International journal of environmental biology 2014 4(2) 112 118

112 International Journal of Environmental Biology 2014; 4(2): 112-118

ISSN 2277–386X

Review Article

ECOLOGICAL DYNAMICS AND HYDROBIOLOGICAL CORRELATIONS IN

FRESHWATER PONDS – RECENT RESEARCHES AND APPLICATION

Roy, K.1*, Chari, M.S.

2, Gaur, S.R.

3 and Thakur, A.

4

1*Research scholar.Department of Fisheries, College of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,

Raipur 492012, [email protected] 2,3

Professor. Department of Fisheries.Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur. 4Postgraduate scholar.Department of Fisheries, College of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,

Raipur 492012, Chhattisgarh.

Received 21 March 2014; accepted 08 April 2014

Abstract

The utilization of the pond resources depends upon their limnological, hydrobiological and ecological knowledge in order

to augment fish production by adopting scientific approach. As ponds play a vital role in commercial fisheries, sound

ecosystem based management is necessary and it is pre-requisite to study their fundamental ecosystem dynamics for proper

utilization or conservation.An account of recent researcheson hydrobiological correlations existing in freshwater ponds and

lakes is also given in the following article.

© 2014 Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved

Keywords: - Freshwater environment, Aquatic ecology, Limnology, Hydrobiology, Ecological dynamics, Pond,

Aquaculture

1. Introduction

Water is an elixir of life. It governs the evolution and

function of the universe on the earth hence water is called

as the „mother of all living world‟. Majority of water

available on the earth is saline in nature; only small

quantity is fresh water (Gupta and Shukle, 2006). Aquatic

ecosystem is the most diverse ecosystem in the world. The

first life originated in the water. Water covers about 71% of

the earth of which more than 95% exists in gigantic oceans.

Global aquatic ecosystems fall under two broad classes

defined by salinity – freshwater ecosystem and the

saltwater ecosystem. Freshwater ecosystems are inland

waters that have low concentrations of salts (< 5 ppt).

Freshwater ecosystem (habitats and organisms) includes

rivers and streams, ponds and lakes and their associated

biodiversity. Aquatic habitats provide the food, water,

shelter, and space essential for the survival of aquatic

animals and plants, both microscopic and macroscopic.

Aquatic biodiversity is generally rich and harbours variety

of plants and animals i.e. from primary producers like algae

to tertiary consumers like large carnivorous fishes,

intermittently occupied by zooplankton, small herbivorous

or planktivorous fishes, aquatic insects, etc. Many of these

animals and plants species live in water forever, whereas

others like insects and frogs may use waters only during the

breeding season or as juveniles (UNEP, 1996).

2. Limnology – A tool for scientific investigation

The study of freshwater habitats is known as limnology.

Freshwater habitats can be further divided into two groups

as lentic and lotic ecosystems i.e. - standing water and

flowing water respectively. The water residence time in a

lentic ecosystem on an average is 10 years and the average

flow velocity ranges from 0.001 to 0.01 m/s. The lentic

habitats further differentiate from lotic habitats by having a

thermal stratification with is created in a lake due to

differential heating of water layers, where lighter water

floats on top of the heavier cooler water resulting in a

thermocline at the middle. Ponds, tanks and lakes are

comes under lentic water systems (Wetzel, 2001).

3. Ponds – A Neglected Aqua Resource

Ponds are relatively shallow water bodies that are potential

habitats for microscopic or macroscopic plants and animals

comprising plankton, periphyton, nekton, neuston, benthos,

finfish and shellfish (Denny 1985). These shallow fresh

water impoundments in the tropics are becoming

increasingly important as sources of fish and various

methods including introduction of new species, semi

intensive to intensive culture technologies, and ecosystem

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based management approaches are frequently being tried in

the hope of improving fisheries (Dokulilet al., 1983).

4. Various ecological dynamics in a freshwater pond

In aquatic habitats, the environmental factors include

various physical properties of water such as solubility of

gases and solids, the penetration of light, temperature, and

density. The chemical factors such as salinity, pH,

hardness, phosphates and nitrates are very important for

growth and density of phytoplankton, on which,

zooplankton and some higher consumer depend for their

existence (Jhingran, 1985). The term “Water quality” refers

for the physical, chemical and biological parameters of

water and all these characteristics directly or indirectly

influences the survival and production of aquaculture

species (Boyd, 1998). The seasonal variation in the

ecological parameters exerts a profound effect on the

distribution and population density of both animal and

plants (Odum, 1971). The productivity in terms of

planktonic biomass in fresh water lakes, rivers and ponds is

regulated by various physico-chemical factors viz.,

temperature, transparency, pH, electrical conductivity, total

hardness, nitrogen and phosphorus (Mahboobet al., 1988).

4.1. Temperature Dynamics

Temperature is one of the most important and essential

parameter of aquatic habitats because almost all the

physical, chemical and biological properties are governed

by it. It influences the oxygen contents of water quantity

and quality of autotrophs, while affecting the rate of

photosynthesis and also indirectly affecting the quantity

and quality of heterotrophs (Barnabe, 1994). The

temperature of water varies throughout the year with

seasonal changes in air temperature, day length, and solar

radiations. Fishes and zooplankton are stressed when

temperature changes rapidly, because there is no enough

time for physiological adaptation (Boyd, 1998). Water

temperature generally depends upon climate, sunlight and

depth. The intensity and seasonal variation in temperature

of water directly affect the productivity of lakes. All

organisms possess limits of temperature tolerance. The

seasonal fluctuation of temperature influences the feeding

habits of the fish. All biological activities like ingestion,

reproduction, movement and distribution are greatly

influenced by water temperature. Decrease in temperature

is also directly related to increase in DO. High temperature

intensifies the effect of toxic substances and speed up

biological degradation process (Boyd, 1998). A

temperature of about 35ºC is generally considered as

threshold for survival of aquatic life (ICAR, 2011).

4.2. Light Dynamics

Turbidity is the measurement of inhibition of light passing

through a water sample (Landau, 1992). Turbidity is the

name given to the clarity of water which is affected by the

amount of the suspended solids in it. High turbidity often

accompanies organic pollution. Turbidity reduces the light

penetration into deeper waters, and hence, reduces the

primary productivity (Landau, 1992). Turbidity by plankton

is considered beneficial whereas clay turbidity adversely

affects plant growth (Boyd, 1998). Quality and quantity of

light entering in an aquatic habitat are important.

Availability of light energy to a fish pond greatly

influences its productivity. Synthesis of carbohydrates is a

photochemical process energized by light (Rath, 1993).

Transparency gives an indirect measure of turbidity. It also

gives an estimate about the amount of fish food organisms

i.e. – plankton available in the water body. Generally a

transparency of less than 15 cm or greater than 45 cm is

considered unsuitable for fish culture operations (ICAR,

2011).

4.3. pH Dynamics

The pH expresses the acidity or alkalinity of water which is

determined by means of hydrogen ion (H+) and the

hydroxyl ion (OH-) in water. Higher concentration of H+

ions gives lower score on the pH scale and lower

concentration of H+ ions gives higher scores on the pH

scale. Waters of around pH 7 are called as neutral. During

daylight, aquatic plants usually remove the CO2 from the

water quickly and pH increases. At night, CO2 accumulates

and pH declines. The magnitude of daily fluctuation in pH

depends on the buffering capacity (total alkalinity) of water

and rates of photosynthesis respiration (Boyd, 1998). The

water with pH values ranging from abut 6.5-9.0 at daybreak

is most suitable for fish production (ICAR, 2011). It shows

diurnal fluctuation, being low at night and high in the

afternoon.

4.4. Alkalinity Dynamics

The amount of acid required for titration of bases is a

measure of alkalinity of water or it is the ability of water to

neutralize acids. Carbonates and bicarbonates are the major

titratable bases present in the pond water and their

concentrations are expressed as total alkalinity. Calcareous

water with alkalinity more than 50 ppm is most productive.

However, the range of alkalinity as 0-20 ppm for the low

production, 20-40 ppm for medium production and 50-200

ppm for high production are considered. Influence of

alkalinity is probably masked by other more important

factor such as dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus (Rath,

1993). It also shows diurnal fluctuation, being low at night

and high in the afternoon.

4.5. Hardness Dynamics

Hard water contains high concentrations of alkaline earth

metals while soft water has low concentrations. Hardness

usually includes only Ca++ and Mg++ ions expressed in

the terms ofequivalent CaCO3 (Abbasi, 1998). Total

hardness of 15 ppm or above are satisfactory for the growth

of fish. Water having hardness less than 5 ppm CaCO3

equivalent cause low growth, distress and eventually death

of fish (Rath, 1993). For optimal fish production total

hardness of a water body should be nearly equal to its total

alkalinity value (ICAR, 2011). Fluctuation in water

hardness occurs hand in hand with the total alkalinity.

4.6. Conductivity Dynamics

Conductivity of natural water is measure of its ability to

convey an electric current. Specific conductivity can be

utilized as a rapid measurement of dissolved solids (Frank

et al., 1974). The level of conductivity in water gives a

good indication of the amount of joinable substances

dissolved in it, such as phosphate, nitrate and nitrites.

Generally conductivity of the natural water is directly

proportional to the concentration of ions. Distilled water

has a conductivity of about 1μmhos/cm, while natural water


normally has conductivity of 20-1500 μmhos/cm the

conductivity of solutions depends upon the quantity of

dissolved salts present (Boyd, 1998). Conductivity varies

seasonally, being high during summer time due to

evaporation and concentration while being low during rainy

season due to dilution.

4.7. TDS Dynamics

Total dissolved solids (TDS) indicate organic and inorganic

matter in the sample. It is aggregated amount of the entire

floating suspended solids present in water sample. The

solids may be organic or inorganic in nature depending

upon volatility of the substances. A high concentration of

dissolved solids increases the density of water affects

osmoregulation of fresh water organisms, reduces solubility

of gases and utility of water for drinking, irrigational and

industrial purposes (Boyd, 1998).TDS also varies

seasonally, being high during summer time and reaching a

peak in monsoon while it lowers in winter.

4.8. Oxygen Dynamics

Dissolved oxygen has primary importance in natural water

as limiting factor because most organisms other than

anaerobic microbes die rapidly when oxygen levels in

water becomes low or falls to zero. Of all dissolved gases,

oxygen plays the most important role in determining the

potential biological quality of water. It is essential for

respiration, helps the breakdown of organic detritus and

enables completion of biochemical pathways (Boyd, 1998).

It is added in the water via diffusion and photosynthesis

whereas it is removed from the water via respiration and

decomposition (Goldman and Horne, 1983). DO is

inversely related to water temperature and salinity. It shows

diurnal fluctuation, being low at night and high in the

afternoon (corresponding to the fluctuation of water pH).

4.9. Nutrient Dynamics

Most of the nutrients in fishponds are distributed in water,

fish biomass and the sediments and it‟s believed that a large

proportion of nutrients end up in pond mud (Knud-Hansen

1997). The water of pond is chemically in a state of

equilibrium, in which the soil plays an active part. Pond

soil has the ability to store the nutrients and release them

into water through various pathways which stimulates the

production of plankton (Boyd, 1998). Nutrients, both from

autochthonous as well as allochthonous inputs play a

versatile role in defining trophic status of the pond

ecosystem (Das, 2003).Nitrogen and phosphorus are often

identified as limiting nutrients in pond water for plankton

production (Hecky&Kilham 1988). Soil available nitrogen,

phosphorus, potassium and organic carbon are considered

as key nutrients in ponds from management point of view

(Knud-Hansen, 1997).Nitrogen occurs in fresh water in

numerous forms: dissolved nitrogen, amino acids, amines,

urea, ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2

-), and nitrate (NO3

-)

(Wetzel 2001). Nitrogen may limit the primary production

of ponds in which fish yields are dependent of autotrophic

food webs.In ponds where nitrogen is limiting, organic and

inorganic fertilization programme may be directed towards

increasing the availability of nitrogen for phytoplankton.

Phytoplankton takes up dissolved nitrogen from the water

column in aquaculture ponds and is regarded as the primary

pathway of nitrogen removal (Hargreaves 1998).

Phosphorus (P) can be found either in particulate matter or

as soluble inorganic phosphorus, orthophosphate (PO43-

). In

ponds, phosphorus is very dynamic i.e. - found in either

particulate matter such as phytoplankton, zooplankton and

bacteria or in soluble forms (Knud-Hansen 1997).The

lowest concentration of dissolved nitrate and phosphate in

water is minimum in summer followed by winter and

highest during monsoon (Tidame and Shinde, 2013). All

the nutrient levels in the pond bottom sediment shows

minimum value during pre-monsoon and maximum value

in post-monsoon (Bordoloietal., 2012).

4.10. Productivity dynamics

Primary productivity is a measure of new organic matter

created in the water body (Wetzel 2001). It can be

determined by the oxygen production fluxes during short

periods of time per unit volume of water. It is influenced by

a number of physical and chemical factors. From Tilzeret

al. (1975), two primary factors controlling phytoplankton

productivity in water bodies are light and nutrient

availability, and these in turn are influenced by suspended

material and vertical mixing regimes. Algal primary

productivity is the driving force behind the secondary

productivity in fertilized ponds. There is a well established

and very strong relationship between net algal productivity

and the net fish yield for fishes whose diets consists of

natural food produced in the pond (Knud-Hansen 1997).

Potassium is required for all cells principally as an enzyme

indicator (Goldman and Horne, 1983).Net primary

productivity is maximum in summer and minimum in

monsoon. Gross primary productivity is maximum in

monsoon and minimum in winter (Tidame and Shinde,

2013).

4.11. Plankton Dynamics

The plankton community is comprised of the primary

producers or phytoplankton and the secondary producers or

zooplankton (Battish, 1992). It is well established fact that

more than 75% of freshwater fish feed on plankton at one

or the other stage of their life cycle. Phytoplanktons are the

primary producers of water bodies; these are the main

source of food directly or indirectly to the fish population.

The zooplankton and other micro invertebrates also depend

upon phytoplankton for their existence. Presence of

phytoplankton, filamentous algae and vascular aquatic

plants in an aquatic environment is essential to ensure the

proper aeration of water by releasing the oxygen and

absorbing the carbon dioxide; which is exhaled by fish and

other aquatic animals (Wetzel, 1975). Zooplanktons are

considered to be the ecological indicators of water bodies

(Gajbhiy and Desai 1981). Theinvestigation of zooplankton

forms an important aspect of limnology, since they

constitute the intermediate level between the primary

producers and secondary consumers. The availability of

zooplankton as food for larval fish is thought to be one of

the key factors that strengthen commercial fisheries (Kane,

1993). The accumulation of plankton biomass coincides

with the onset of the rainy season (May to September).

Generally, the sequence of annual phytoplankton

dominance is Chlorophyceae > Cyanophyceae >

Bacillariophyceae while the dominance for zooplankton is

Rotifera > Copepoda > Cladocera (Khan, 2010).


5. Hydrobiological correlations in freshwater ponds –

Recent researches

Mahajan and Mandloi (1998) showed that the plankton

production of pond was dependent upon available nutrient

value of soil and water, which came through inflow during

monsoon season.

Paul et al. (2007) found a significant correlation (P<0.05)

between the NPP and the Available-N, Available-P of soil.

No significant correlation was observed between the NPP

and Available-K of soil.

Thirugnanamoorthy and Selvaraju (2009) studied the

phytoplankton diversity in relation to physico-chemical

parameters of a temple pond of Chidambaram in Tamil

Nadu, India and reported that the distribution and

population density of phytoplankton species depend upon

the physico-chemical parameters of the environment.

Parikh and Mankodi (2010) reported the limnological status

of the urban pond, Vadodara, Gujarat from November 2007

to October 2008. Significant correlation is observed

between silica and phosphate; similarly alkalinity and

phosphate represent positive significance. This may be

attributed to possible decomposition of organic material.

Inverse relationship observed at significant level between

total hardness and alkalinity may be due to the presence of

more dissolved carbonates and bicarbonates. A direct

relationship was observed between dissolved oxygen and

temperature. Nutrients like phosphates and nitrates released

due to trophic level interactions and food chain relationship

shows increasing trend annually, but negative correlation

between them.

Singh and Bhatnagar (2010)studied four village fish culture

ponds (two wild and two managed ponds) from district

Hisar of Haryana, India. The study was undertaken, to

correlate the water quality and biological cycles in ponds

with fish production. Chlorides, total hardness, calcium,

magnesium, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),

phosphates (O-PO4) and ammonia were high whereas

dissolved oxygen and fish growth/ yield was low in wild

ponds in comparison to managed ponds. This may be due

to high organic loads. The net primary productivity was

high in the wild ponds in comparison to the managed

ponds. The deterioration of water quality, as indicated by

very high ammonia and BOD in wild ponds might have

decreased the fish growth. On the other hand, grazing

pressure might have decreased the Net Primary

Productivity (NPP) but resulted in the high fish biomass in

managed ponds. Thus high fish yield or growth is not

directly related with net primary productivity.

The physico-chemical characteristics of pond water have

direct impact on prevailing organisms (Sayeshwaraet al.,

2011).

Shiddamallayya and Pratima (2011) investigated the

seasonal changes in phytoplankton community in Papnash

pond, Bidar, Karnataka along with physico-chemical

characteristics of water. Correlation coefficient matrix has

shown significant correlation between atmospheric

temperature and phosphate with Cyanophyceae. A

significant correlation was also found between atmospheric

temperature and pH with Euglenophyceae. Similarly

significant correlation existed between phosphate and

Bacillariophyceae. The observations indicated fluctuation

of various physico-chemical parameters in relation to

seasons and by intervenes of the people.

Water temperature (WT) showed positive correlation at the

level .01 (two tailed) with air temperature (AT), CO2, pH,

PO4, TDS, TH, TS and negative with DO and WC.

Transparency is negatively significantly correlated at the

level of .01 with TDS and total hardness. DO is negatively

correlated with AT, CO2, pH, TH and WT at the level of

.01 and positively correlated with NO3 at the level of .05.

CO2 is positively correlated with AT, pH, PO4, TDS and

WT at .01 level and negatively with DO, transparency.

Total hardness is positively correlated with pH, TDS,

transparency and WT while negatively with DO, NO3 and

water volume (Patilet al., 2011).

Ahmad et al. (2011) reported a negative and significant

correlation between zooplankton and water temperature,

nitrate (r = -0.700 and -0.861 respectively). Also,

zooplankton recorded positive correlation with

transparency, dissolved oxygen and phosphorus (r = 0.168,

0.469 and 0.529 respectively). Significant negative

correlation was found between TDS and transparency, total

hardness and also between conductivity and total hardness.

Positive correlation was established between TDS and

conductivity.

The limnological parameter and plankton diversity are

important criterion for determining the suitability of water

for fisheries purpose (Sharma etal., 2011).

Similarly, Pathak and Mankodi (2012) established several

correlation coefficients between physico-chemical

parameters and dissolved nutrients present in a water body.

Temperature showed a significant inverse relationship with

dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen shows a significant

negative relation with temperature, alkalinity, total

hardness, electrical conductance, nitrate, phosphate and

respiration. Total alkalinity shows a positive relationship

with temperature, depth of visibility, pH, total hardness,

TDS, conductivity, nitrate, phosphate and respiration.

Nitrate showed positive relation with temperature, pH,

alkalinity, total hardness, TDS, electrical conductivity,

phosphate and productivity, and negative relation with

dissolved oxygen. Gross Primary Production was found to

have positive correlation with dissolved oxygen, depth of

visibility, pH, nitrates and phosphates (Sharma etal., 2012).

The physico–chemical parameters like air and water

temperature, pH, alkalinity, conductivity, total-solids, total

dissolved solids and total suspended solids, nitrate,

phosphate, BOD and COD were found to correlate with

phytoplankton present in the pond. The study revealed that

the water of the temple pond can be classified as

moderately polluted in nature (Natarajan and Shakila,

2012).

The study of correlation coefficient of various physico-

chemical parameters and zooplankton groups shows that

they are related with each other. The temperature is

significantly positively correlated with rotifer and inversely

proportional to turbidity. The pH is positively correlated

D.O. gross primary productivity, chloride, phosphate and

negatively correlated with magnesium. The increase in

turbidity causes decrease in hardness, alkalinity and rotifer


density. Hardness shows significant positive correlation

with copepod density and shows an inverse relation with

cladocerans. The increase in carbon-dioxide shows

decrease in GPP, phosphate, D.O. and increase in NPP.

Dissolved oxygen shows positive correlation with

phosphate, GPP and negative with that of NPP. GPP shows

positive correlation with phosphate, chloride. The density

of copepod shows inverse relation with cladocera

population (Tidame and Shinde, 2012).

Varghese et al. (2012) revealed the changes in the algal

communities with the changes in the environmental

parameters and nutrient regime.

The distribution and density of zooplankton species was

influenced by several physical and chemical factors of the

pond environment (Aartiet al. 2013).

Correlation coefficients (r) for all pairs of determined

physico-chemical parameters showed that transparency had

a significant correlation with Dissolved Oxygen (0.52) and

pH (0.63) (p≤0.05 and 0.01 levels). Alkalinity had a

positive correlation with pH (0.43) and low negative

correlation (-0.30; -0.21) with DO and Free Carbon dioxide

(Idowuet. al., 2013).

6. Application of the knowledge – Aim and Scope

Maintenance of a healthy aquatic environment and

production of sufficient fish food organisms in ponds are

two factors of primary importance for successful pond

cultural operations. To keep the aquatic habitat favourable

for existence, physical and chemical factors like

temperature, turbidity, odour, colour, dissolved gases,

alkalinity, hardness and noxious gases will exercise their

influence individually or synergistically. While the nutrient

status of water and soil play an important role in governing

the production of planktonic organisms or primary

production in fish ponds (Banerjea, 1967).

Knowledge of the ecology of fish ponds provides an

important tool for managing them for higher yields (Nath

and Mandal, 2003). The utilization of the pond resources

depends upon their limnological, hydrobiological and

ecological knowledge in order to augment fish production

by adopting scientific approach (Paria and Konar, 2003).

As ponds play a vital role in commercial fisheries, sound

ecosystem based management is necessary and it is pre-

requisite to study their fundamental ecosystem dynamics

for proper utilization or conservation (Rao et. al., 1999).

DISCLAIMER

The first author declares that this review article is a part of

his M.F.Sc. (Aquaculture) thesis work and research

problem.

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Source of support: Nil; Conflict of interest: None declared