconomicresourcesoftheTurks—includingtheYoungTurkishGovernment—tothehighestpossible stageofdevelopment,andweoughtnot tobesurprised ifweoftenfindthatmeasures,whetherofabeneficentorinjuriouscharacter,arenot lacking in modern exactness, clever technicality, and thoroughness ofconception.Withoutanticipating,Ishouldjustliketonoteherehowthischangeappearstoaffectthewar.NoonecandoubtthatitwillenormouslyintensifyzealinthefightfortheexistenceoftheTurkeyofthefuture,freedfromitsjingoisticoutgrowths,oncemorecometoitssensesandconfinedtoitsownpropersphereofactivity,Anatolia,thecoreoftheEmpire.But,ontheotherhand,ironmightanddeterminedwarfareagainstthismisguidedStateareneededtorootoutfalseandharmfulideas.

If,afterthisslightdigression,weglanceforamomentatthepracticalmeasuresforacompleteTurkificationofTurkey,theeconomiceffortsatemancipationandthecivicreformscarriedthrough,wefindfirstofallthatthenewTurkey,whenshe had thrown the Capitulations overboard, then proceeded to emancipateherself completely from European supervision in the realm of trade andcommerce.

A very considerable step in advance in the way of Turkish sovereignty andTurkisheconomicpatriotismwastheorganisationand—sinceSeptember1916—execution of the neo-Turkish autonomic customs tariff, which with one blowgives Turkish finances what the Government formerly managed to extractpainfullyfromtheGreatPowersbitbybit,byfairmeansorfoul,atintervalsofmany years, and which with its hard-and-fast scale of taxes—which thereappearstobenoinclinationinpoliticalcirclesatthemomenttomodifybytradetreaties!—means an exceedingly adequate protection of Turkey's nationalproductions,withoutanyreferencewhatevertotheexportinterestsofherallies,and is a very strong inducement to the renaissance of at any rate the mostimportant national industries. The far-flung net of the "Djemiet" (whoseacquaintancewehavealreadymadeinanotherconnection),thatpurelyTurkishcommercialundertakingwithTalaatBeyatitshead,regulatingeverythingasitdid, takingeverythinginto itsownhands,fromtherealisingof theproductsoftheAnatolianfarmers(andincidentallybringingitaboutthattheirallyGermanyhad to pay heavily and always in cash, even although the Government itselfowed millions, to Germany and got everything on credit from flour out ofRoumania to paper for their journals) to themost difficult rationing of towns,forms a foundation for the nationalising of economic life of the very greatestimportance.

TheestablishmentofpurelyTurkish tradeand transportcompanies,oftenwithpensioned Ministers as directors and principal shareholders, and the newlanguage regulations and other privilegeswill soon cut the ground away fromunderthefeetofEuropeanconcerns.AbleassistanceisgiveninthisdirectionbytheTaninandtheHilal(the"Crescent"),thenewlyfounded"Committee"paperintheFrenchlanguage(whenitisaquestionoftheofficialinfluencingofpublicopinion in European and Levantine quarters, exceptions can bemade even inlanguage fanaticism!) in which a series of articles invariably appear at thefoundingofeachnewcompanypraisingthepatrioticzealofthefounders.

Thenagain thereare the increasingly thinlyveiledefforts toestablishapurelyTurkish national banking system. Quite lately there has been a movement in

favourof foundingaTurkishNationalBankwith theobjectofsupplanting themuch-hated "Deutsche Bank" in spite of the credit it always gives, and thatinternational and preponderatingly French institution, the "Banque ImpérialeOttomane,"whichhadalreadysimplybeensequestratedwithoutmoreado.

TheTurkshavedecided,too,thattheminesaretobenationalised,andTurkishcompanies have already been formed, without capital it is true, to work themines after the war. The same applies to the railways—in spite of the fineGermanplansfortheBaghdadRailway.

All these wonderful efforts at emancipation are perfectly justified from thepatriotic point of view, and are so many blows dealt at Germany, who, quiteapartfromRohrbach'sWelt-politik,hadatleasthopedtofindalucrativefieldofprivilegedcommercialactivityinthecountryofhercloseanddevotedalliestheTurks.Itisofsupremesignificancethatwhilethewarisstillatitsheight,whiletheEmpireoftheSultanisdefendingitsveryexistenceatthegatesofthecapitalwith German arms and German money, there is manifested with the moststartling clearness the failure of German policy, the endangering of all theseGerman "vital interests" in Turkey which according to Pan-German andImperialistic views were one of the most important stakes to be won bywantonlylettingloosethiscriminalwaronEurope.

NodoubtmanyaGermanwasonlytoowellawareofthefactthatinthisTurkeysuddenlyrousedbythewarallthegroundhadbeenlostthathehadbuiltonwithsuchprofitbefore,andmanyananxiousfacedidonesee inGermancircles inConstantinople.IneednottarryhereoverthedrasticcommentsIheardfromsomany German merchants on this subject. They show a most curious state ofmindonthepartofthosewhohadformerly,intheirquestforgainandnothingbut gain, profited in true parasitical fashion from the financial benefits of theCapitulations and had seen nothing but the money side of this arrangementwhichwas,afterall,enteredintoforotherpurposes.Itwasnorarethingandnoparadox to findaGermancompanydirectorsay,as Iheardonesay:"If thingswent against Turkey to-day, Iwouldwillingly shouldermy gun, oldman as Iam."

No thinkingmanwillexpend toomuchgriefover the ruthlessabolitionof theCapitulations,fortheywereunmoralandgavetoomuchopportunitytoparasitesand rogues, while they were quite inadequate to protect the interests ofcivilisation. They may have sufficed in the time of Abdul-Hamid, who waseasily frightened off and was always sensible and polite in his dealings withEurope. For the Turkey of Enver andTalaat quite othermeasures are needed.

Onemust, according to one's political standpoint, either recognise and accepttheir nationalistic programme of emancipation or combat it forcibly byintroducing full European control. And however willing one may be to letforeign nations develop in their own particular way and work out their ownsalvation,one'sstandpointwithregardtoaStatesobehindhand,sofanatical,somisguided as Turkey can be but one: the introduction and continuation at allcostsofwhateverguaranteesthebestprotectiontoEuropeancivilisationinthislandofsuchimportanceculturallyandhistorically.

NotonlywereEuropeans,but thenatives themselves,affectedby theseriesofmeasures that onemight class together under the heading of Turkish InternalColonisation and theNationalising ofAnatolia. The programme of theYoungTurkswasnotonlya"GreaterTurkey,"butaboveallapurelyTurkishTurkey;andiftheformershowedsignsoffailingbecausetheyhadover-estimatedtheirpowersandtheirchancesinthewarorhademployedwrongmethods,therewasnothing at all to hinder a sovereign Government from striving all the moreruthlesslytogaintheirsecondpoint.

ThewaythisTurkificationofAnatoliawascarriedonwascertainlynotlackingin thoroughness, like all their nationalistic efforts. The bestmeans that lay tohand were the frightful Armenian persecutions which affected a wonderfulclearance among the population. "The properties of persons who have beendispatched elsewhere" within the meaning of the Provisory Bill were eitherdistributedfreeorsoldforameresongtoanyonewhoappliedtotheCommitteefor them and proved themselves of the same political persuasion or of pureTurkishorpreponderatinglyTurkishnationality.Therentwasoftenfixedaslowas30piastresamonth(about5s.8d.) forofficialsandretiredmilitarymen. Inthe case of the latter, Enver Pasha thought this an excellent opportunity forgettingrid,throughthemediumofakindlyinvitationtosettleintheInterior,ofthosewhoworriedhimby theirdissatisfactionwithhissystemandwhomighthave prepared difficulties for him. This "settling" was carried out with thegreatest zeal in the exceptionally flourishing and fruitful districts of Brussa,Smyrna-Aidin,Eskishehir,Adabazar,Angora,andAdana,whereArmeniansandGreekshadplayedsuchagreat,and,totheTurks,unpopularpartaspioneersofcivilisation.

Thesemi-officialarticles intheTaninwereperfectly right inpraising the localauthorities who in contrast with their former indifference and ignorance "hadnowfullyrecognisedthegreatnational importanceof internalcolonisationandthe settling ofMohadjirs (emigrants from the lost Turkish territory inBosnia,

Macedonia,Thrace,etc.)inthecountry."Thereisnothingtobesaidinfavourofthe stupid, unprogressive character of the Anatolian as contrasted with thestrength,physicalendurance,intelligence,andmobilityoftheseemigrants.Thelatterhadalso,generallyspeaking,livedinmorehighlydevelopeddistricts.

ThegreatdrawbackoftheMohadjirs,however,istheirinstability,theiridlenessand love of wandering, their frivolity, and their extraordinary fanaticism. AsfaithfulMohammedansfollowingthestandardoftheirPadishahandleavingtheparts of the country that had fallen underChristian rule, they seemed to thinktheywerejustifiedinbehavinglikespoiltchildrentowardsthenativepopulation.They treated themwith ruthless disregard, they were bumptious, and, if theirnew neighbours were Greek or Armenian, they inclined to use force, aproceeding which was always possible because the Government did not takeaway their firearms and were even known to have doled them out to stir upunrest.IthasoccurredmorethanoncethatMohadjirshavecrossedswordsevenwith TurkishAnatolians living peacefully in their own villages.One can theneasily imagine howmuchmore the hereticgiaurs ("Christian dogs," "uncleanmen")hadtosufferattheirhands.

I should like tosayawordhereabout theseGreekpersecutions inThraceandWesternAnatolia thathavebecomenotorious throughout thewholeofEurope.Theytookplacejustbeforetheoutbreakofwar,andcostthousandsofpeacefulGreeks—men,women,andchildren-theirlives,andreducedtoashesdozensofflourishing villages and towns. At the time of the murder of Sarajevo, IhappenedtobestayinginthevilajetofAidin,inSmyrnaandtheHinterland,andsawwithmyowneyessuchshamefuldeedsasmustinfuriateanyoneagainsttheTurkishGovernmentthataidsandabetssuchbarbarity—fromoldwomenbeingdrivenalongbyadozenMohadjirsanddissipatedsoldierstothesmokingruinsofPhocæa.

Everyoneatthattime,atanyrateinSmyrna,expectedtheimmediateoutbreakofanewGræco-Turkishwar,andperhapstheonlythingthatpreventeditwasthemethodofprocrastinationadoptedbybothsides, forbothwerewaitingfor theDreadnoughts they had ordered, until finally these smaller clouds wereswallowedup in themighty thunder-cloudgatheringon theEuropeanhorizon.Only the extreme speedwithwhich one dramatic event followed another, andmyownmobilisationwhichprecludedmywritinganythingofapoliticalnature,preventedme on that occasion from givingmy sinister impressions ofYoungTurkishjingoismandMohadjirbrutality.EvenifIhadbeenabletowritewhatIthought it isextremelydoubtful if itwouldeverhaveseenthelightofday,for

theGermanpaperswerebut little inclined,asIhadopportunityofdiscoveringpersonally, to say anything unpleasant about the Young Turkish Government,whosehelptheywerealreadyreckoningon,andpreferredrathertobehaveinamostun-neutralmannerandkeepabsolutelysilentaboutalltheill-treatmentandabusethathadbeenmetedout toGreece.ButIrememberedthesescenesmostopportunelylater,andthatvisitofminetoWesternAnatoliawascertainlymostuseful in increasing my knowledge of Young Turkish methods of "internalcolonisation."

But all the methods used are by no means forcible. Attempts are now beingmade—and this again is most significant for the spirit of the newest YoungTurkishera—togainafootingintheworldofscienceasopposedtoforce,andsotobeabletocarryouttheirmeasuresmoresystematicallyandgivethemtheappearance of beneficent modern social reforms. So it comes about that theTurkishideaofpenetratingand"cleaning-up"AnatoliafindspracticalexpressionontheonehandinexterminatingandrobbingtheChristianpopulation,whileontheotheritinclinestoeffortswhichintimemayworkouttobearealblessing.ThecommonprincipleunderlyingbothisNationalism.

Anatolia was suddenly "discovered." At long length the Young TurkishGovernment, roused intellectually and patriotically by thewar and brought totheir senses by the terrible loss of human life entailed, suddenly realised theenormousnationalimportanceofAnatolia,thathithertomuch-neglectednucleusof theOttoman Empire. Under the spiritual inspiration ofMehmed Emin, thenational poet ofAnatolian birthwhose poemswith their sympathy of outlookandnoblesimplicityofformmakesuchawarm-heartedandsuccessfulappealtothebestkindofpatriotism,menhavebegunsince1916,eveninthecirclesofthearrogant"StambulEffendi,"totakeaninterestinthekabatürk(uncouthTurk),theAnatolianpeasant,hisneedsandhisstandardofcivilisation.Thereal,needy,primitiveTurkoftheInteriorhassuddenlybecomethegeneralfavourite.

Awholeseriesofmost remarkable lectureswasdeliveredpublicly in theTürkOdjaghi,undertheauspicesoftheCommittee,bydoctors,socialpoliticians,andpoliticaleconomists,andthesewerereportedanddiscussedatgreatlengthinalltheTurkishnewspapers.TheirsubjectwastheincredibledestitutioninAnatolia,the devastation wrought by syphilis, malaria, and other terrible dirt diseases,abortionsasaresultofhopelesspoverty,thelackofmenasaresultofconstantmilitary service in many wars, and they called for immediate and drasticreforms.

ItiswiththegreatestpleasurethatIacknowledgethatthisfirstlatesteponthe

wayofimprovement,thisself-knowledge,whichappealstomemorethoroughlythananythingelseIsawinTurkey,isprobablyreallythebeginningofahappiereraforthatbeautifullandofAnatolia,socapableofdevelopmentbutsocruellyneglected. For one can no longer doubt that the Government has the realintentionof carryingout actual reforms, for theymustbeonly toowell awarethatthestrengtheningandhealingofAnatolia,thenucleusoftheTurkishrace,isabsolutelyessential foranyTurkishmastery, and is thevery firstnecessity forthe successful carrying out ofmore far-reaching national exertions.With trulymodernrealisationoftheneedsofthecase,directlyafterDr.BehaeddinShakirBey'sfirstcompellinglecture,differentlocalgovernmentofficials,especiallytheValioftheVilajetofKastamuni,whichwasnotoriousforitssyphilisepidemics,made unprecedented efforts to improve the terrible hygienic conditions thenreigning.Letushopethatsucheffortswillbearfruit.Butthiswillprobablyonlybethecasetoanymeasurableextentlater,afterthewar,whenTurkeywillfindherselfreallyconfinedtoAnatolia,andwillhavetimeandstrengthforpositivesocialwork.

InthemeantimeIcannotgetridoftheuneasyimpressionthatthis"discovery"of Anatolia and zealous Turkish social politics are no more than a cleverlyworked excuse on the part of the Government for further measures ofTurkification,andtheclovenhoofisunfortunatelyonlytooapparentinall thisseeminglynobleefforton thepartof theCommittee.Onehearsandseesdailythemethodsthatgohandinhandwiththisofficialpushingintotheforegroundof thegreat importanceof thepurelyTurkishelements inAnatolia—Armenianpersecutions,trickery,expropriationscarriedoutagainstGreeks,theyieldingupof flourishing districts to quarrelsome Mohadjirs. So long as the TurkishGovernment fancy themselves conquerors in the great war, so long as theypursue the shadow of a "Greater Turkey," so long as Turkey continues todissipateher forces shewillnot accomplishmuch forAnatolia, in spiteofherawakeningandherrealdesireforreform.

Finally, in thisdiscoveryofAnatolia, in thisdesire toputanend to traditionaldestitution, this recognition of the real import of even the poorest, mostprimitive,dullestpeasantpeoplesintheundevelopedInterior,solongastheyareofTurkishrace,inthissuddenfloodoflearnedeloquenceovertheneedsandthetrueinnerworthofthesemiserableneglectedTurkishpeasants,inthispressingdemandforthoroughreformsfortheeconomicandsocialstrengtheningofthiselement—measures which with the present ruling spirit of jingoism in theGovernment threaten to be carried through only at the expense of the non-Turkish population ofAnatolia—we see very clear proof that the neo-Turkish

movementisapureracemovement,isnothingbutPan-Turkismbothoutwardlyand inwardly, andhasvery little indeed todowith religiousquestionsorwithIslam.TheideaofIslam,orratherPan-Islamism,isacompletefailure.Thisweshalltrytoshowinthefollowingchapter.

CHAPTERVIII

Religion and race—The Islam policy of Abdul-Hamid and of the YoungTurks—TuranismandPan-Islamismaspoliticalprinciples—Turanismand the Quadruple Alliance—Greed and race-fanaticism—Religioustraditions and modern reforms—Reform in the law—A modernSheikh-ul-Islam—Reform and nationalisation—The Armenian andGreekPatriarchates—ThefailureofPan-Islamism—ThealienationoftheArabs—DjemalPasha's"hangman'spolicy"inSyria—Djemalasa"Pro-French"—Djemal and Enver—Djemal and Germany—His truecharacter—Theattemptagainst theSuezCanal—Djemal'smurderouswork nears completion—The great Arabian and Syrian Separatistmovement—ThedefectionoftheEmirofMeccaandthegreatArabiancatastrophe.

IN little-informed circles in Europe people are still under the false impressionthattheYoungTurksofto-day,theintellectualandpoliticalleadersofTurkeyinthis war, are authentic, zealous, and even fanatical Mohammedans, andsuperficialobserversexplainallunpleasantoccurrencesandoutbreaksofYoungTurkish jingoism on Pan-Islamic grounds, especially as Turkey has not beenslowinproclaimingher"HolyWar."Butthisconceptionisentirelywrong.Theartificial character of the "Djihad," which was only set in motion against aportionofthe"unbelievers,"whiletheothersbecamemoreandmoretherulingbodyinTurkey,is thebestproofoftheuntenabilityofthistheory.Thetruthisthat thepresentpolitical régime is thecompletedenialof thePan-Islamic ideaandthesubstitutionofthePan-Turkishideaofrace.

Abdul-Hamid,thatmuch-malignedanddethronedSultan,who,however,towershead and shoulders above all the Young Turks put together in practicalintelligence and statesmanly skill, and would never have committed theunpardonable error of throwing in his lot with Germany in the war and so

bringingaboutthecertaindownfallofTurkey,wasthelastrulerofTurkeythatknewhowtomakeuseofPan-Islamismasasuccessfulinstrumentofauthority.

EnverandTalaat andall thatbreedof jingoists on the Ittahad (Committee forUnionandProgress)wereupstartswithoutanyschoolinginpoliticalhistory,andso all the more inclined to the doctrinal revolutionism and short-sightedfanaticismofthesuccessfuladventurer,andweremuchtoolimitedtorecognisethe tremendous political import of Pan-Islamism. Naturally once they hadconceived the idea of the "Djihad," they tried tomake theoretical use of Pan-Islamism; but practically, far from extending Turkey's influence to distantArabian lands, to the Soudan and India, they simply let Turkey go to ruinthroughtheirPan-Turkishillusionsandtheirrace-fanaticism.

Abdul-Hamid with his clever diplomacymanaged to maintain, if not the realsympathies,atanyratetheformalloyaltyoftheArabsandtheirsolidaritywiththe rest of the Ottoman Empire. It was he who conceived the idea of thatundertaking of eminent political importance, the Hedjaz Railway, whichfacilitatespilgrimagestotheholycitiesofMeccaandMedinaandlinksuptheArabian territory with the Turkish, and he was always able to quell anydisturbancesintheseoutlyingpartsoftheEmpirewithveryfewtroopsindeed.NowadaystheYoungTurkishGovernment,eveniftheyhadthetroopstospare,mightsendawholearmytotheHedjazandtheywouldbelikeanislandofsandinthemidstofthatstormyArabsea.TheArabs,intellectuallyfarsuperiortotheTurks, have at last made up their minds to defy their oppressors, and all theArabic-speakingpartsof theOttomanEmpiremaybe takenasalreadylost,nomatterwhatthefinalresultofthegreatwarmaybe.

TheYoungTurkshadscarcelycomeintopowerwhentheybeganwithincrediblelackoftacttotreattheArabsinamostsuperciliousmanner,althoughasamatteroffacttheArabsfarsurpassedtheminintellectandculture.Theyinauguratedamost un-modern campaign of shameless blood-sucking, cheated them of theirrights, treated them in a bureaucratic manner, and generally acted in such anunskilfulway that theyfinallyalienatedforever theArabelementas theyhadalreadydoneinthecaseoftheArmenians,theGreeks,andtheAlbanians.

The ever-recurring disturbances in Yemen, finally somewhat inadequatelyquelledbyIzzetPasha,arestillinthememoryofall.Andlater,directlyafterthereconquering ofAdrianople during the SecondBalkanwar, therewas anothermomentofrealnationalrebirthwhenareconciliationmighthavebeeneffected.ThevisitofagreatSyrianandArabiandeputationtotheSultantocongratulatehimoverthisauspiciouseventshouldhaveprovidedanexcellentopportunity.I

wasstayingsomemonthstheninConstantinopleonmywaybackfromAfrica,and I certainly thought that the half-broken threads might have been knottedtogether again then if theYoungTurks had only approached theArabs in therightway. Even the great Franco-British attack on Stamboulmight have beencalculatedtorouseafeelingofsolidarityamongtheMohammedanslivingunderthe Ottoman flag, and in the autumn and winter of 1915-1916 Arab troopsactuallydiddefendtheentrancetotheDardanelleswithgreatcourageandskill.But Arab loyalty could not withstand for ever the mighty flood of race-selfishnessthatpossessedtheYoungTurksrightfromthemomentoftheirentryintothewar.Theenthusiasmof theArabssoondisappearedwhenPan-Turkishideaswereproclaimedall tooclearlyeventotheinhabitantsoftheirownland,when an era of systematic enmity towards the non-Turkish parts of thepopulationwasintroducedandtheheavyfistoftheCentralCommitteewaslaidonthesouthernpartsoftheEmpireaswell.

An attempt was made to bring the ethnic principle of "Turanism" within theregion of practical politics, but it simply degenerated into complete race-partiality andwas not calculated to further the ideas of Pan-Islamism and theTurko-Arabianalliancewhichwerebothofsuchimportanceinthepresentwar.ItisthisideaofTuranismthatliesatthebackoftheeffortsbeingmadetowardsapurelyTurkishTurkey,andthatofcoursemakesitclearatoncethatitmusttoaverylargeextentopposetheideaofPan-Islamism.Itistruethatbothprinciplesmay be made use of side by side as sources of propaganda for the idea ofexpansionandthepolicyofa"GreaterTurkey."TuranistspeepoverthecrestoftheCaucasusdownintotheSteppesoftheVolga,wheretheRussianTartarslive,and to the borders of Western Siberia and Inner China where in RussianTurkestana raceofpeopleofveryclosekinship liveandwhereveryprobablytheOttomanpeoplehadtheircradle.ThePan-IslamistswanttheallianceoftheseRussianpartsaswell,butfromanotherpointofview,and,aboveall,theyaimattheexpansionofOttomanruletothefarthestcornersofAfricaandSouth-WestAsia, to the borders of negro territory, and through Persia, Afghanistan, andBaluchistantothefootoftheHimalayas,whileongroundsofpracticalpoliticsthey strive to abolish the old, seemingly insurmountable antithesis betweenSonnitesandShiiteswithinthesanctuaryofIslam.

Theprogrammeoftheso-called"Djihad"worksonthisprinciple,butgoesmuchfarther.AswellasstirringupagainsttheirpresentrulersthosepartsofEgyptandTripoliwhichonceownedallegiancetotheSultanandtheAtlaslands,whichareatanyratespirituallydependentontheCaliphinStamboul,the"Djihad"aimsatintroducing the spirit of independence into all English, French, Italian, and

RussianColonial territoryby rousing theMohammedans and sodoing infiniteharm to the enemies of Turkey. It is most important, therefore, always todifferentiatebetweenthis"HolyWar""stirring-up"propagandafromSenegaltoTurkestanandBritishIndia,andthemoreterritorialPan-Islamismofthepresentwar,whichgoeshand inhandwith the efforts beingmade towards a "GreaterTurkey."

Insteadofunitingalltheseprinciplesskilfullyfortherealisationofagreatend,making sure of the Arab element by wisely restraining their selfish andexaggeratedly pro-Turkish instincts and their despotic lust for power, and sogivingtheirprogrammeofexpansionsouthwardssomeprospectofsucceeding,theTurksgavewayrightfromthebeginningofthewartosuchafloodofbrutal,narrow-minded race-fanaticismanddesire toenrich theTurkishelement at thecostoftheotherinhabitantsofthecountry,thatnoonecanreallybesurprisedatthepitiableresultoftheeffortstosecureaGreaterTurkey.

I should just like to giveone small exampleof the fanatical hatred that existseven inhighofficial circlesagainst thenon-Turkishelement in thiscountryofmixedrace.Thefollowinganecdotewillgiveaclearenoughideaoftherulingspiritof fanaticismandgreed. Iwashouse-hunting inPeraonceandcouldnotfindanythingsuitable.IapproachedamemberoftheCommitteeandhesaidinsolemnearnest:"Oh,justwaitafewweeks.WeareallhopingthatGreecewilldeclarewar on us before long, and then all theGreekswill be treated as theArmenianshavebeen. Ican letyouhave thenicestvillaon theBosporus.Butthen,"he addedwithgleaming eyes, "wewon't be so stupid asmerely to turnthemout.TheseGreekdogs(köpekrum)willhavethepleasureofseeingustakeeverythingawayfromthem—everything—andcompellingthemtogiveuptheirownpropertybyformalcontract."

I can guarantee that this is practically a word-for-word rendering of thisextraordinary outburst of fanaticism and greed on the part of an otherwiseharmless and decent man. I could not help shuddering at such opinions.Apparently itwasnotenough thatTurkeywasalreadyatwarwith threeGreatPowers; shemust needs seek armed conflict withGreece, so that, aswas theoutspoken,theopen,andfreely-admittedintentionofofficialpersons,shemightthendealwithfourandahalfmillionsofOttomanGreeks,practicallyherowncountrymen, as shehaddonewith theunfortunateArmenians. In faceof suchopinionsonecannotbutrealisehowunsuretheexistenceoftheYoungTurkishStatehasbecomebyitsentryintothewar,andcannotbutforeseethatthisrace-fanaticismwillleadthenationtopoliticalandsocialsuicide.Canoneimaginea

purelyTurkishTurkey,wheneventhenotionofaGreaterTurkeyfailed?

PessimistshaveoftensaidoftheTurkishquestionthattheTurks'principalaimin determining on a completeTurkification ofAnatolia by any, even themostbrutal, means, is that at the conclusion of war they can at least say withjustification:"AnatoliaisapurelyTurkishcountryandmustthereforebelefttous."What they propose to bequeath to the victorious Russians is anArmeniawithoutArmenians!

The idea of "Turanism" is a most interesting one, and as a widespreadnationalistic principle has given much food for thought to Turkey's ally,Germany. Turanism is the realisation, reawakened by neo-Turkish efforts atpoliticalandterritorialexpansion,of theoriginalrace-kinshipexistingbetweentheTurks and themany peoples inhabiting the regions north of theCaucasus,between theVolgaand thebordersof InnerChina, andparticularly inRussianCentralAsia.Ethnographicallythisideawasperfectlyjustified,butpoliticallyitentailsatremendousdissipationofstrengthwhichmustintheendleadtogravedisappointmentandfailure.AlltheTurkishattemptstorouseupthepopulationof the Caucasus either fell on unfruitful ground orwent to pieces against thestrong Russian power reigning there. Enver's marvellous conception of anoffensiveagainstRussianTranscaucasialedrightatthebeginningofthewartoterriblebloodshedanddefeat.

People in neutral countries have had plenty of opportunity of judging of thevalue of those arguments advanced by Tatar professors and journalists ofRussian citizenship for the "Greater-Turkish" solution of the race questions ofthe Russian Tatars and Turkestan, for these refugees from Baku and theCaucasus,paidbytheStamboulCommittee,journeyedhalfoverEuropeontheirpropagandatour.TheideaofTuranismhasbeentakenupwithsuchenthusiasmby themenof theYoungTurkishCommittee, andutilisedwith sucheffect forpurposesofpropagandaandtoformascientificbasisfortheirneo-Turkishaimsandaspirations, thatastreamof feeling in favourof theMagyarshasset in inTurkey,which has not failed to demolish to a still greater extent their alreadyweakenedenthusiasmfor theirGermanallies.And it isnotconfined topurelyintellectualandculturalspheres,buttakespracticalformbytheTurksdeclaring,astheyhavesooftendoneintheirpapersinalmostanti-GermanarticlesaboutTuranism, that what they really require in the way of European technique orEuropean help theymuch prefer to accept from their kinsmen theHungariansratherthanfromtheGermans.

TothegreatannoyanceofGermany,whowouldliketokeepherheavyhandlaid

on the allywhom she has so far guided and forwhom she pays, the practicalresults of the idea of Turanism are already noticeable in many branches ofeconomic and commercial life.TheHungarians are closely allied to theTurksnot only by blood but in general outlook, and form a marked contrast toGermany's cold and methodical calculation in worming her way into Turkishcommerciallife.AfterthewarwhenTurkeyisseekingforstimulation,itwillbeeasyenoughtomakeuseofHungarian influence to thedetrimentofGermany.Turanisticideashaveevenbeenbroughtintoplaytoestablishstillmorefirmlythe union between Turkey and her former enemyBulgaria, and the people ofTurkey are reminded that the Bulgars are not really Slavs but Slavic Fino-Tartars.

In proportion as theYoungTurks have brought racial politics to a fine art, sotheyhaveneglectedtheother,thereligiousside.Moreandmore,Islam,therockof Empire, has been sacrificed to the needs of race-politics. Those who lookupon Enver and Talaat and their consorts to-day as a freemasonry of time-serving opportunists rather than as good Mohammedans come far nearer thetruththanthosewhobelievetheideaspreadbyignorantglobe-trottersthateveryTurkisazealousfollowerofIslam.ItwasnotfornothingthatEnverPasha,theadventurerandrevolutionary,wentsofareveninexternalsastoarousethesterndisapprovalofawidecircleofhispeople.Withtruetime-servingadaptabilitytoallmodern progress-andwhowill blame him?—he even finally sacrificed theTurkishsoldier'shallowedtraditionalheadgear, thefez.Whilethekalpak,eveninitslacedvariety,couldstillbecalledakindoffield-greyorvariegatedorfuredition of the fez, the ragged-looking kabalak, called the "Enveriak" todistinguish it fromothervarieties, iscertainlyon thewaytowardsbeingarealsunhelmet.Stillmorerecently(summer1916)ablack-and-whitecapthatlooksabsolutelyEuropeanwasintroducedintotheOttomanNavy.Thesimple,devoutMohammedan folk were most unwilling to accept these changes which flewdirectinthefaceofalltradition.Theymaybeexternalsofbutlittleimportance,but inspiteof their insignificancetheyshowclearlytherulingspirit inofficialYoungTurkishspheres.

Thisisintheharmlessrealmoffashion,oratanyratemilitaryfashion,exactlythesamespiritashascaused theTurkishGovernment toundertakesince1916radicalchangesintheverymuchmoreimportantfieldofprivateandpubliclaw.SpecialcommissionsconsistingofeminentTurkishlawyershavebeenformedtocarry through this reformof lawand justice, and theyhavebeenhardatworkeversincetheirformation.WhatischaracteristicandmodernaboutthereformisthatthepreponderatingrôlehithertoplayedbytheSheriatLaw,foundedonthe

Koranandatanyratesemi-religious,istobedrasticallycurtailedinfavourofasystemofpurelyCivillaw,whichhasbeenstrungtogetherfromthemostvariedsources, even European law being brought under contribution, and the "CodeNapoléon,"whichhashithertoonlybeenusedinCommerciallaw.Thisofcourseleadstoagreatcurtailmentoftheactivityandinfluenceofthekadisandmuftis,the semi-religious judges, who have now to yield place to a more mundanesystem.Thefirst inexorableconsequenceofthereformwasthattheSheikh-ul-Islam,thehighestauthorityofIslaminthewholeOttomanEmpire,hadtogiveupalargepartofhispowers,andincidentallyofhisincome.

Thechangesmadeweresofar-reaching,andthespiritofthereformsomodern,that,inspiteoftheunshakablepowerofTalaat'strulydictatorialCabinetwhichgotitpassed,aconcessionhadtobemadetothepublicopinionrousedagainstthemeasure.Theformwaskeptasitwas,buttheSheikh-ul-Islam,HaïriEffendi,refused ostensibly to sign the decree and gave in his resignation. Not only,however,was an immediate successor found for him (MussaKiazimEffendi),whogavehis signatureandevenbegan toworkhard for the reform,but—andthisismostsignificantfortherelationshipoftheYoungTurkstowardsIslam—HaïriEffendi, the sameex-Sheikh-ul-Islamwhohadproclaimed theFetwa forthe"HolyWar,"gaveuphispostwithoutamurmur,andinthemostpeaceableway,andremainedoneoftheprincipalpillarsofthe"CommitteeforUnionandProgress."

Hisresignationwasnothingbutafarcetothrowdustintheeyesoftheall-too-trustinglowerclasses.Afterhehadsucceededbythismanœuvreingettingthereformofthelaw(whichasameasureofTurkificationwasofmoreconsequencetohimnowthanhisownsadlycurtailedjuristicfunctions)acceptedatapinchbytheconservativepopulationwhostillclungfirmlytoIslam,hewentontoplayhis great rôle in theprogrammeof jingoism.A "measureofTurkification"wecalledit,forthatiswhatitamountstopractically,likeeverythingelsethemenofthe"Ittihad"takeinhand.

Itriedtogivesomehintofthiswithinthelimitsofthecensorshipaslongagoasthesummerof1916inaseriesofarticlesIwrotefortheKölnischeZeitung.HereIshouldlikejusttoconfinemyselftoonepoint.Naturallythereformofthelawaimedprincipally at substituting thesenewly formedpureTurkishconceptionsfor the Arabian legal ideas that had been the only thing available hitherto.(EverythingthatthisvictoriousTurkeyhadabsorbedandworkedupinthewayofcivilisednotionswaseitherArabianorPersianorofEuropeanorigin.)Itsettowork now in the sphere of family law, which hitherto had been specially

sacrosanctandonlysubordinatetothereligiousSheria,andwheretraditionwasstrongest—notlikecommercialandmaritimelawwhichhadbeenquitemodernforalongtime.

Thereformwentsofar that iteven tried to introduceakindofcivilmarriage,whereas up till now all marriages, divorces, and everything to do withinheritancehadtakenplaceexclusivelybeforereligiousofficials.Imayjustaddthat these newest reforms give women no wider rights than they had before.Perhapsthismaybetakenasanindicationthattheyhavebeenconceivedfarlessfrom a social than from a political point of view. What induced the TurkishGovernment to introduce anything so entirely modern as civil marriage indefianceofage-oldcustomwasmorethanlikelythedesiretoputanendtonon-Turkish Ottomans contracting marriages and making arrangements aboutinheritance, etc., before their own privileged, ethnically independentorganisations, and so to deal the final death-blow to theArmenian andGreekPatriarchates.IfFamilyLawwasmodernisedinthisway,therewouldnotbethefaintest shadow of excuse left for the existence of these institutions whichenjoyedafar-reachingandinfluentialautonomy.

TheArmenianPatriarchategotshortshriftindeed.BydissolvingthePatriarchatein the Capital, breaking off all relations with the Armenian headquarters inEtzmiadjinandallowingonlyaverysmallremainderofPatriarchatetobesentupinJerusalemunderspecialStatesupervision,theTurks,asalogicalsequencetotheArmenianatrocities,simplydealtthedeath-blowinthesummerof1916tothisimportantsocialinstitution.

The Greek organisation, however, conducted by a more numerous and,outwardlyatany rate,betterprotectedpeople,offered farmore resistance,andcould not be simply wiped out with a stroke of the pen. A direct attempt tosuppress itwasmadeas early as1910,butbrokedownentirely in faceof thefirm attitude of the Greek Patriarch in Constantinople. Now theYoung Turksseemtohavecometo theconclusion that lessdrasticmethods,beginningonajuristicbasis,mayhaveabettereffect.

Wehavetakenthisoneexampleinordertogetatthewholeneo-Turkishmethodof procedure. It consists in pushing forward, if need be with greater delicacythanbeforeandontheround-aboutroadofrealmodernreforms,towardstheoneimmovablegoal: thecompleteTurkificationofTurkey.The reformof the law,which we have treated more exhaustively as an example of the first rank, istypicaloftheYoungTurkishnationaltendency.Naturallyithasitsuse,too,asameans of further throwing off the foreign political yoke. Through the

modernisingofthewholeTurkishlegalsystem,EuropeistobeshownthattheCapitulationscanbedispensedwith.

Thereformthrowsavividlight, too,ontheinnerrelationshipofthejingoistic,pure Pan-Turkish leaders of present-day Turkey towards religion. And it isperhaps not generally known that at all the deliberations of the "Committee"where thewill ofTalaat, theuncrownedkingofTurkey, is alonedecisive, theopinion of theGrandMaster of theTurkishFreemasons is always listened to,andthatheisoneofthemostwillingtoolsofthe"Ittihad."

No, themembers of the "Committee forUnion andProgress" have for a verylongtimesimplysnappedtheirfingersatIslamifithinderedthemmakinguseofand profiting from their own subjects. They know verywell how to retain atleast the outward semblanceof friendliness so long as Islamdoes not directlycrossthepathofPan-Turkism.ButtheArmenianatrocities,instigatedbyTalaat,haveaslittletodowithreligion,theyareasexclusivelytheresultofpurerace-fanaticism, professional jealousy, and greed, as the hostile, devil-may-careattitudetowardsGreece,andthemillionsofwell-to-doOttomanGreekswhoarethenext troublesomecompetitorsandsuitablevictimsofaggrandisement tobedisposed of after the Armenians, or as the terrible persecutions against thehighest class of Syrians and Arabs pictured in Djemal Pasha's famous paper.They are Turks, pure Turks with the most narrow-minded jingoistic point ofview,andnotbroad-mindedMohammedans,thatsitontheCommitteein"Nur-el-Osmanieh" in Stamboul andmake all thesewonderful political plans, frominternalreformsandmeasuresofgovernmentwhichattempttoadaptthemselvestoEuropeantechniquebysacrificingancienttraditions,tothehangman'stacticsemployedagainsttheirownsubjects.

TakethecaseoftheSyriansandtheArabs.The"Ittihad"clique,welteringinafog of Pan-Turkish illusion, were yet not without anxiety with regard to theintellectual and social superiority, to say nothing of the political sharpness, ofthesepeoplescomparedwiththeTurks.Theyhadyieldedentirelytotheirbrutalinstincts of extermination and suppression towards foreign races, and theGermans had made no attempt to curb them. They were political parvenussuddenlyfreedfromthecontrolofthecivilisedGreatPowers,andtheydidnotknowhowtomakeuseofthatfreedom.Perhapstheyfeltthemselvesalreadyontheedgeofanabyssandwereconstrainedtosnatchwhattheycouldwhiletherewasyettime.

Is it anywonder, then, that the Turks should throw over all trace of decencytowardstheSyriansandtheArabsoncetheyweresurethatthesepeoples,who

regarded their oppressors with most justifiable hatred, would refuse to haveanythingtodowiththe"HolyWar"oftheTuranianPseudo-Caliph?

ThelastremnantsofthetraditionalPan-IslamicesteemoftheirArabneighbours,alreadysadlyshatteredbytheYoungTurks'ruthlesspolicytowardsthemsince1909, were flung light-heartedly overboard by a Government that knew theyweretoblamefortheArabdefectionbutthoughttheyhadfoundasubstitutethatappealed more to their true Asiatic character in these Turanistic dreams ofexpansion andmeasures ofTurkification.Andwhile fanatical adventurers andmoney-grubbing deputies paid by the easily duped German Embassy werepreachingaperfectlyuseless"HolyWar"ontheconfinesoftheArabianterritoryof theTurkishEmpire, towards thepart occupiedby theEnglish,whileEnverPashacontinuedtovisittheholyplacesofIslam,wherehegotafrostyenoughreception, although the wonderfully worded communiqués on the subjectsucceededinblindingthepopulationtothetruestateofaffairs,"thehangman'spolicy" of Djemal Pasha, the Commander of the Fourth Osmanic Army, andNavalMinister,hadbeenforalongtimeinfullswingintheoldcivilisedlandofSyriaagainstthebestfamiliesamongtheMohammedanaswellastheChristianpopulation.ThewholecivilisedworldislayingupastoreofaccusationsofthiskindagainsttheTurks,anditistobehopedthatapublicsentencewillbepassedon thesegentlemenof the "Ittihad"on theconclusionof peaceby a combinedcourtofEuropeansandAmericans.

Here again the Young Turkish Government assumed the existence of awidespreadconspiracyandaSyrianandArabianSeparatistmovement towardsautonomy,whichwastofreetheselandsfromTurkishruleandtobeestablishedunderAnglo-French protection.At the time of theArmenian persecutions theCommitteehadmanagedmostcunninglytoturnthewholeArmenianquestiontotheir own account by publishing false official reports by the thousand,accompanied by any number of photographs of "bands of conspirators," theauthenticityofwhichneverhasbeenprovedandneverwillbe;indeedonecanonlywonderwheretheTurkishGovernmentgotthemfrom.

InthiscaseagaintherewasnolackofofficialprintedcommentariesonDjemalPasha's "hanging list," and any reader of theJournal deBeyrouth inwar-timewouldhavehadnodifficultyincompilingit.It iscertainlynotmyintentiontoquestiontheexistenceofaSeparatistmovementtowardsautonomyinSyria,butitwasasporadictendencyonly,andoughtnevertohavebeenmadetheexcuseforthewholesaleexecutionofhighlyrespectedandwell-borncitizenswhohadnothingwhatevertodowiththematter.

In the Young Turkish memorandum on this act of spying and bloodshed, thepassages most underlined and printed in the boldest characters, the passageswhich, according to official intention, were to justify these frightful reprisals,form themost terrible indictment everbrought againstTurkishdespotism, andprovidethemostcompleteproofofthetruthofalltheaccusationsmadeagainsttheTurkishGovernmentbytheill-treatedandoppressedSyriansandArabians.OnanyonewhodoesnotreadwithYoungTurkisheyesthememorandummakesdirectlytheoppositeimpressiontowhatwasintended.AndeveniftheSeparatistmovement had existed in any greater extent—which was quite out of thequestion owing to lack of weapons, conflicting interests, the contrasts in thepeople themselves, some of them Mohammedan, some Christian, somesectarian, and the impossibility of any kind of organisation under the sterndisciplineofTurkishrule—theTurkswouldhavemostrichlydeserveditanditwouldhavebeenjustifiedbythethousandsofbrutalitiesinflictedbytheOldandYoung Turkish régimes on the highly civilised Arabian people and theirindustriousandcommercialneighbourstheSyrians,whohadalwaysbeenmuchinfluenced by European culture. Anyone who has once watched how theCommitteeinStamboulmadeapretextofeventsonthebordersofCaucasiatoexterminateawholepeople,includingwomenandchildren,eveninWesternandCentralAnatoliaand theCapital, canno longerbe in the leastdoubtas to themethodsemployedbyDjemalPasha,the"hangman"ofSyriansandArabs,how

grosslyhemusthaveexaggeratedandmisstatedthefactstofindenoughvictimssothathecouldlookonforayearandahalfwithacigarinhismouth—ashehimself boasted—while the flower of Syrian and Arabian youth, the élite ofsociety,andtheagedheadsofthebestfamiliesinthelandwereeitherhangedorshot.

IshouldliketotaketheopportunityhereofgivingashortdescriptionofDjemalPasha,thismanwho,accordingtoTurkishideas,isdestinedstilltoplayagreatpart inTurkish politics. I should also like to clear up amisunderstanding thatseems to exist in civilised Europe with regard to him. There is still an ideaabroadthatDjemalPashaispro-French,thismanwhosetoutonhisadventureagainst theSuezCanalas "Vice-kingofEgypt,"and,afterhehadbeenbeatenthere,settledinSyriaasdictatorwithunlimitedpower—evenopenlydefyingtheCentral Government in Constantinople when he felt piqued—so that ascommanderoftheFourthArmyhecouldsupporttheattemptagainstEgypt,butprincipally to satisfy his murderous instincts. Anyone who has seen this manclose at hand (whom aGerman journalist belonging to theBerliner TageblattwiththemostfulsomeflatteryoncecalledoneofthehandsomestmeninTurkey)knowsenough.Small,thickset,abeardandapairofcunningcrueleyesarethemostprominentfeaturesof thisfacefromwhicheveryonemust turnindisgustwhoremembersthe"hangman's"partplayedbytheman.

ItisextraordinarythatheshouldstillpassasPro-Frenchinmanyquarters,andperhapsitispartofhisslynesstopreservethisrôle.DjemalisnotPro-French;heisonlythemostcalculatingofalltheleadingmenofTurkey.Hecertainlyhadpro-Frenchtendencies,inthecurrentmeaningoftheword,beforethewar;thatis, he thought the interests of his country would be best safeguarded againstGermanmachinationsforwinningovertheYoungTurksbytakingadvantageofTurkey's traditional friendship for France. He was also against Turkey'sparticipationinthewaronthesideoftheCentralPowers,andhewasfuriouslyangry when the fleet which was supposed to be under his control appearedagainsthiswillunder thedirectionof theGermanAdmiralof theGoebenandBreslauintheBlackSea.

Butwhenthewaractuallybrokeout,heverysoonaccommodatedhimselftothenewstateofaffairs.Insteadofhandinginhisresignation,headdedtohisnavalduties the chief command of the army operating against Egypt, for Djemal'schief characteristics were characterless opportunism and inordinate ambition.Suitinghisopinions to thefactsof thecase,hewasnot longinadvertisinghisPro-FrenchfeelingsagainsothathemightbepopularwiththepeopleofSyria.

That of course did not prevent him later on from carrying out his "hangman'spolicy" against theSyrianswhowereboundby somany social ties toFrance.From that it is not difficult to judge just howgenuine his Pro-French feelingsare!

The only genuine thing in his whole attitude is his admitted deep hatred ofGermany and his personal animosity towards the pro-German Enver Pasha,arising partly from jealousy, partly from a feeling of being slighted, and onlyconcealedforappearance'sake.DuringthewarhehasoftenenoughmadeveryplainutterancesofhishatredofGermany,anditwouldcertainlybetokenillforGermanpoliticsinTurkeyifDjemalPashasucceededinobtainingamoreactiverôleintheCentralGovernment.SofartheMinisterforWarhasmanagedtoholdhimatarm'slength,andDjemalhasnodoubtfounditofadvantagetowaitforalater moment, and content himself for the present with his actual powerfulposition.

From his own repeated anti-German speeches it has, however, been only tooeasytogleanthathisanti-GermanopinionsandactionsarenottheresultofhisbeingPro-French,butofhisbeingajingoisticPan-Turk.HemaysimulatePro-FrenchfeelingsagainandplaythemasthetrumpcardinhissurelyapproachingdecisivestrugglewithEnverPasha,whenEnver'ssystemhasfailed;Djemalwillnodoubtmaintainthenthatheforesaweverything,andthathehasalwaysbeenforFranceandtheEntente.Everyonewhoknowshischaracterisatanyratesureofone thing, and that is that hewill stop at nothing, even a rising against theCentralGovernment,ifhisambitiousopportunismshouldsodictateit.Itistobehoped,however,thatpublicopinionamongtheEntentewillnotbedeceivedastohistruecharacter,andwillrecognisethatheisnothingmorethanajingoistic,greedy, raging Young Turkish fanatic and one of themost cunning at that. Itwouldreallybedoing toomuchhonour toamanwithamurderer's faceandamurderer'sinstincttocredithimwithhonestsympathiesforFrance.

Djemal'sworkisnearingfruition.Hiscruelexecutions,hiscynicalbreakingofpromisesinSyria,haveatanyratecontributed,alongwithotherpoliticallymoreimportant tendencies which have been cleverly utilised by England for theestablishmentofanArabianCaliphate,towardsthedecisiveresultthattheEmirofMeccahasrevoltedagainst theTurks.TheEmir'ssonandhisgreatArabiansuitehadtopayaprolongedvisittoDjemalatonetime,anditisevidentthatthebrutal execution of Arabian notables that he saw then directly influenced hisfather'sattitude.Themovementisboundtospread,andslowlyandsurelyitwillrollon till itends in thefullandperfectseparationfromTurkeyofallArabic-

speaking districts as far as Northern Syria and the borders of SouthernKurdistan.Theso-calledSeparatistmovement, thatDjemal tried todrown inaseaofbloodbeforeitwaswellbegun,isnowanactualfact.

In Egypt England has been seeing for quite a long time the practical andfavourableresultsofhersuccessinfoundingtheArabianCaliphate.Shehasnowgainedpractically absolute security for her rule on theNile, and shehas evenbeenabletoremovetroopsandartilleryfromtheSuezCanaltootherfronts.TheGermandreamofanoffensiveagainstEgyptvanished longago;noweven thelast trace of a German-Turkish attempt against the Canal has ceased, and theEnglish troopshavemovedthesceneof theiroperations toSouthernPalestine.While I write these lines, there comes from the other side, from ArabianMesopotamia, the news of the recapture of Kut-el-Amara by British troops. Ishouldnot liketoprophesywhatmoralorpoliticalresults thefallofBaghdad,Medina,andJerusalemwillhave forTurkish rule;possibly,nayprobably, ironnecessity,theimpossibilityofreturning,theconstraintimposedbytheirGermanAllies—forTurkeyisfullyunderGermanmilitaryrule—mayweakenthedirectresultsofevensuchcatastrophesasthese.Buttheheartswhichbeatto-daywithhigh hopes for the freedom of Great Arabia and autonomy for Syria underFranco-Englishprotectionwillflamewithnewrapture,andintheTurkishcapitalallgradesofsocietywillrealisethatOsmanicpowerisonthedecline.

MeantimeDjemalPasha isstilloccupied inSyriaraking in thepropertyof themurdered citizens and dividing it up among his minions, the least very oftenbeinggivenovertocommissionsconsistingofindividualsofextremelydoubtfulreputation.Whenhe is not thus busily engaged, he spends his time round thegreentableplayingpoker.ItistobeardentlyhopedthateventhisgreatorganiserwillsoonbeattheendofhistetherinSyriaandhavetoleavethecountrywherehehaskinged in royally for twoyears.Then,perhaps, themomentmaycomewhenthingsaregoingsobadlyforthewholeofTurkeythatDjemalwillatlasthavetheopportunity,inspiteofthefailureofhispolicyinSyria,ofmeasuringhismilitarystrengthagainsthishatedenemyEnverinStamboul.ThatwouldbethebeginningofthelaststagebeforethecompletecollapseofTurkey.

CHAPTERIX

Anti-war and pro-Entente feelings among the Turks—Turkish pessimism

about the war—How would Abdul-Hamid have acted?—A war ofprevention against Russia—Russia and a neutral Turkey—Theagreement about the Dardanelles—A peaceful solution scorned—AllegedcriminalintentionsonthepartoftheEntente;theexampleofGreece and Salonika—To be or not to be?—German influence—Turkeystakesonthewrongcard—Theresults.

THERE hasbeenno lackof cross currentsagainst thewar policyof theYoungTurkishGovernment.EversincetheentryofTurkeyintothewar,therehasbeenadeeply rootedandunshakeableconvictionamongallkindsandconditionsofmen,eveninthecirclesofthePashasandtheCourt—thepeopleofTurkeytaketoolittleinterestinpoliticsandarecomposedoffartooheterogeneouselementsfor there to be anything in the nature of what we call "public opinion"—thatTurkey'salliancewiththeCentralPowerswasacompletemistakeandthatitcanleadtonogood.ItisofcourseknownthatsincetheoutbreakofwarTurkeyhasnotonlybeenundermartiallawandinastateofsiege,butthatundertherégimeof a brutalmilitary dictatorship,with its systemof espionage, personal libertyhasbeenpracticallynullandvoid.Anyexpressionsofdisapproval,therefore,oragitationsagainst the"Committee"arenaturallyonlypossible inmost intimatecircles,andthatwithallsecrecy.Littleornothingofthetrueopinionsofthisorthatpersonageevertricklesthroughtopublicity,andsoitisutterlyimpossible,exceptfromquitedetachedsymptoms,togetanyproperideaofwhataretherealthoughtsandfeelingsofthoseculturedTurkswhodonotbelongtothe"Ittihad"andhavenopartintheirsystemofpillageandaggrandisement.

Inspiteofthelimitedinformationavailableitwillbeworthwhile,Ithink,togointo these counter-streams a little more fully. In pretty well every grade ofsocietyandamongallnationalitiesinTurkey,thereistheconvictionthattheoldSultanAbdul-Hamidwouldneverhavecommittedthefatefulerrorofdeclaringwaragainst theEntenteandbindinghimselfhandand foot toGermany. In thecase of Turkey's remaining neutral, the Entente had formally promised herterritorial integrity; Turkey refused. She felt herself driven to a war ofprevention, principally through fear of the power of Russia. The statementsmadeby thosewhoagreedwithEnverandPashaandpushed for thewar, thatTurkey in the case of non-participation would be completely thrown on themercy of a victorious Russia and that Russia's true aim in the war was theDardanelles andConstantinople, haveneverbeen authenticated.There are stillTurks,anti-RussianTurks,whoevenadmitted thispossibility,andyetbelievedthe word of the Entente—at any rate of theWestern Powers—and trusted to

England'sthrowingherweightintothescaleagainstRussia'splansofconquest,ifTurkeyremainedneutral.TheysawandstillseenonecessityfortheTurkishGovernmenttohaveenteredonawarofprevention.

Russia's aim was the Straits and Constantinople—well and good. But Russiawould by hook or by crook have had to come to a friendly agreement withTurkey and could not have simply broken a definite promise given by thecombinedEntente toTurkey. Itwould have been quite different ifRussia haddemanded Constantinople from the Western Powers as the price of herparticipationinthewaragainstGermany;then,butonlythen,theEntentewouldperhapshavehad tocome toanagreement satisfyingRussiaon thishead.ButRussia had quite other ideas, and long beforeTurkey's entry into thewar andwithout any prospects of getting Constantinople, she flung her whole weightagainstGermanyandAustriarightatthebeginningofthewar.

The treaty with regard to Constantinople between the Western Powers andRussiawas not signed till sixmonths afterTurkey declaredwar, andEnglandwould certainly never have allowedRussia to encroach on a really neutral orsympatheticallyneutralTurkey.Then,butonlythen,theremighthavebeensomefoundation in fact for the ideas one heard advanced by German-Turkishillusionists who would still have liked to believe that there was continualdissension within the Entente, even long after the official notification of theAnglo-Russian treaty with regard to the Straits, and by some even after thespeechoftheRussianministerTrepoff,thattheEnglishoccupationoftheislandsattheentrancetotheDardanelles,whichcouldbemadeintoasecondGibraltar,aimed chiefly at blocking the Straits and preventing Russia from gainingundisturbedpossessionofConstantinople.SpeciallyoptimisticpeopleevenlooktothatchimericalantagonismbetweenRussiaandEnglandfor thesalvationofTurkey,shouldGermanybefinallyovercome.

Whethershelikeditornot, then,Russiawouldhavehadtocometoafriendlyagreement with Turkey, had the latter remained neutral, in order to gain thedesiredgoal.Andthisgoalwouldhavebeennecessarilylimited,bythefactofTurkey'snon-entryontheenemyside,rathertothestoppageofGermanBerlin-Baghdad efforts at expansion, the prevention of any strangulation of theenormousRussiantradeinthesouthanddesperateoppositiontoanyattempttokeepRussiaawayfromtheMediterranean,thantoanattackonTurkeyandhervital interests.Andwhoknowswhetherunder such an agreement, bound as itwas to give Russia certain liberties and privileges in the Straits, Turkey alsomightnothavegotmuchinexchange,atanyrateonfinanciallines,andmight

notalsohaveobtainedpermissionatlasttodevelopArmeniabythatwest-to-eastrailwaysolongdesiredbytheTurksandsostronglyopposedbytheRussians?

Would the terrible bloodshed in the present war, the complete economicexhaustionentailed,andtheriskofadoubtfuloutcomeofthefightforexistenceornon-existencenothavebeenfaroutweighedbytheprospect,inthecaseofafriendly agreementwithRussia, of seeing theorthodox cross againplantedontheHagiaSophia, an international régime established inConstantinople—withcertainRussianprivilegesandthesatisfactionofcertainRussianmoraldemands,itistrue,butotherwisenothingtodisturbTurkishlifeinStamboulorinanywayprejudiceTurkishprestige?EventheprospectofhavingtorazethefortsontheStraitstothegroundinordertogivefreeaccessfromtheMediterranean,orthenecessity of having to inaugurate a more humane and beneficent policy inArmenia, perhaps with European supervision over the carrying out of thereformswouldsurelyhavebeenpreferabletothepresentstateofaffairs.Thesewould all have ensured for Turkey a long period of peace, capitalwealth andintellectualandsocialimprovement,perhapsattheexpenseofamomentaryhurttoherfeelings,—butthesehadbeenfarmoreseverelywoundedalready,as,forexample,when shehad to lookonhelplesslywhilebit afterbit ofherEmpirewas torn fromher. Itwouldhavebeen impossible forRussia togetmore thanthis from Turkey had she remained neutral. Her sovereignty and territorialintegritywouldhavebeencompletelyguaranteed.

ButTurkeythoughtshehadtostakeall,herwholeexistence,ononecard,andshestakedon thewrongone,as is recognisednowby thousandsof intelligentTurks.BelieversinthewarpolicyfollowedbytheGovernmentmakethemselveshoarse maintaining that if Russia had not gradually overpowered a neutralTurkey towinConstantinople completely, at any rate the Ententewould havefinallyforcedhertojointheirside;ineithercase,therefore,warwasinevitable.They point to Salonika, and, in face of all reason, maintain that the EntentePowers would in all probability have treated Turkey exactly as they treatedGreece. They forget that their geographical position is entirely different, andwouldhaveaverydifferenteffectonmilitarytactics.IfTurkeyhadremainedasympatheticneutral,sowouldBulgaria;orelsethewholeoftheBalkanStates,fromRoumaniaandBulgariatoGreece,wouldhavejoinedtheEntenterightatthebeginning.IneithercasetherewouldhavebeennonecessityatallforTurkeyto join, for what military obligations had she to fulfil? The Entente wouldcertainly never have driven Turkey to fight, simply to get the benefit of theTurkishsoldiersavailable;thereisnotruthwhateverinthestatementscirculatedaboutunscrupulouscompulsionwiththisendinview.

ThebenefitfortheEntenteofTurkey'ssympatheticneutralitywouldhavebeensoenormousthattheywouldmostcertainlyhavebeencontentwiththat.NeitherinGermanynorinTurkeyisthereanydoubtwhateverinmilitarycirclesthatitwas Turkey's entry into the war on the German side and her blocking of theStraits, and so preventing Russia from obtaining supplies of ammunition andother war material, that has so far saved the Central Powers. Had Turkeyremained neutral, constant streams of ammunition would have poured intoRussia,Mackensen'soffensivewouldhavehadnoprospectatallofsuccess,andGermanywouldhavebeenbeatentoallintentsandpurposesin1915.TheTurksdonotscrupletoletGermanyfeelthatthisissooneverysuitableorunsuitableoccasion.

The Entente would certainly never have moved a finger to disturb Turkey'ssympathetic neutrality and drive her into war. There would have beentremendousmaterialadvantagesforTurkeyinsuchaneutrality.Insteadofbeingimpoverished,bankrupt,utterlyexhausted,whollylost,asshenowis,shemighthave been far richer than Roumania has ever been. There is one thing quitecertain, and that is that Abdul-Hamid would never have let this goldenopportunity slide of having a stream ofmoney pouring in on himself and hiscountry.AndcertainlyTurkeywouldnothavelackedmoraljustificationhadshesoacted.

TheseconsiderationsIhaveputforwardratherfromtheTurkishanti-warpointofviewthanfrommyown.Theyareopinionsexpressedhundredsof timesbythoroughlypatrioticandintelligentTurkswhosawhowtheevermoreintensivepropagandaworkoftheGermanAmbassadors,firstMarschallvonBieberstein,then Freiherr vonWangenheim, graduallywormed itsway through oppositionandprejudice,howtheGermanMilitaryMissioninConstantinopletriedtoturnthe Russian hatred of Germany against Turkey instead, how, finally, thoseoptimists and jingoists on the "Committee,"who knew as little about the trueposition of affairs throughout the world as they did of the intentions of theEntenteorthemeansattheirowndisposal,proceededtoguidetheshipofStatemoreandmoreintoGermanwaters,withoutanyreferencetotheirownpeople,in return for promises won from Germany of personal power and materialadvantage.Thesewere thosedaysof excitement and smoulderingunrestwhenAdmiral von Souchon of theGoeben and theBreslau, with complete lack ofdiscipline towards his superior, Djemal Pasha, arranged with the GermanGovernmenttopulloffacoupwithoutDjemal'sknowledge—chieflybecausehewas itching to possess the "Pour le Mérite" order—and sailed off with theTurkish Fleet to the Black Sea. (I have my information from the former

AmericanAmbassador inConstantinople,Mr.Morgenthau,whowasfuriousatthewholeaffair.)[2]

ThesewerethedayswhenEnverandTalaatthrewalltheircardsonthetableinthatfatefulgameofToBeorNottoBe,andbroughtontheircountry,scarcelyyet recovered from thebloodshedof theBalkanWar, anewandmore terriblesacrificeofhermanhoodinawarextendingoverfour,andlaterfive,fronts.ThewholeresultofthisstruggleforexistencedependedonfinalvictoryforGermanyandthatwasbecomingdailymoredoubtful;infact,OttomantroopshadatlasttobedispatchedbyGermanorderstotheBalkansandGalicia.

Turkey had, too, to submit to the ignominy of making friends with her veryrecentenemyandpreventingimminentmilitarycatastrophebyhandingoverthecountryalongtheMaritza,rightuptothegatesofthesacredcityofAdrianople,to the Bulgarians. She had to look on while Armenia was conquered by theRussians; while Mesopotamia and Syria, in spite of initial successes, werethreatenedbyEnglishtroops;whilethe"HolyWar"cametoanuntimelyend,themostconsecratedofall Islam'sholyplaces,Mecca,fellawayfromTurkey, theArabs revolted and the Caliphate was shattered; while her population in theInterior endured the most terrible sufferings, and economic and financial lifetendedslowlyandsurelytowardscompleteandhopelesscollapse.

Notevenyet,indeednowlessthanever,isthereanygeneralacceptanceamongthepeopleoftheviewsheldbyEnverandTalaatandtheiracolytes.Notyetdointelligent, independent men believe the fine phrases of these minions of the"Committee,"whoareheld in leading stringsby thesedictatorspartly throughgiftsofmoney,office,ortheopportunitytoenrichthemselvesattheexpenseofthe people, partly through fear of the consequences should they revolt, or ofthose domestic servants who call themselves deputies and senators. On thecontrary, it is no exaggeration to say that three-quarters of the intelligent out-and-out Turkish male population—quite apart from Levantines, Greeks, andArmenians—and practically the entire female population, who are moresensitive about the war and whose hearts are touched more deeply by itsimmeasurablesuffering,haveeitherremainedperfectlyfriendlytoEnglandandFranceorhavebecomesoagainthroughterriblewantandsuffering.

TheconsciousnessthatTurkeyhascommittedanunboundedfollyhaslongagobeen borne in upon wide circles of Turks in spite of falsified reports and astringentcensorship.Therewouldbenoriskatallintakingonawagerthatinprivate conversation with ten separate Turks, in no way connected with the"Committee,"nineofthemwilladmit,assoonastheyknowthereisnochance

ofbetrayal,thattheydonotbelieveTurkeywillwin,andthat,withtheexceptionofthemuch-fearedRussia,theystillfeelasfriendlyasevertowardstheirpresentenemies."Quoiqu'ilarrive,c'esttoujourslapauvreTurquiequivapayerlepotcassé." ("Whatever happens, it's always poor Turkey that'll have to pay thepiper")and"Nousavons fait unegrandegaffe" ("Wehave put our foot in it")werethekindofremarksmadeineverysinglepoliticaldiscussionIeverhadinConstantinople—evenwithTurks.

Somuchforthemen,whojudgewiththeirreason.Whatofthewomen?TheonesighofculturedTurkishwomen,uptothehighestintheland—whoshouldhaveagoldenbookwrittenintheirhonourfortheirreadinesstohelp,theirsympathy,andhumanityinthiswar—is:"WhenshallwegetridoftheBoches;whenwillourgoodoldfriends,theEnglishandtheFrench,comebacktous?"Niceresults,these, of German propaganda, German culture, German brotherhood of arms!WhatasadandshamefulstoryforaGermantohavetotell!Naturallythedrasticsystem of the military dictatorship precludes the public expression of suchfeelings,butoneneedsonlyhaveseenwithone'sowneyes the lookssooftencastbyevenrealTurkishculturedsocietyattheGermanFeldgrauenwhooftenmarched in close formation through the streets of Constantinople—for a timetheyusedtosingGermansoldiers'songs,untilthatwasprohibitedattheexpresswishoftheTurkishGovernmenttoseehowthelandlies.

Therewasamarkedandill-concealedcontrastinthecoldnessshowntoImperialGerman officers and the lavish affection showered on the Austrians andHungarianswhoused for a timeoften topass throughConstantinopleon theirwaytotheDardanellesorAnatoliawiththeirheavyartillery.TheywereagreatdealmoresociablethantheirGermancomrades,andonecouldnotfail tonotethe significance of such freely voiced comments as "N'est-ce pas, ils sontcharmants lesAutrichiens?" ("TheAustriansare delightful, aren't they?")ThesightofusGermans,especiallytheveryconsiderableGermangarrisonstationedfor a time in the Capital, awakened in the Turks, however much they mightrecognise themilitary necessity for their presence, remarkable ideas about thefuture"GermanEgyptisingofTurkey,"andeveryoneblamedEnverPashaasthemanresponsibleforGermany'spenetratingthusfar.

ATurkinahighofficialposition—whosenameIshallnaturallynotdivulge—evenwent so far as to say tome in an intimate personal discussionwewerehaving one day between friend and friend: "We Turks are and will alwaysremain, in spite of the war, pro-English and pro-French so far as social andintellectuallifeisconcerned;anditwouldneedtwentyyearsofhardpropaganda

workonGermany'spart,quitedifferentfromherpresentmethods,tochangethispointofview,ifitevercouldbechanged."Hewentontorecallthetimeofthepro-Englishera,andtheenthusiasticdemonstrationsthathadtakenplaceattheSirkedji station when the horses were taken out of the English Ambassador'scarriage. "I was there myself," he said, "and believe me, apart from the war,heaps of us are at bottom still of the same mind." And, growing heated, headded: "What is your Embassy, tell me? Is it really an Embassy? Norepresentation,nointimateintercoursewithus,oratbestonlywithyourpoliticalagents,nopersonalcharm,nothingbutbrusquedemandsandamosthumiliatingeconomic neglect of the Turkish population. The English and the French andeventheRussianswouldtreatusquitedifferently."

Thismanisnoexceptioninhisideas.HeisathoroughYoungTurk,whoholdswith the"Committee" through thickand thinandhas to thank themforaverypleasant billet, but he is, besides, a youngish man with a modern Europeaneducation.Heisthoroughlyimbued,asareallofhiskind,withmodernFrenchideas,andeventhewarcannotalterthat.ItonlyneedsthefinalcollapseoftheCentralPowers,andthenthebreak-downofthewholepoliticalsystemunderthedirectionofthesejingoisticemancipationistswhothinktheycangetonwithoutEurope,andtheTurkswillall,everyoneofthem,beasthoroughlypro-Englishandpro-FrenchastheyeverwereandwillhateGermanyandeverythingGermanwithfanaticalhatred.

Towards Hungary, their blood relation, they will probably retain somefriendliness in memory of their alliance in the Great War and the cause ofTuranism;theywillbequiteindifferent toBulgaria; theywill losetheirfearofRussia and come to an agreementwith her; but after thewar therewill be nobridging the gulf between Turkey and Germany, and if Germany, on theconclusion of peace, is allotted any part of smaller Turkey by the rest of theEuropeanPowers, shewillhave to reckon formanya longyearwith theverychillyrelationsthatwillexistbetweenGermansandTurks.Eventhosewhowentheart and soul into the war as a war of defence against Turkey's powerfulnorthernneighbourforeseethatwhenpeaceisdeclaredTurkeywill,sofarasherenormous indebtedness toGermanypermits, rather throwherselfon themercyofEnglandandFranceandAmericaandbegfromthemthecapitalnecessaryforreconstruction and for freeing them from the hated German influence—anaversionwhichisalreadyevidentinhundredsofdifferentways.EvenGermanyis beginning to recognise the existence of this tendency, which, hand in handwith the jingoistic attempt to turkify commercial life, bodes ill for GermanactivityinTurkeyafterthewar.

Theseare theopinionsof theeducatedclasses.Thepeople,however, thepoor,ignorantTurkishpeople,werereadylongagotoacceptanysolutionthatwouldliberate them from their terrible sufferings. The Turkish people have not themental calibre of ourGerman peoplewhichwill perhapsmake them fight on,justforthesakeofleavingnostoneunturned,evenafteritisquiteevidentthattheyaretendingtowardsfinalcollapse.Thestakeforwhichtheyarefightingisnotsovaluabletothisagriculturalpeople,whowithaninferiorandextortionatesetofrulershaveneverbeenablereallytoenjoylife,asitistothepopulationofamodernindustrialcountrylikeGermany,whereeverypoliticalgainorlosshasadirectresultontheirownpockets;defeatwillcertainlyhavemuchlesseffecton theOriental.Onecan therefore speakwithconfidenceofageneral longingfor the end of the war at any price. The Turks have had quite enough ofsuffering, and there are limits towhat even thesewilling andmutely resignedvictimscanbear.

NeverthelessitisquitecertainthatthecourageousTurkishsoldier,inobediencetoirondisciplineandinunconditionalsubmissiontohisPadishah,willcontinuetodefendhislostcausetotheverylastdropofhisblood,withanunquestioningresignationthatabsolutelyprecludestheideaofanydefectionwithinthearmy.Onlyapurelypoliticalmilitaryrevolution,originatingwiththebetter-informedofficers, who now really no longer believe in ultimate victory, is within theboundsofpossibility.

ButthemostconfidingenduranceonthepartoftheTurkishsoldier,evenwhenthemilitarycausehaslongbeenlost,willnothinderthissamesoldier,whenheisoncemoreback inhisownhomeasapeasant, fromrealising thatEuropeaninfluenceandEuropeancivilisationareaverycompetentprotectionagainstthemiserablyretrogressiveTurkishrule,andthathehasdrawnmorematerialprofitfromthatsingleexampleofEuropeanactivity,theBaghdadRailway,thanfromall Turkish official reforms put together, and so would willingly see Europeexercising a powerful control in his country. He would accept the militarycollapseofhiscountrywhichhehadsolongandsobravelydefended,andthedramaticpoliticalchanges,withaquietlysubmissive"Inshallah."Andalthough,deprivedasheisofeverykindofinformationandwithouteventhebeginningsofknowledge,heperhapsstillbelieves inultimatevictoryfor thePadishah,hewillprobablyheaveasighofreliefwhentheunexpectedcollapsecomes,andhewillnottakelongtounderstandwhatitmeansforhim:freedomandhappinessandanundreamt-ofmaterialwell-beingunderstrongEuropeaninfluence.

Thelatesuccessortothethrone,PrinceYussufIzzedinEffendi,wasthehighest

of those in high authority who openly represented the pessimistic anti-wartendency. It was for this that he was murdered or perhaps made to commitsuicidebyEnverPasha.Thewholetruthaboutthistragicoccurrencecanonlybesiftedtothebottomwhenthedictatorsofthe"Committee"arenolongerintheirplaceandlightfinallybreaksonTurkey.Whetheritwasmurderorsuicide,thedeath of the successor to the throne is one of the most dramatic scandals ofTurkishhistory,andEnverPashahashisblood,aswellasthebloodofsomanyothers, on his head. As far as is possible during the war, Europe has alreadycollected all the information available on the subject. I myself was inConstantinoplewhen the tragic occurrence took place, and I can speak so farfrompersonalexperience.

In connection with this sensational event, the world has already heard howYussufIzzedinwaskeptforyearsunderthedespoticAbdul-Hamidshutofffromtheworldasasemi-prisonerinhisbeautifulKonakofSindjirlikuyu,justoutsidethegatesofConstantinople,wherehebecameasuffererfromacuteneurasthenia.Inrecentyears,however,hishealthhadimprovedand,althoughlatentlyhostileto themen of the "Committee" and their politics, he had comemore into theforeground,especiallyafter the recaptureofAdrianople,whichhevisitedwithfull pomp and ceremony as Crown Prince of the Turkish Empire. While theGallipolicampaignwasgoingon,heevenmadeajourneytotheFronttogreethis soldiers.Earlyonemorninghewas found lyingdead inapoolofhisownblood with a severed artery. He had received his death wound in exactly thesameplaceandexactlythesamewayashisfather,SultanAbdul-Aziz,whofellavictim toAbdul-Hamid's hatred. The political significance ofYussuf Izzedin'sdeathisperfectlyclear.WhatwewanttodonowistodemonstrateEnverPasha'smoralculpabilityinthematterandtoshowhowhewasmoreorlessdirectlythemurdererofthisquiet,cultured,highlyrespected,andthoroughlypatrioticman,whowassomedaytoascendthethroneofTurkey.

So much at least seems to be clear, that Prince Izzedin, who was naturallyinterestedinretaininghisaccessiontothethroneundisturbedandwhoinspiteofhisneurastheniawasmanenoughtostandupforhisownrights,foresawruinforhis kingdom by Turkey's entry into thewar on the side of Germany. Hewasmorefar-seeingthanthecarelessadventurersandnarrow-mindedfanaticsofthe"Committee" and recognised that the letting-go of the treasured Pan-Islamictraditions of old Sultan Hamid was a gravemistake which would lead to thealienationoftheArabs,andwhichendangeredboththeOttomanCaliphateandOttomanruleinthesouthernpartsoftheEmpire.HecouldnotconsolehimselffortheevacuationoftheterritoryroundAdrianople,rightuptothegatesofthe

sacredcity,whichmeantmuchtohimasthesymbolofnationalenlightenment.He had a real personal dislike for upstarts of the stamp of Enver and Talaat.Apartfromthesedifferencesofopinionandpersonalsympathiesandantipathies,deep-rooted though these undoubtedly were, Yussuf Izzedin was and alwayswould have been a thorough "Osmanli" with fiery nationalistic feelings, whowishedfornothingbutthegoodofhisEmpireandhiscountry.Andyethewasgotridof.

It would be difficult for the present Turkish Government to prove that thesuccessor to the throne, apart from his feeling of sorrow that his country hadbeen drawn into the war, apart from his readiness to conclude an honourableseparate peace at the first possible moment, did anything which might havecaused them trouble.The officials of theTurkishGovernment had themselvesmaderepeatedeffortsthroughtheirSwissAmbassadorstofindouthowthelandlay,andwhethertheycouldconcludeaseparatepeace;sotheyhadnogroundsatall for reproaching PrinceYussuf Izzedin,who, as a leader of thismovement,naturally letnoopportunityof thiskindslide.Buthewasfar tooclevernot toknow that any attempt in this direction behind the backs of the presentGovernmentwouldhavenochanceofsuccesssolongasTurkeywasheldundertheironfistofGermany.

Perhaps the "Committee" had something to fear for the future,when the timecameforthereversesnowregardedasinevitable.Yussufwouldthenmakeuseof his powerful influence in many circles—notably among the discontentedretiredmilitarymen—todemand redress from the"Committee."Enver, true tohis unscrupulous character, quite hardened to the sight of Turkish blood, anddetermined to stick to his post at all costs—for it was not only lucrative, butflattering to his vanity—was not the man to stick at trifles with a poorneurasthenic,whounder thepresentmilitarydictatorshipwasabsolutelyathismercy.Hethereforedecidedoncold-bloodedmurder.

The Prince, well aware of the danger that threatened him, tried at the lastmomenttoleavethecountryandfleetosafety.Hehadeventakenhisticket,andintendedtostartbythemiddayBalkantrainnextdaytotraveltoSwitzerlandviaGermany.Hewasforbiddentotravel.Whether,feelinghimselfthusdrivenintoacornerandnothingbutdeathatthehandofEnver'screaturesstaringhimintheface, he killed himself in desperation, or whether, as thousands of people inConstantinople firmly believe, and as would seem to be corroborated by thegenerally accepted, although of course not actually verified, tale of a bloodyencounter between themurderers and the Prince's bodyguard,with victims on

bothsides,hewasactuallyassassinated,isnotyetsettled,anditisreallynotamatterofvastimportance.

Onethingisclear,andthat is thatIzzedinEffendididnotpaywithhis lifeforanyilloyalact,butmerelyforhispersonalandpoliticaloppositiontoEnver.Heisbutoneonthismurderer'slonglistofvictims.Thenumerousdoctors,allwellknowncreaturesofthe"Committee"oreasilywonoverbyintimidation,whosettheirnamesaswitnesses to this"suicideasa resultofsevereneurasthenia"—amost striking and suspicious similarity to the case of Abdul-Aziz—have notprevented one single thinking man in Constantinople from forming a correctopiniononthematter.ThewilyTurkishGovernmentevidentlychosethiskindofdeath,justlikehisfather's,sothattheycoulddiagnosethesymptomsasthoseofincurable neurasthenia.History has already formed its own opinion as to howmuchfree-willtherewasinAbdul-Aziz'death!Theopinionsofdifferentpeopleabout Prince Yussuf's death only differ as to whether he was murdered orcompelled to commit suicide. "On l'a suicidé," was the ironical and frankcommentofonecleverOldTurk.Wewillleaveitatthat.

Thefuneralofthesuccessortothethronewasamostinterestingsight.Isentanarticleonittomypaperatthetime,whichofcoursehadonlyvery,veryslightallusions toanythingofasinistercharacter;but itdidnot find favourwith thecensorattheBerlinForeignOffice.TheeditorialstaffofthepaperevidentlysawwhatIwasdrivingat,andwrotetome:"Wehaverevisedandtouchedupyourreport so as at least to save themost essential part of it;"but even the alteredversion did not pass the censor's blue pencil. But I had at any rate themoralsatisfactionofknowingthatofallthepaperswithcorrespondentsintheTurkishcapital, mine, the Kölnische Zeitung, was the only one that could publishnothing, not a single line, about this important and highly sensationaloccurrence,forIsimplywrotenothingmore.Thatwassurelyclearenough!

When in 1913, after the unsuccessful counter-revolution, Mahmud ShevketPasha was assassinated and was going to be buried in Constantinople, the"Committee"issuedinvitationsdaysbeforehandtoallforeignpersonages.Thistimenothingof thesorthappened;andeventhePressrepresentativeswerenotinvitedtobepresent.Ontheformeroccasioneverythingpossiblewasdone,byputtingofftheintermentaslongaspossibleandrepeatedlypublishingthedate,bylengtheningtherouteofthefuneralprocession,togiveseveralthousandsofpeopleanopportunityoftakingpartintheceremony.

This time, however, the authorities arranged the burialwith all speed, and thevery next day after the sensational occurrence the body was hurried by the

shortestway,throughtheGülhanéPark,totheMausoleumofSultanMahmud-Moshee.ThecoffinhadbeenquietlybroughtinthetwilighttheeveningbeforefromtheKioskofSindjirlikuyuontheothersideofPeraontheMaslakHill,tothetopoftheSeraïl.Alongthewholeroute,however,whereverthepublichadaccess, therewere lines of police and soldiers; and the bright uniforms of thepolicewhowere inserted ingroupsof twentybetweeneverysingle rowof theprocession of Ministers, members of the "Committee" and delegaters whowalkedbehind thecoffin,werereally themostconspicuous thing in thewholeceremony. Enver Pasha passed quite close to me, and neither I, nor mycompanions,couldfailtonotetheill-concealedexpressionofsatisfactiononhisface.

Themostbeautiful thingabout thiswhole funeral,however,was thevisitpaidmebytheSecretary-GeneraloftheSenate,theminuteafterIhadreachedhome(and I had driven by the shortestway).With a zeal thatmight have surprisedeven thesimplestmindedofmen,heoffered to tellmeabout thePrince's life,lingeringlongandgoingintoexhaustivedetailoverthewell-knownfactsofhisnervous ailment. Then, blushing at his own awkwardness and importunity, hebegged me most earnestly to publish his version of all the details andcircumstances of this tragic occurrence, "which no other paper will be in apositiontopublish."Naturallyitwasneverwritten.

So,oncemore, in the late summerof1916,EnverPasha,whowas so fondofdiscovering conspiracies and political movements in order to get rid of hisenemies, and go scot free himself, had a fresh opportunity of reflecting, withevenmorefoundationthanusual,onthefirmnessofhispositionandthesecurityofhisownlife.

Itisperhapstimenowtogiveamorecomprehensivedescriptionofthisman.WehavealreadymentionedinconnectionwiththefailureofhisCaucasusoffensivethatEnverhasbeenextraordinarilyover-estimatedinEurope.ThefamousEnverisneitheraprominentintellectualleadernoragoodorganiser—inthisdirectionhe is far surpassed by Djemal Pasha—nor an important strategist. In militarymattershispositivequalitiesarepersonalcourage,optimism,and,consequently,initiativewhichisneverdauntedbyfearofconsequences,alsocold-bloodednessand determination; but he is entirely lacking in judgment, power ofdiscrimination,andlargenessofconception.FromtheGermanpointofviewheisparticularlyvaluableforhisunquestioningandunconditionalassociationwiththeCentralPowers,hisreadinesstodoanythingthatwillfurthertheircause,hispliability and his zeal in accommodating himself even to the most trenchant

reforms.But it is just thesequalities thatmakeenemies forhimamongretiredmilitarymenandamongthepeople.

Regardedfromapurelypersonalpointofview,EnverPasha is, inspiteof thefulsome praise showered on him by Germans inspired by that most pliantimplement, German militarism, one of the most repugnant subjects everproducedbyTurkey.EvenfromapurelyexternalpointofviewhisappearancedoesnotatallcorrespondwiththepictureofhimgenerallyacceptedinGermanyfromflatteringreportsandfalsifiedphotographs.Smallofstature,withquiteanordinary face,he looks rather,asoneofmy journalisticcolleaguessaid, likea"gardener's boy" than aVice-General andWarMinister, and anyonewho everhas the opportunity I have so often had, of looking really closely at him,willcertainly be repelled by his look of vanity and cunning. It was really mostpainful to have to listen to him (he has always been a bad and monotonousspeaker)intheSenateandtheLowerHouseattheconclusionoftheDardanellescampaignreadinghisreportinaweak,haltingvoice,butwiththedisdainfultoneofadictator.Everythirdwordwasan"I."EventheTurkishPressaccordedthisparliamentaryspeechafairlyfrostyreception.

Besidesthis,Enverisoneofthemostcold-bloodedliarsimaginable.TimeandagaintherehasbeennonecessityforhimtosaycertainthingsinParliament,ortomakecertainpromises,butapparentlyhefoundcynicalenjoymentinmakingthepeopleandParliamentfeeltheirwholeinferiorityinhiseyes.Whatcanonethink,forexample,ofsuchperformancesasthis?Attheendof1916whenthediscussion about military service for those who had paid the exemption tax(bedel)wasgoingon,hegaveanunsolicitedand solemnassurancebefore thewholeHousethathehadnointentionwhateverofcallingupcertainclassesuntilthe Bill had been finally passed and that it would show that he was reallydesirousofsparingcommercial lifeasfaraspossibleinthecallingupofmen.ExactlytwohoursafterthisspeechthedrumresoundedthroughallthestreetsofStamboulandPera,callingupallthoseclassesoverwhichEnverhadasyetnopowerofjurisdiction,andwhichhesaidhewantedtokeepbackbecausetotearthemawayfromtheiremploymentwouldmeanthecompletedisorganisationofthealreadysadlydisorderedcommerciallifeofthecountry.

ThiswasTalaat'sopinion,too,andheofferedafirmresistancetoEnver'splan,whichitappearshadbeenintroducedbycommandoftheGermanGovernment.In this case, however, resistancewas useless, and had to giveway tomilitarynecessity. If Enver said something in Parliament—this at any rate was thegeneralconclusion—onemightbequitecertainthatexactlytheoppositewould

takeplace.Hehasnowgained forhimself the reputationofbeinga liarandamurdereramongallthosewhoarenotfollowersofthe"Committee."

Incontrast toTalaat,who isat least intelligentenough tokeepupappearancesand cunning enough to hold himselfwell in the background, Enver's personallackof integrity inmoneymatters isasubjectofmostshamefulknowledge inConstantinople. It is prettywell generally knownhowhehasmadeuse of hisposition asMilitaryDictator to gain possession for himself of propertyworththousandsofpounds,andhowinhisfinancialdealingswithGermanyhundredshave found their way into his own pocket—up till the winter of 1915-1916,according to an estimate from confidential Turkish circles and from GermansourcesIwillnotname,hehadalreadymanagedtocollectsomethingliketwomillion pounds, reckoned in English money. This son of a former lowlyconducteur in theserviceof theRoadsandBridgesBoard,whosemother,as Ihave been assured byTurks is the case, plied in Stamboul themuch-despisedtrade of "layer-out" of corpses, now lives in hisKonak inmore than princelyluxury,withflowersandsilverandgoldonhistable,havingmarried,outofpureambition, a veryplain-lookingprincess.That is the trueportrait of thismuch-coddleddarlingoftheYoungTurks,andlatterlyoftheGermanpeopleaswell.ThisistheidolofsomanyadmiringGermanwomen,whoarebewitchedbyhismore than adventurous career and the halo surrounding him which he hasenhancedbyeveryknownandunknownmeansofself-advertisement.

Enver'scharacterwonforhimin"Committee"circlespersonaldislikeandbitter,thoughveiled, enmityeven fromhiscolleagueswhowereofexactly the samepolitical persuasion as himself. Of his relations towards the infinitely moreimportantDjemalPashawehavealreadyspoken;weshallspeakinamomentofhis relations toTalaat. In theworldof the retiredmilitarymen, however,whohadbeenbadgeredaboutbyEnver,neglectedandsimplyforciblypensionedoffby hundreds before the war because of their divergent political opinions, andeven thrown into the street, theWarMinisterwasheartilyhated.Avery largepartofthemwereofthesamepoliticalviewsasthemurderedsuccessortothethrone, and their opinion of theGreatWarwas aswe have already indicated.They pointed bitterly to Enver as the all-too-pliable servant ofGermany,whowas only too ready to sacrifice the flower of Ottoman youth on those farbattlefieldsofGaliciaatasignfromtheGermanStaff,andopendoorafterdoortoGermaninfluenceintheInteriorwithoutevenattemptingtoprotect thelandofhisfathersfrominvasionanddecay.

Aswehavesaid,politicalrevolutionsinTurkeyusuallystartinmilitarycircles,

not among thepeople, and therewas an actual attempt in this direction in theautumn of 1916. Either by chance or by someone's betraying the plot, it wasdiscoveredbyEnver in time,and thenumberofmilitarymenandOldTurkishpersonages associatedwith them, imprisoned inConstantinople alone, reachedsixhundred.AttheheadofthemovementstoodMajorYakubDjemilBey.

Duringthewholeofthesummerof1916Enver'spositionhadbeenlookeduponas quite insecure. The knowledge of his greed in money matters, his tactlesspushing,andhisruthlessbrutalityhadtotallyalienatedawidecircleofpeople,andmanybelievedthathewouldsoonhavetoresign.

Inaddition to this,adeep inwardantagonismreignedbetweenhimandTalaat,therealleaderandbyfarthemostimportantstatesmanofTurkey,whichwasfarmore thanacleverlyveiledpersonaldislike.Therewasaconstantstruggle forpowergoingonbetweenthetwomen.BytheendofMaythecrisishadbecomeprettyacute,althoughoutwardappearanceswerestillpreservedandonlywell-informedcirclesknewanythingatallaboutthematter.EnverhadatthattimetohurrybackfromtheIrak,wherehewasonavisitofinspectionwiththeGermanChief of Staff and the Military Attaché, in order to safeguard his post. Inconfidential circles, the outbreak of open enmity between the two was fullyexpected;butthistimeagainTalaatwasthecleverer.Hefeltthat,inspiteofhisowngreaterinfluenceandfollowing,inspiteofhisrealsuperioritytoEnver,hemightperhaps,ifhetriedconclusionswithhimwhilehewasstillincommandofthearmy,findhimselftheloserand,inviewofEnver'smurderoushabits,payforhisrashnesswithhislife.Sohedecidednottoriskadecisivebattlejustyet.Hewas toopatriotic,also, to let thingscometoanopenbreakduring thedifficulttime of war. Talaat disappeared for a short time on a visit of inspection toAngora,andthingssettleddowntotheiroldwayagain.

Thereisstillinternalconflictgoingon.ButEnver,withboundlessambitionandnofinefeelingsofhonour,clingstohispost,andhasshownbythewayhedealtwith the instigators of the conspiracymentioned above that nothing but forcewillmovehimfromhispost,andthathewillneveryieldtopublicopinionorthecriticismofhiscolleagues.Hewastroubledbynoqualms,inspiteofthewidelycirculatedopinionthathewouldcertainlyjeopardisehislifeifhewentoninthesameruthlessway towards the retiredmilitarymen.Hesimplyhad the leader,Yakub Djemil Bey, hanged like a common criminal, and the whole of hisfollowers, for the most part superior officers and highly respected persons,turnedintosoldiersofthesecondclass,andputinthefront-linetrenches.

Enver's removalwouldnotalter thewholeYoungTurkish régimemuch,but it

would take from it much of its ruthless barbarity, and its most repugnantrepresentativewouldvanishfromthepicture.ItwouldalsobeasevereblowforGermanyandhermilitaristicpolicyofdrivingTurkeymercilesslytosuicide.Itwouldbeagodsendtotheanti-GermanDjemalPasha.Fromapoliticalpointofview it wouldmean, far more than Talaat's appointment as Grand Vizier, theabsolutesupremacyofthatstatesman.

Atbottomprobably less ruthless thanEnverandcertainlycleverer, there isnodoubtbutthathewouldpursuehisjingoisticideasintherealmofrace-politics,butatanyratehewouldnotwantanymilitarysystemoffrightfulness.Enver'sremovalfromofficewillcomewithintherangeofnearpossibilityassoonasthenew British operations against Southern Palestine and Mesopotamia haveproduced a real victory. Turkey is not in a good enough military position toprevent this, and thewholeworldwill soon recognise that it is this servant ofGermany,thiscarelessoptimistandverymediocrestrategistwhoistoblamefortheinexorablebreaking-upoftheOttomanEmpire.

ThecontrastIhavenotedbetweenEnverandTalaatprovidestheopportunityforsayinga fewwords aboutTalaat, nowPashaandGrandVizier, andby far themostimportantmanofNewTurkey.AsMinisterof theInterior,hehasguidedthewhole fate of his country, except in purelymilitarymatters, as uncrownedking.Itishemorethananyoneelsewhoistheoriginatorofthewholesystemofhome politics. Solidity of character, earnestness, freedom from carelessoptimism,andconspicuouspowerofjudgmentdistinguishhimmostfavourablyfromEnver,whopossessestheoppositeofallthesequalities.Ahighdegreeofintelligence,anenormousknowledgeofmen,anexceptionalgiftoforganisationand tireless energy combined with great personal authority, prudence andreserve,calmweighingoftheactualpossibilities—inaword,allthequalitiesofthe real statesman—raise him head and shoulders above the whole of hiscolleaguesandco-workers.Itwouldbeunjusttodoubthisardentpatriotismorthehonestyofhis ideas and intentions.Talaat's character is so impressive thatone often hears even Armenians, the victims of his own original policy ofpersecution, speak of him with respect, and I have even heard the opinionexpressedthathaditnotbeenforTalaat'scleverness,theCommitteewouldhavegonemuchfurtherwiththeirmischievouspolicy.

But his high intellectual abilities do not prevent him from suffering from thatsameplagueofnarrow-minded,jingoisticillusionpeculiartothePan-Turks.Heisasifintoxicatedwitharace-fanaticismthatstiflesallnobleremotions.Talaatis too methodical and clever not to avoid all intentional ruthlessness, but in

practicehissystem,whichhefollowsoutwithinflexiblelogictothebitterend,turns out to be just as brutal as Enver's intrinsically more brutal policy. AndalthoughheaccommodateshimselfoutwardlytomodernEuropeanmethodsandknows how to utilise them, the ethics of his system are out-and-out Asiatic.When Talaat speaks in the "Committee," there is very rarely the slightestopposition. He has usually prepared and coached the "Committee" so wellbeforehandthathecantoallappearancekeepinthebackgroundandonlyfollowthemajority.Withtheexceptionofafewmilitaryaffairs,everythinghasalwaystakenplacethathehasproposedinParliament.

Besidethisman,whosesparklingeyes,massiveshoulders,broadchest,clean-cutprofileandexuberanthealthdenotethewholeunboundedenergyofthedictator,thegood-natured,degenerate,andepilepticallyinclinedSultan,MehmedV,"ElGhazi"("thehero"),isbutaweakshadow.ButifwefullyrecogniseTalaat'shighintellectualqualities,weshould likeall themore toemphasise thathemustbeheldpersonally responsiblemore thanall theothers foreverything that isnowhappeninginTurkey,sofarasitisnotofamilitarycharacter.Thespiritreigningin Turkey to-day, the spirit of Pan-Turkish jingoism, is Talaat's spirit. TheArmenianpersecutionsarehisveryownwork.Andwhenthedayofreckoningcomes for the Turkey of the "Committee of Union and Progress," it is to behopedthatEuropeasjudgeandchastiserandavengerofanoutragedcivilisation,willlaythechiefblameonTalaatPasharatherthanonhisfarweakercolleagueEnver.

All his eminent qualities, however, do not prevent this intellectual leader ofTurkey, themost importantman, beside theSultan, in the land, from showingsigns of something that is typical of thewhole "Committee" cliquewith theirdictatorialpower,andwhichwemayperhapsbeallowedtocallparvenuishness.Atallpointsweseethecharacteristicsoftheparvenuinthisstatesmanandone-time adventurer and in these creatures of the "Committee"who have recentlybecomewealthybycertainabuses—IwouldremindyouonlyoftheRequisitions—and by a lucrative adherence to the ruling clique. There are of courseindividualcasesofdistinguishedmenofgoodbirththrowingintheirlotwiththe"Committee," but they are extremely rare, and they only help to give an evenworse impression of the average Young Turk belonging to the Government.Theirpastisusuallyextremelydoubtful,andtheircareershavebeensomewhatvaried.

Nooneof coursewouldever thinkof setting it downas ablackmarkagainstTalaat, for example, that he had to work his way up to his present supreme

position from the very modest occupation of postman and postal coachconductorontheAdrianopleroad,viatelegraphassistantandotherbranchesofthePostOffice;onthecontrary,suchintelligenceandenergyareworthyofthehighest praise.ButTalaat's case is a comparatively good one, and it is not somuch their low social origin that is a drawback to these political leaders ofTurkey,astheircompletelackofeducationinstatesmanshipandhistory,whichunfits them for the high rôle they are called upon to fill. Naturally it is notexactly pleasant when a man like Herr Paul Weitz, the correspondent of theFrankfurterZeitung, and a political agent, can boastwith a certain amount ofjustificationthathehasgiventipsofmoneytomanyofthepresentmembersofthe"Committee"—intherealsenseoftheword,notinthepoliticalmeaningofbackshish!Itisnowonder,then,thatGermaninfluencewonitswaythroughsoeasily!

EvenyetTalaat'slowlyoriginisadrawbacktohimsocially,and,inspiteofhisjovialmanner and his complete confidence in his own powers, he sometimesfeelshimself sounsure thathe ratheravoidssocialduties.Probablyoneof thereasonsofhislongdelayinacceptingthepostofGrandVizier—hewasalreadydefinitely marked out for it in the summer of 1915—was his own innerconsciousnessthathiswholepastlifeunfittedhimsociallyforthedutiesofsuchanoffice.Thathehasnowdecidedtoacceptit, isonlythelogicalsequenceofthe system of absolute Turkification, which, with its plan of muzzling andsupplanting all non-Turkish elements, hadof course toget ridof theEgyptianelement in theGovernment, represented byPrinceHalimSaïd, the lateGrandVizier,andhisbrother,thelateMinisterofPublicWorks.

There are far more outstanding cases of incompatibility between socialupbringingandpresentactivityamongthe"Committee."Iwillsimply take thesingleexampleof theDirectorGeneralof thePress,HikmetBey.MischievousPerastillgiveshimthenick-nameof"Sütdji"("milkman"),because—althoughitisno reproach tohimanymore than inTalaat's case—hestillkepthis father'smilk shop in the Rue Tepé Bashi in Pera before he managed to get himselflaunchedonapoliticalcareerbycloseadherencetotheCommittee.Sometimes,of course, one inherits from a low social origin far worse things than socialinferiority. PerhapsDjemal Pasha'smurderous instincts are to be traced to thefact that his grandfather was the official hangman in the service of SultanMahmud,and thathis father still retained thenick-nameof "hangman"amongthepeople.

One only needs to cast a glance at the Young Turks who are the leaders of

fashioninthe"ClubdeConstantinople"—aftertheEnglishandFrenchmembersare absent—with German officers who have been admitted as temporarymembers at a reduced subscription, and one will find there, as in the moreexclusive "Cercle d'Orient," and in the "Yachting Club" in Prinkipo in thesummer-time,individualsbelongingtothe"Committee"whoselowlyoriginandbadmannersareevidentat thefirstglance.Talaat,whoishimselfPresidentoftheClub, knowsexactlyhow togethis adherents elected asmemberswithoutone of them being blackballed. People who used not to know what anInternationalClubwas,andwhoperhaps,inaccordancewiththeirformersocialstatus,gotasfarasthevestibuletospeaktotheConcierge,arenowgreat"clubmen"andcanafford,withthemoneytheyhaveamassedin"clique"tradeandbythe famous system of Requisitions, to play poker every evening for stakes ofhundredsofTurkishpounds.Onesinglekaleidoscopicglanceintotheperpetualwhirl of any one of these clubs, which used to be places of friendly socialintercourse for the bestEuropean circles, is quite sufficient to see the class ofdegenerate,greedyparvenusthatrulepoor,bleeding,helpless,exhaustedTurkey.Onecannotbutbefilledwithadeepsympathyforthisunfortunateland.

The Turks of decent birth are disgusted at these parvenus. I have hadconversationswithmanyanoldPasha andSenator, true representativesof therefined and kindly Old Turkish aristocracy, and heard many a word of sterndisapproval of the "Committee" quite apart from their divergent politicalopinions.There isawholedistinguishedTurkishworld inConstantinoplewhocompletelyboycottEnverandhisconsortssocially,althoughtheyhavetoputupwiththeircapricespolitically."Idon'tknowEnveratall,"or"Jeneconnaispascesgens-là"("Idon'tknowthesepeople"),arephrasesthatoneveryoftenhearsrepeatedwithinfinitedisdain.Inallthesecasesitisthepurelypersonalside—birthandmanners—thatrepelsthem.

Socially thecleftbetweenthe twocampsisfardeeper thanit ispolitically,formanyofthesesamepeopleaccommodatethemselves,thoughwithreluctanceintheirheart, tosharingat least formallyasSenators in the responsibility for thepresent Young Turkish policy. They have to do so, for otherwise they wouldsimplybeflungmercilesslybyEnver'sCliqueontothestreetstobegforbread.Thisishowitcomesaboutto-daythat,withveryfewexceptions,theSenators,who, to tell the truth,haveas littlepractical sayas themembersof theLowerHouse, arealloutwardlycomplaisant followersof the "Committee."Themoredoctrinal,butatanyratecourageousandhonourableoppositionofAhmedRizaislikewiseofverylittlesignificance.Once,aboutthemiddleofDecember,1916,Enverevenwentsofarastohurltheepithet"shamelessdog"atAhmedRizain

theSenatewithoutbeingcalledtoorderbythePresident.

TheDeputiesarealso,withevenfewerexceptionsthantheSenators—onlyoneortwoarereasonablemen—allslavespureandsimpleofEnverandTalaat.TheLower House is nothing but a set of employees paid by the Clique. In othercountriesnowatwartheLowerHousemayhavesunktothelevelofalaughing-stock; in Turkey it has become the instrument of crime.And it is these sametoadies and parasites, who daily carry out this military dictator's will inParliament,thathedailytreatswithscarcelyveiledironyandopenandcompletedisdain.Thesearethe"representativesofthepeople"inTurkeyinwar-time!

FOOTNOTES:

[2]DjemalPashalearntthenewsthatAdmiralvonSouchonhadbombardedRussianports,andsomadewar inevitable,oneeveningat theClub.Palewithrage,hesprangupandsaid:"Sobeit;butifthingsgowrong,Souchonwillbethefirsttobehanged."

CHAPTERX

Theoutlook for the future—Theconsequencesof trustingGermany—TheEntente's death sentence on Turkey—The social necessity for thisdeliverance—Anatolia,thenewTurkeyafterthewar—ForecastsabouttheTurkish race—The Turkish element in the lost territory—Russia andConstantinople; international guarantees—Germany, at peace, benefits too—Farewell to the German "World-politicians"—German interests in avictorious and in an amputated Turkey—The German-Turkish treaty—Aparadiseonearth—TheRussiancommercialimpetus—ThenewArmenia—WesternAnatolia, the oldGreek centre of civilization—GreatArabia andSyria—ThereconciliationofGermany.

WEhavecometotheendofoursketches.Thequestionbeforeusnowis:WhatwillbecomeofTurkey?TheEntentehaspronounced formalsentenceofdeathon the Empire of the Sultan, and neither the slowly fadingmilitary power ofTurkey,northehelpofGermany,whoisherselfalreadyvirtuallyconquered,willbeabletoarrestherfate.

On the high frost-bound uplands of Armenia the Russians hold a strategicpositionfromwhichitisimpossibletodislodgethem,andwhichwillprobablyvery soon extend to the Gulf of Alexandretta. In Mesopotamia, after thatenormously important political event, the Fall of Baghdad, the union waseffected between theBritish troops and theRussians, advancing steadily fromPersia.TheSuezCanalisnownolongerthreatened,andtheBritishtroopshavebeen removed from there for a counter-offensive in Southern Palestine, andprobably, when the psychologicalmoment arrives, an offensive against Syria,nowsosadlyshatteredpolitically.Itisquitewithintheboundsofpossibility,too,thatduringthiswarabignewFrontmaybeformedinWesternAnatolia,already

completelybrokenupbythePan-HellenicIrredenta,andtheTurkswillbehardputtoittofindtroopstomeetthenewoffensive.Arabiaisfinallyandabsolutelylost,andEngland,byestablishinganArabianCaliphate,hasalreadywonthewaragainst Turkey.Meantime, on the far battlefields of Galicia and the Balkans,whole Ottoman divisions are pouring out their life-blood, fighting for thatelusiveGermanvictory that never comes anynearer,while in everynook andcorneroftheirownlandthereisaterriblelackoftroops.EnverPasha,atlengthgrownanxious,hasattemptedtorecallthem,butinvain.

Thatisashortrésuméofthemilitarysituation.ThisishowtheTurkeyofEnverandTalaatisatoningforthetrustshehasplacedinGermany.

ToaGermanjournalistwhowentouttwoyearsagotoagreatTurkey,strivingfora"GreaterTurkey,"itdoesindeedseemabitterironyoffatetoseehissphereof labour thus reduced to nothingness.The fall ofTurkey is the greatest blowthatcouldhavebeendealttoGerman"world-politics";itisadisappointmentthatwillhave thegravestconsequences.But fromthestandpointofculture,humancivilisation,ethics,thelibertyofthepeoplesandjustice,historicalprogress,theeconomic development ofwide tracts of land of the greatest importance fromtheirgeographicalposition,itisoneofthemostbrilliantresultsofthewar,andonetobehailedwithunmixedjoy.WhenIlookbackonhowwonderfullythingshaveshapedinthelasttwoandahalfyearsIamboundtoadmitthatIamhappythings have turned out as they have. If perchance any Turk who knows mehappens to read these lines, Ibeghimnot to think thatmy ideasare saturatedwithhatredofTurkey.Onthecontrary,IlovethecountryandtheTurkishracewiththosemanyattractivequalitiesthatrightlyappealedtoapoetlikeLoti.

Ihaveaskedmyselfthousandsoftimeswhatwouldbethebestpoliticalsolutionof the problem, how to help this people—and the other races inhabiting theircountry—to true and lasting happiness. From my many journeys in tropicallands,Ihavegrownaccustomedtothesightofautochthonouscivilisationsandsemi-civilised peoples, and am as interested in them as in the most perfectlycivilised nations of Europe. I have therefore, I think, been able to set asideentirelyinmyownmindtheterritorialinterestsoftheWestinthedevelopmentof the Near East, and give my whole attention to Turkey's own good andTurkey's own needs. But even then I have been obliged to subscribe to thesentenceofdeathpassedontheTurkeyoftheYoungTurksandthesovereigntyoftheOttomanEmpire.It iswiththefullestconsciousnessofwhatIamdoingthatIagreetotheonlyseeminglycruelamputationofthisState.Itismerelytheouter shell covering a number of peoples who suffer cruelly under an unjust

system, chief among them the brave Turkish people who have been led by acriminalGovernmenttotakethelaststepontheroadtoruin.ThepointofviewIhaveadopteddoesnot inanywaydetract frommypersonalsympathies,and IstillhavehopesthatthemanypersonalfriendshipsImadeinConstantinoplewillnot be broken by the hardwords I have been obliged to utter in the cause oftruth, in the interests of outraged civilisation, and in the interests of a happierfuturefortheOttomanpeoplethemselves.

The amputation ofTurkey is a stern social necessity. Someone has said: "Thegreatest enemy of Turkey is the Turk." I have toomuch love for the Turkishpeople, toomuchsympathyfor them, toadopt thispessimisticattitudewithoutgreatinwardopposition;butunfortunatelyitisonlytootrue.WehaveseenhowtheTurkeyofEnverandTalaathasreactedsharplyagainsttheWestern-minded,liberaleraofthe1876and1908constitutions,andhasturnedagaintoAsiaandhernewlydiscoveredideal,Turanism.TotheTurksofto-day,Europeancultureandcivilisationareatbestbuta technicalmeans; theyareno longeranend inthemselves.TheirdreamisnolongerWesternEurope,butanationallyawakenedandstrengthenedAsiatentum.

Infaceofthisintellectualdevelopment,howcanwehopethatinthenewTurkeytherewillbearadicalalterationofwhat,inthewholecourseofOttomanhistory,hasalwaysbeentheonecharacteristic,unchangeable,momentousfact,ofwhathasalwaysshattered themosthonesteffortsat reform,andalwayswill shatterevery attempt at improvement within a sovereign Turkey—I refer to therelationshipoftheTurktothe"Rajah"(the"herd"),theChristiansubjectsofthePadishah.TheOttoman,theMohammedanconqueror,livesbythe"herd"hehasfoundinthelandhehasconquered;the"herd"arethe"unbelievers,"androoteddeep in the mind of this sovereign people, who have never quite lost theirnomadicinstincts,istheconvictionthattheyhavetherighttolivebythesweatofthebrowoftheirChristiansubjectsandonthefruitsoftheirlabour.ThatweEuropeansthinkthisunjusttheTurkwillneverbeabletograsp.

A Wali of Erzerum once said: "The Turkish Government and the Armenianpeoplestandintherelationshipofmanandwife,andanythirdpersonswhofeelsympathyforthewifeandangeratthewife-beatinghusbandwilldobetternottomeddleinthisdomesticstrife."Thisquotationhasbecomefamous,foritexactlycharacterisestherelationshipoftheTurktothe"Rajah,"nottotheArmenians.Inthis phrase alone there lies, quite apart from all the crimes committed by thepresentTurkishGovernment,asufficientmoralandpoliticalfoundationforthesentenceofdeathpassedonthesovereigntyofthepresentTurkishState.Forso

long as the Turks cling to Islam, fromwhich springs that opposition betweenMoslem rulers and "Giaur" subjects so detrimental to all social progress, it isEurope's sacred duty not to giveTurkey sovereignty over any territorywith astrongChristian element.That iswhyTurkeymust at all costs be confined toInner Anatolia; that is why complete amputation is necessary; and why theoutlying districts of Turkey, the Straits, the Anatolian coast, the whole ofArmenia must be rescued and, part of it at any rate, placed under formalEuropeanprotection.

EveninInnerAnatolia,whichwillprobablystillbelefttotheOttomansafterthewar, the strongest European influence must be brought to bear—which willprobably not be difficult in view of Turkey's financial bankruptcy; Europeancustoms and civilisationmust be introduced; in aword,Europemust exercisesufficientcontroltobeinapositiontopreventthenumerousnon-TurksresidenteveninAnatoliafrombeingexposedtotheoldsystemofexploitingthe"Rajah."DiscerningTurksthemselveshaveadmittedthat itwouldbebestforEuropetoputthewholeofTurkeyforagenerationundercuratorshipandgeneralEuropeansupervision.

I,personally,shouldnotbesatisfiedwith thissystemfor thedistrictsoccupiedmorebynon-TurksthanbyTurks;but,ontheotherhand,IshouldnotgosofarinthecaseofInnerAnatolia.ItrustthatstrongEuropeaninfluencewillmakeitpossibletomakeInnerAnatoliaasovereignterritory.IhavepinnedmyfaithontheOttomanracebeinggivenanotherandfinalopportunityonherowngroundof showing how she will develop now after the wonderful intellectualimprovement thathas takenplaceduring thewar. Ihopeat thesame time thateven in a sovereign Turkish Inner Anatolia Europe will have enough say topreventanyoutgrowthsofthe"Rajahprinciple."

The Turks must not be deprived of the opportunity to bring their new-foundabilities,whichevenwemustpraise,tobearontheproductionofanew,modern,butthoroughlyTurkishcivilisationoftheirownontheirownground.Anatolia,beautifulandcapableofdevelopment,is,evenifweconfineittothoseinteriorparts chiefly inhabited by Ottomans, still quite a big enough field for theproduction of such a civilisation; it is quite big enough too for the terriblyreducednumbersnowbelongingtotheOsmanicrace.

TheamputationandlimitationofTurkey,eveniftheydonotsucceedinalteringthe real Turkish point of view—and this, so far as the relationship to theChristians is concerned, is the same, from the Pasha down to the poorestAnatolian peasant—will at least have a tremendously beneficial effect. The

possibilitiesintheTurkishracewillcometoflower."Theworstpatriots,"Ioncedaredtosayinoneofmyarticlesinspiteofthecensorship,"arenotthosewholook for the future of the nation in concentrated cultural work in the Turkishnucleus-landofAnatolia,insteadofgapingovertheCaucasusanddownintothesands of the African desert in their search for a 'Greater Turkey.'" And inconnectionwiththeseriesoflecturesIhavealreadymentionedaboutAnatolianhygiene and social politics, I said, with quite unmistakablemeaning: "Turkeywillhaveawonderfulopportunityonherownoriginalground, in thenucleus-landoftheOttomans,ofprovinghercapabilityandshowingthatshehasbecomeareallymodern,civilisedState."

Myearnestwish is that all theTurks'high intellectual abilities,brought to thefront by this war, may be concentrated on this beautiful and repaying task.Intensive labour and the concentration of all forces on positive work in thedirection of civilisationwill have to take the place of corrupt rule, boundlessneglect, waste, the strangulation of all progressive movements, politicalillusions,theunquenchabledesireforconquestandoppression.ThisiswhatweprayforforAnatolia,therealNewTurkeyafterthewar.Inotherdistricts,also,nowfullyunderEuropeancontrol,thepureTurkishelementwillflourishmuchmore exceedingly than ever before under thebeneficent protectionofmodern,civilisedGovernments.Frankly, thedreamofTurkishPowerhasvanished.Butnew life springs out of ruin and decay; the history ofmankind is a continualchange.

Russia, too, afterwar,will no longer bewhat she seemed to terrifiedTurkisheyesand jealousGermaneyesdazzledby"world-politics":acolossalcreature,stretching forth enormous suckers to swallow up her smaller neighbours; acountryruledbyadull,unthinkingdespotism.

FromthestandpointofuniversalcivilisationitistobehopedthatthesolutionoftheproblemoftheNearEastwillbetotransformtheStraitsbetweentheBlackSeaandAegea,togetherwiththecityofConstantinople,uniquelysituatedasitis,intoacompletelyinternationalstretchwithopenharbours.ThenweneednolongeropposeRussianaspirations.IfEngland,thestrongholdofFreeTradeandof all principles of freedom of intercourse, and France, the land of culture,interestedinTurkeytotheextentofmillions,werecontenttoleaveRussiaafreehand in theStraits; ifRoumania, shut in in theBlackSea,didnot fear forhertrade, but was willing to become an ally of Russia in full knowledge of theEntente agreement about the Straits, it is of course sufficiently evident whatguaranteewithregardtointernationalfreedommodernRussiawillhavetogive

afterthewar,andeventheGermanshavenothingtofear.OfcoursetheGermananti-European"Antwerp-Baghdad"dreamwillbeshattered.ButonceGermanyisatpeace,shewillprobablyfind thateven theRussiansolutionof theStraitsquestion benefits her not a little. The final realisation of Russia's efforts,justifiablebothhistoricallyandgeographically,toreachtheMediterraneanatthisoneeminentlysuitablespot,willcertainlycontributeinanextraordinarydegreeto remove theunbearable political pressure fromEurope and ensure peace fortheworld.

Just a few parting words to the German "World-politicians." Very often, as Ihave said, Iheardduringmystay inConstantinople expressionsof anxietyonthe part of Germans that all German interests, even purely commercial ones,wouldbegravelyendangeredinthevictoriousNewTurkey,whichwouldspringto life again with renewed jingoistic passions and renewed efforts atemancipation.Andmorethanonce—allhonourtothefeelingsofjusticeandthesoundcommonsenseofthosewhodaredtouttersuchopinions—IwastoldbyGermans,inthemiddleofthewar,andwithnoattemptatconcealment,thattheyfully agreed itwas an absolute necessity forRussia to have the control of theonlyoutletforherenormoustradetotheMediterranean,andthatcommerciallyat any rate the fight for Constantinople and the Straits was a fight for a justcause.

Now, let us take these two points of view together. From the purely Germanstandpoint, which is better?—a victorious and self-governing Turkey imbuedwith jingoism and the desire for emancipation, practically closed to us, evencommercially,oranamputatedTurkey,compelled toappeal forEuropeanhelpandEuropeancapitaltorecoverfromherstateofcompleteexhaustion;aTurkeyfreedfromthoseYoungTurkishjingoistswho, inspiteofall theirfinephrasesandtheGermanhelptheyhadtoacceptforalltheirinwarddistasteofit,hateusfromtheverydepthsof theirheart;aTurkeywhich,even ifRussia,—asa lastresort!—is allowed to become mistress of the Dardanelles with hugeinternational guarantees, would, in the Anatolia that is left to her, capable ofdevelopmentasitis,andrichinnationalwealth,offeraveryconsiderablefieldofactivityforGermanenterprise?Theshort-sightedPan-Germans,whoarenowfighting for the victory of anti-foreign neo-Pan-Turkism against the modern,civilisedStatesoftheEntente,whohadnowishatallthatGermanyshouldnotfare as well as the rest in the wide domains of Asiatic Turkey, can perhapsanswermyquestion.Theyshouldhaveaskedthemselvesthis,andforeseentheconsequences before they yielded weakly to Turkish caprices and themselvesstirreduptheTurksagainstEurope.

As thingsstandnow,however, theGermanGovernmenthas thought fit, inherblind belief in ultimate victory, to enter on a formal treaty, guaranteeing theterritorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, at a point in the war when noreasonable being even in Germany could possibly still believe that a GermanvictorywouldsufficetoprotectTurkeyaftershehasbeensolemnlycondemnedby theEntente for her long list of crimes.Germanyhas thusgiven a negativeanswertothequestionpassedfrommouthtomouthintheinternationaldistrictof Pera almost right from Turkey's entry into the war: "Will Germany, ifnecessary, sacrificeConstantinople and theDardanelles, if she can thus securepeacewithRussia?"Shehadalreadygiven theanswer"No"before theabsurdillusionsofapossibleseparatepeacewithRussiaat thispricewerefinallyandutterly dispelled by the speech of the Russian Minister Trepoff, and thepurposeful andcruellyclear refusalofGermany'sofferofpeace.Theseeventsand the increasing excitement about the war in Constantinople and elsewherewerenotrequiredtoshowthatintheNearEastaswellthefightmustbefought"tothebitterend."

Never, however—and that is German World-politics, and the ethics of theWorld-politician—haveIeverheardasingleoneofthoseGermans,whothoughtit an impossibility to sacrifice their ally Turkey in order to gain the desiredpeace, put forward as an argument for his opinion the shame of a brokenpromise,butonly theconsideration thatGermanactivity in the landsof Islam,andparticularlyinthevaluableNearEast,wouldbeoveranddonewithforever.I wonder if those who have decided, with the phantom of a German-Turkishvictoryeverbeforethem,togoonwiththestruggleonthesideofTurkeyevenafter she had committed such abominable crimes, and to drench Europe stillfurtherwith the blood of all the civilised nations of theworld, ever have anyqualmsastohowmuchoftheironcebrilliantpossibilitiesofcommercialactivityinTurkey,nowsolightlystaked,wouldstillexistwereTurkeyvictorious.

Luckilyformankind,historyhasdecidedotherwise.Afterthewar,thehugeandflourishing trade of Southern Russia will be carried down to the then openseaportsbetweenEuropeandAsia; thewealthofOdessaand thePontusports,enormouslyincreasedandfreetodevelop,willbeconcentratedontheBosporusand the Dardanelles, and the whole hitherto neglected city of Constantinople,fromPeraandGalatatoStamboulandScutariandHaidar-Pasha,willbecomeanearthly paradise of pulsing life, well-being, and comfort. The luxury andeleganceoftheCrimeawillmovesouthwardstotheseshoresofuniquenaturalbeauty and mild climate which form the bridge between two continents andbetweentwoseas.Anyonewhoreturnsafteradecadeofpeacefullabour,when

theOldWorldhasrecoveredfromitswounds,totheBosporusandtheshoresoftheSeaofMarmora,whichheknewbeforethewar,underTurkishrégime,willbeastonishedat themarvellouschangeswhichwill thenhavebeenwrought inthatfavouredcorneroftheearth.

Never,evenafteranotherhundredyearsofTurkishrule,wouldthatuniquecoasteverhavebecomewhatitcanbeandwhatitmustbe—oneoftheverygreatestcentres of international intercourse and the Riviera of the East, not only inbeauty of landscape, but in luxury and wealth. The greatest stress in thisconnection is to be laid on the livelyRussian impetus thatwill spring from amodernisedRussia,untrammelledby restrictions in theStraits.Convincedas IamthatRussiaafterthewarwillnolongerbetheRussiaofto-day,sofearedbyGermany,theBalkanStates,andTurkey,Iampreparedtogivethisimpetusfullplay, as being the best possible means for the further development ofConstantinople.

In Asia Minor, from Brussa to the slopes of the Taurus and the foot of theArmenianmountains,therewillextendamodernTurkeywhichhasfinallycometorest, toconcentration,topeacefullabour,aftercenturiesofconflict,despoticextortion,thesuicidalpolicyofmilitaryadventurers,andsuperficialattemptsatexpansion coupled with neglect of the most important internal duties. Theinhabitants of these lands will soon have forgotten that "Greater Turkey" hascollapsed. They will be really happy at last, these people whose idea ofhappiness hitherto had been a veneer of material well-being obtained bytoadying, while the great bulk of the Empire pined in dirt, ignorance, andpoverty, consumed by an outworn militarism, oppressed by a decayingadministration.Then,butnottillthen,theworldwillseewhattheTurkishpeopleis capableof.Then therewill benoneed forpessimismabout this kindly andhonourablerace.Thenwecanbecomehonest"Pro-Turks"again.

InWesternAsiaMinor,Europewillnotforgetthatthewholeshore,whereoncestoodTroy,Ephesus,andMilet,isanout-and-outHelleniccentreofcivilisation.Quite independently of all political feelings towards present-day Greece, thishistorical fact must be taken into consideration in the final ruling. It is to behopedthattheGreekpeoplewillnothavetoatoneforeverforthefaultsoftheirnon-Greekkingwhohas forgotten that it ishis sacredduty tobeaGreekandnothing but a Greek, and who has betrayed the honour and the future of thenation.

TheArmenianmountain-land,laidwastebywar,andemptiedofmenbyTalaat'spassion forpersecution,willobtainautonomyfromherconqueror,Russia,and

willperhapsbelinkedupwithalltheotherpartsoftheeast,inhabitedbythelastremnantsoftheArmenianpeople.Armenia,withitscentralpositionanddividedintothreeamongTurkey,Russia,andPersia,mayfromitsgeographicalposition,itsunfortunatehistory,andtheendlesssufferingsithasbeencalledupontobear,becalledthePolandofFurtherAsia.DeliveredfromtheTurkishsystem,freedfromallantagonisticTurko-Russianmilitaryprinciplesofobstruction,linkedupby railways to the west as well as the already well-developed region ofTranscaucasia, with a big through trade from the Black Sea via Trapezunt toPersiaandMesopotamia,itwilloncemoreofferanexcellentfieldofactivitytothehighintellectualandcommercialabilitiesofitspeople,now,alas!scatteredtothefourwindsofheaven.Buttheywillreturntotheiroldhome,bringingwiththemEuropeanideas,Europeantechnique,andthemostmodernmethodsfromAmerica.

Ifmenarelacking,theycanbeobtainedfromthenearCaucasuswithitsnarrow,over-filledvalleys,inhabitedbyamostsuperiorraceofmen,whohavealwayshadstrongemigratinginstincts.Eventhismostunfortunatecountryinthewholeworld,whichtheTurksoftheOldRégimeandoftheNewhavesystematicallymutilated and at last bequeathed to Russia with practically not a man left, isgoingtohaveitsspring-time.

Inthesouth,GreatArabiaandSyriawillhaveautonomyundertheprotectionofEnglandandFrancewiththeirskilfulIslampolicy;theywillhavethebenefitofthe approvedmethodsofprogressivework inEgypt, theSoudan, and India aswellastheAtlaslands;theywillbeexposedtotheinfluencesandincitementsofthe rest of civilised Europe; theywill probably be enrichedwith capital fromAmerica,where thousands ofArab andSyrian, aswell asArmenian, refugeeshavefoundahome;theywillprovidethefirstopportunityinhistoryofshowinghowtheArabraceaccommodatesitselftomoderncivilisationonitsowngroundandwith its own sovereign administration. The final deliverance of theArabsfrom the oppressive and harmful supremacy of the Turks, now happilyaccomplishedbythewar,wasoneofthemosturgentdemandsforaracethatcanlook back on centuries of brilliant civilisation. The civilisedworldwillwatchwiththekeenestinteresttheself-developmentoftheArabianlands.

Even Germany, once she is at peace, will have no need to grumble at thesearrangements, however diametrically opposed they may be to the now sadlyshatteredplansofthePan-GermanandExpansionpoliticians.GermanywillnotlosethecountlessmillionsshehasinvestedinTurkey.Shewillhaveherfullandsufficient share in the European work and commercial activity that will soon

reviveagainintheNearEast.TheBaghdadrailwayof"Rohrbach&Company"willneverbebuilt,itistrue;buttheBaghdadRailwaywithaloyalinternationalmarkingoffof thedifferentzonesof interest, theBaghdadRailway,asahugearteryofpeacefulintercourselinkingupthewholeofAsiaMinorandbringingpeaceandcommercialprosperity,willallthemoresurelyrisefromitsruins.Andwhenonce theGermanWeltpolitikwith its jealousy, its tactless, sword-rattlinginterference in the time-honoured vital interests of other States, its politicalintriguesdisguisedincommercialdress,issafelydeadandburied,therewillbenothing whatever to hinder Germany from making use of this railway andcarryingherpurelycommercialenergyandtheproductsofherpeaceful labourto the shores of thePersianGulf and receiving in return the rich fruits of herculturalactivityonthesoilofAsiaMinor.

APPENDIX

FOR the better understanding of the fact that a German journalist, therepresentativeofagreatnationalpaperliketheKölnischeZeitung,couldpublishsuchabookasthis,andtowardoffinadvanceall thefuriouspersonalattackswhichwillresultfromitspublication,andwhichmight,withoutanexplanation,injuriouslyaffectitsvalueasanindependentanduninfluenceddocument,itis,Ithink,essentialtoexplaintherôleIfilledinConstantinople,howIleftTurkey,andhowIcametothedecisiontopublishmyexperiences.

AsfarasmypostontheKölnischeZeitungisconcerned,Iaccepteditandwentto Turkey although I was from the very beginning against German "World-politics"ofthepresent-daystyleatanyrate(notagainstGermancommercialandculturalactivityinforeigncountries)andagainstmilitarism—aswasonlytobeexpected from one who had studied colonial politics and universal historyunreservedly, and had spent many years studying in the English, French, andGermancoloniesofAfrica—andalthoughIwasquiteconvincedthatGermany'swasthecrimeofsettingthewarinmotion.Besides,my"anti-militarism"isnotof a dogmatic kind, but refers merely to the relations customary betweencivilisednations—witnessthefactthatItookpartintheColonialWarof1904-6inGermanSouth-WestAfricaasavolunteer.

Ihoped to find inTurkey somesatisfaction formyextra-European leanings, asphere of labour less absorbed by German militarism, and opportunity for

independent study, and surely no one will take it amiss that I seized such achance,certainlyuniqueinwar-time,inspiteofmypoliticalviews.

OncearrivedinTurkey,Ikeptwellinthebackgroundtobeginwith,soastobeabletoformmyownopinion,ofcoursedoingmyuttermostatthesametimetobeloyaltothetaskIhadundertaken.InspiteofeverythingIhadtowitness,itwasquiteeasytoreconcilealloppositions,untilthatfamousdaywhenmywifedenounced Germany to my face. From that moment I became an enemy ofpresent-dayGermanyandbegantothinkofonedaypublishingthewholetruthabout the system.Until then Ihadcontentedmyselfwithnever sayingagoodword about the war, as one can easily find for oneself from a perusal of myvarious articles in the Kölnische Zeitung during 1915-16, dated fromConstantinopleandmarked(asmallsteamship).

That dramatic event which finally alienated me from the German cause tookplacejustaftertheendofaseverecrisisinmyrelationshipwithGerman-TurkishHeadquarters. Some slight hints I had given of Turkish mismanagement,cynicism, and jingoism in a series of articles appearing from February 15th,1916,onwards,underthetitle"TurkishEconomicProblems,"sofarastheywerepossibleunderexistingcensorshipconditions,was theoccasionof the trouble.OnecanimaginethatHeadquarterswouldcertainlybefuriouswithajournalistwhosearticlesappearedonefineday,literallytranslated,intheMatinunderthetitle:"Situation insupportableenTurquie,décriteparun journalisteallemand"("Insufferable situation in Turkey, described by a German journalist"), andcroppeduponcemoreonJune1st,intheJournaldesBalcans,Iwasthreetimesover threatened with dismissal. My paper sent a confidential man to hold aninquiry,andafteramonthhemadeaconfidential report,whichresulted inmybeing allowed to remain.But the fact that the same journalist thatwrote suchthingswasmarried to aCzechwas toomuch formy colleagues,whowere inpart in the pay of the Embassy, in part in the pay of the Young TurkishCommittee, whose politics they praised, regardless of their own inwardconvictions, like the representative of the Berliner Tageblatt, to get materialbenefit ormake sure of their own jobs. I gleanedmanyhumorous details at anightlysittingofmyPresscolleaguesinPera,atwhichImyselfwasbrandedasa"dangerouscharacter thatmustbegotridof,"andmywife(whowasfar tooyoungevertoworryaboutpolitics)asa"Russianspy"—perhapsbecause,withthejustifiableprideandreserveofherrace,shedidnotattempttocultivatethesocietyoftheGermancolony.Thatbegantheperiodofintriguesandill-will,butmyenemiesdidnotsucceedindamagingme,althoughmatterswentsofarasadenunciation of me before the "Prevention of Espionage Department" of the

General Staff in Berlin.My paper, after they had given me the fullest moralsatisfaction,andhadarrangedformetoremaininConstantinopleinspiteofallthathadtakenplace,thoughtitwasbettertogivemethechanceofchangingandofferedmeanewpostontheeditorialstaffelsewhere.

However,IwasnowquitefinishedwithGermany,orratherwith itspolitics; itwouldhavebeenamoralimpossibilityformetowriteanothersinglewordintheeditorialline;soIrefusedtheofferandappliedforsick-leavefromOctober1st,1916, to the end of thewar (by telegramabout themiddle ofAugust). Itwasgrantedmewithanexpressionofregret.

Arrived inSwitzerland (February7th,1917), I severedall connectionwithmypaperbymutualconsentfromOctober1st,1916,onwards.Aftermyresignation,no special editorial representative of theKölnische Zeitung was appointed totakemyplace,asthecensorshipmadeanykindofsatisfactoryworkimpossible.

Ishouldliketoemphasisethefactthattheintriguesagainstme,thecrisiswithHeadquartersIhavejustmentioned,andmydeparturefromConstantinopledidnot injure me in any way either morally or financially, and have nothingwhatever to do with the present publication. It is certainly not any pettyannoyance that could bring me to such an action, which will probably entailmore than enough unpleasant consequences for me. The reproaches levelledagainst me by my pushing, jingoistic colleagues were as impotent as theirattempts toget ridofmeas "dangerous to theGermanCause"; I havewrittenproofofthisfrommypaperinmyhand,andalsoofthefactthatitwasofmyownfree-willthatIretired.Icanthereforelookforwardquitecalmlytoallthepersonalinvectivethatissuretobeshoweredonmeforpoliticalreasons.

I had sufficient independent means not to feel the loss of my post inConstantinopletookeenly;andifIstillkeptmypostafterthebeginningofthecrisis with Headquarters, it was simply and solely so that as a newspapercorrespondentImightbeinpossessionoffullerinformation,andabletofollowup as long as possible the developments that were taking place on that mostinterestingsoilofTurkey.Whenthatwasnolongerpossible,IrefusedthepostofferedmeinCologne—infacttwice,oncebyletterandoncebytelegram—forIcouldnotpretendtoopinionsIdirectlyopposed.Ithereforeremainedasafree-lanceintheTurkishcapital.Iwasextremelygladthatthedifferenceofopinionendedasitdid,forIhadatlastafreehandtosayandwritewhatIthoughtandfelt.

My stay in Constantinople for a further three months as a silent observer

naturallydidnotescapethenoticeoftheGermanauthorities,andaftertheyhadreportedtotheForeignOfficethata"satisfactoryco-operationbetweenmeandthe German representatives was not longer possible," they had of course todiscoversomeexcuseforputtinganendtomyprolongedstayinTurkey.Theyfinallyattemptedtogetridofmebycallingmeupformilitarydutyagain.Butthiswasuselessinmycase,formyhealthhadbeenbadlyshakenbymyspellattheFrontatthebeginningofthewar,andbesidesIhadthedoctor'swordforitthat I should never be able to stand theGerman climate after having lived solongintheTropics.

Whether they liked it or not, the authorities had to find some othermeans ofgettingmeoutofConstantinople.TheConsul-Generalapproachedme,afterhehaddiscussedthematterwiththeAmbassador,toseeifIwouldnotliketogotoSwitzerlandtogetproperlycured;otherwisehewassureIwouldbeturnedoutbytheTurks.Theywereevidentlyafraid,forIwasgettingmoreandmoreintobad odour with the German authorities for my ill-concealed opinions, that Iwouldpublishmyimpressions,withdocumentarysupport,assoonasevertherewasachangeofgovernmentinTurkey,orassoonastheGermancensorshipwasremovedandanythingofthekindwaspossible.Theyapparentlythoughtthatthefrontier regulations would be quite sufficient to prevent my taking anydocumentaryevidencewithmetoSwitzerland.

As amatter of fact this was the case, and the day beforemy departure fromConstantinople I carefully burned thewhole ofmymany notes, whichwouldhaveproducedamuchmoreeffectiveindictmentagainstthemoralsordidnessofthe German-Young Turkish system than these very general sketches. But thestrictest frontier regulationscouldnotpreventmefromtakingwithme,freeofallcensorship,theimpressionsIhadreceivedinTurkey,andtheopinionsIhadarrived at after a painful battle for loyalty tomyself as a German and to thedutiesIhadundertaken.EventhenIhadconsiderabledifficultyingettingacrossthefrontier,andIhadtowaitseventeenwholedaysatthefrontierbeforeIwasfinally allowed into Switzerland. It was only owing to the fact that I sent atelegram to the Chancellor, on the authority of the Consul-General inConstantinople,beggingthatnodifficultiesofapoliticalkindmightbeplacedinthewayofmygoingtoSwitzerland,asIhadbeenpermittedtodosobymedicalcertificate,thepassportauthoritiesandthelocalcommand,thatIfinallywonmypointwiththefrontierauthoritiesandwaspermittedtocrossintoSwitzerland.

Totellthetruth,Imustadmitthatthehighcivilauthorities,andparticularlytheForeignOffice,treatedmethroughoutmostkindlyandcourteously.Forthisone

reason I had a hard fight with myself, right up to the very last, even after Iarrived in Switzerland, before I sat down and wrote out my impressions andopinionsofGerman-Turkishpolitics.AndifIhavenowfinallydecidedtomakethempublic,IcanonlydosowithanexpressionofthemosthonestregretthatmyprivateandpoliticalconsciencehasnotallowedmetorequitethekindnessoftheauthoritiesbykeepingsilentaboutwhatIsawoftheGermanandTurkishsystem.

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