112 International Journal of Environmental Biology 2014; 4(2): 112-118
ISSN 2277–386X
Review Article
ECOLOGICAL DYNAMICS AND HYDROBIOLOGICAL CORRELATIONS IN
FRESHWATER PONDS – RECENT RESEARCHES AND APPLICATION
Roy, K.1*, Chari, M.S.
2, Gaur, S.R.
3 and Thakur, A.
4
1*Research scholar.Department of Fisheries, College of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
Raipur 492012, [email protected] 2,3
Professor. Department of Fisheries.Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur. 4Postgraduate scholar.Department of Fisheries, College of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
Raipur 492012, Chhattisgarh.
Received 21 March 2014; accepted 08 April 2014
Abstract
The utilization of the pond resources depends upon their limnological, hydrobiological and ecological knowledge in order
to augment fish production by adopting scientific approach. As ponds play a vital role in commercial fisheries, sound
ecosystem based management is necessary and it is pre-requisite to study their fundamental ecosystem dynamics for proper
utilization or conservation.An account of recent researcheson hydrobiological correlations existing in freshwater ponds and
lakes is also given in the following article.
© 2014 Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved
Keywords: - Freshwater environment, Aquatic ecology, Limnology, Hydrobiology, Ecological dynamics, Pond,
Aquaculture
1. Introduction
Water is an elixir of life. It governs the evolution and
function of the universe on the earth hence water is called
as the „mother of all living world‟. Majority of water
available on the earth is saline in nature; only small
quantity is fresh water (Gupta and Shukle, 2006). Aquatic
ecosystem is the most diverse ecosystem in the world. The
first life originated in the water. Water covers about 71% of
the earth of which more than 95% exists in gigantic oceans.
Global aquatic ecosystems fall under two broad classes
defined by salinity – freshwater ecosystem and the
saltwater ecosystem. Freshwater ecosystems are inland
waters that have low concentrations of salts (< 5 ppt).
Freshwater ecosystem (habitats and organisms) includes
rivers and streams, ponds and lakes and their associated
biodiversity. Aquatic habitats provide the food, water,
shelter, and space essential for the survival of aquatic
animals and plants, both microscopic and macroscopic.
Aquatic biodiversity is generally rich and harbours variety
of plants and animals i.e. from primary producers like algae
to tertiary consumers like large carnivorous fishes,
intermittently occupied by zooplankton, small herbivorous
or planktivorous fishes, aquatic insects, etc. Many of these
animals and plants species live in water forever, whereas
others like insects and frogs may use waters only during the
breeding season or as juveniles (UNEP, 1996).
2. Limnology – A tool for scientific investigation
The study of freshwater habitats is known as limnology.
Freshwater habitats can be further divided into two groups
as lentic and lotic ecosystems i.e. - standing water and
flowing water respectively. The water residence time in a
lentic ecosystem on an average is 10 years and the average
flow velocity ranges from 0.001 to 0.01 m/s. The lentic
habitats further differentiate from lotic habitats by having a
thermal stratification with is created in a lake due to
differential heating of water layers, where lighter water
floats on top of the heavier cooler water resulting in a
thermocline at the middle. Ponds, tanks and lakes are
comes under lentic water systems (Wetzel, 2001).
3. Ponds – A Neglected Aqua Resource
Ponds are relatively shallow water bodies that are potential
habitats for microscopic or macroscopic plants and animals
comprising plankton, periphyton, nekton, neuston, benthos,
finfish and shellfish (Denny 1985). These shallow fresh
water impoundments in the tropics are becoming
increasingly important as sources of fish and various
methods including introduction of new species, semi
intensive to intensive culture technologies, and ecosystem
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Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved
113 International Journal of Environmental Biology 2014; 4(2): 112-118
based management approaches are frequently being tried in
the hope of improving fisheries (Dokulilet al., 1983).
4. Various ecological dynamics in a freshwater pond
In aquatic habitats, the environmental factors include
various physical properties of water such as solubility of
gases and solids, the penetration of light, temperature, and
density. The chemical factors such as salinity, pH,
hardness, phosphates and nitrates are very important for
growth and density of phytoplankton, on which,
zooplankton and some higher consumer depend for their
existence (Jhingran, 1985). The term “Water quality” refers
for the physical, chemical and biological parameters of
water and all these characteristics directly or indirectly
influences the survival and production of aquaculture
species (Boyd, 1998). The seasonal variation in the
ecological parameters exerts a profound effect on the
distribution and population density of both animal and
plants (Odum, 1971). The productivity in terms of
planktonic biomass in fresh water lakes, rivers and ponds is
regulated by various physico-chemical factors viz.,
temperature, transparency, pH, electrical conductivity, total
hardness, nitrogen and phosphorus (Mahboobet al., 1988).
4.1. Temperature Dynamics
Temperature is one of the most important and essential
parameter of aquatic habitats because almost all the
physical, chemical and biological properties are governed
by it. It influences the oxygen contents of water quantity
and quality of autotrophs, while affecting the rate of
photosynthesis and also indirectly affecting the quantity
and quality of heterotrophs (Barnabe, 1994). The
temperature of water varies throughout the year with
seasonal changes in air temperature, day length, and solar
radiations. Fishes and zooplankton are stressed when
temperature changes rapidly, because there is no enough
time for physiological adaptation (Boyd, 1998). Water
temperature generally depends upon climate, sunlight and
depth. The intensity and seasonal variation in temperature
of water directly affect the productivity of lakes. All
organisms possess limits of temperature tolerance. The
seasonal fluctuation of temperature influences the feeding
habits of the fish. All biological activities like ingestion,
reproduction, movement and distribution are greatly
influenced by water temperature. Decrease in temperature
is also directly related to increase in DO. High temperature
intensifies the effect of toxic substances and speed up
biological degradation process (Boyd, 1998). A
temperature of about 35ºC is generally considered as
threshold for survival of aquatic life (ICAR, 2011).
4.2. Light Dynamics
Turbidity is the measurement of inhibition of light passing
through a water sample (Landau, 1992). Turbidity is the
name given to the clarity of water which is affected by the
amount of the suspended solids in it. High turbidity often
accompanies organic pollution. Turbidity reduces the light
penetration into deeper waters, and hence, reduces the
primary productivity (Landau, 1992). Turbidity by plankton
is considered beneficial whereas clay turbidity adversely
affects plant growth (Boyd, 1998). Quality and quantity of
light entering in an aquatic habitat are important.
Availability of light energy to a fish pond greatly
influences its productivity. Synthesis of carbohydrates is a
photochemical process energized by light (Rath, 1993).
Transparency gives an indirect measure of turbidity. It also
gives an estimate about the amount of fish food organisms
i.e. – plankton available in the water body. Generally a
transparency of less than 15 cm or greater than 45 cm is
considered unsuitable for fish culture operations (ICAR,
2011).
4.3. pH Dynamics
The pH expresses the acidity or alkalinity of water which is
determined by means of hydrogen ion (H+) and the
hydroxyl ion (OH-) in water. Higher concentration of H+
ions gives lower score on the pH scale and lower
concentration of H+ ions gives higher scores on the pH
scale. Waters of around pH 7 are called as neutral. During
daylight, aquatic plants usually remove the CO2 from the
water quickly and pH increases. At night, CO2 accumulates
and pH declines. The magnitude of daily fluctuation in pH
depends on the buffering capacity (total alkalinity) of water
and rates of photosynthesis respiration (Boyd, 1998). The
water with pH values ranging from abut 6.5-9.0 at daybreak
is most suitable for fish production (ICAR, 2011). It shows
diurnal fluctuation, being low at night and high in the
afternoon.
4.4. Alkalinity Dynamics
The amount of acid required for titration of bases is a
measure of alkalinity of water or it is the ability of water to
neutralize acids. Carbonates and bicarbonates are the major
titratable bases present in the pond water and their
concentrations are expressed as total alkalinity. Calcareous
water with alkalinity more than 50 ppm is most productive.
However, the range of alkalinity as 0-20 ppm for the low
production, 20-40 ppm for medium production and 50-200
ppm for high production are considered. Influence of
alkalinity is probably masked by other more important
factor such as dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus (Rath,
1993). It also shows diurnal fluctuation, being low at night
and high in the afternoon.
4.5. Hardness Dynamics
Hard water contains high concentrations of alkaline earth
metals while soft water has low concentrations. Hardness
usually includes only Ca++ and Mg++ ions expressed in
the terms ofequivalent CaCO3 (Abbasi, 1998). Total
hardness of 15 ppm or above are satisfactory for the growth
of fish. Water having hardness less than 5 ppm CaCO3
equivalent cause low growth, distress and eventually death
of fish (Rath, 1993). For optimal fish production total
hardness of a water body should be nearly equal to its total
alkalinity value (ICAR, 2011). Fluctuation in water
hardness occurs hand in hand with the total alkalinity.
4.6. Conductivity Dynamics
Conductivity of natural water is measure of its ability to
convey an electric current. Specific conductivity can be
utilized as a rapid measurement of dissolved solids (Frank
et al., 1974). The level of conductivity in water gives a
good indication of the amount of joinable substances
dissolved in it, such as phosphate, nitrate and nitrites.
Generally conductivity of the natural water is directly
proportional to the concentration of ions. Distilled water
has a conductivity of about 1μmhos/cm, while natural water
114 International Journal of Environmental Biology 2014; 4(2): 112-118
normally has conductivity of 20-1500 μmhos/cm the
conductivity of solutions depends upon the quantity of
dissolved salts present (Boyd, 1998). Conductivity varies
seasonally, being high during summer time due to
evaporation and concentration while being low during rainy
season due to dilution.
4.7. TDS Dynamics
Total dissolved solids (TDS) indicate organic and inorganic
matter in the sample. It is aggregated amount of the entire
floating suspended solids present in water sample. The
solids may be organic or inorganic in nature depending
upon volatility of the substances. A high concentration of
dissolved solids increases the density of water affects
osmoregulation of fresh water organisms, reduces solubility
of gases and utility of water for drinking, irrigational and
industrial purposes (Boyd, 1998).TDS also varies
seasonally, being high during summer time and reaching a
peak in monsoon while it lowers in winter.
4.8. Oxygen Dynamics
Dissolved oxygen has primary importance in natural water
as limiting factor because most organisms other than
anaerobic microbes die rapidly when oxygen levels in
water becomes low or falls to zero. Of all dissolved gases,
oxygen plays the most important role in determining the
potential biological quality of water. It is essential for
respiration, helps the breakdown of organic detritus and
enables completion of biochemical pathways (Boyd, 1998).
It is added in the water via diffusion and photosynthesis
whereas it is removed from the water via respiration and
decomposition (Goldman and Horne, 1983). DO is
inversely related to water temperature and salinity. It shows
diurnal fluctuation, being low at night and high in the
afternoon (corresponding to the fluctuation of water pH).
4.9. Nutrient Dynamics
Most of the nutrients in fishponds are distributed in water,
fish biomass and the sediments and it‟s believed that a large
proportion of nutrients end up in pond mud (Knud-Hansen
1997). The water of pond is chemically in a state of
equilibrium, in which the soil plays an active part. Pond
soil has the ability to store the nutrients and release them
into water through various pathways which stimulates the
production of plankton (Boyd, 1998). Nutrients, both from
autochthonous as well as allochthonous inputs play a
versatile role in defining trophic status of the pond
ecosystem (Das, 2003).Nitrogen and phosphorus are often
identified as limiting nutrients in pond water for plankton
production (Hecky&Kilham 1988). Soil available nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium and organic carbon are considered
as key nutrients in ponds from management point of view
(Knud-Hansen, 1997).Nitrogen occurs in fresh water in
numerous forms: dissolved nitrogen, amino acids, amines,
urea, ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2
-), and nitrate (NO3
-)
(Wetzel 2001). Nitrogen may limit the primary production
of ponds in which fish yields are dependent of autotrophic
food webs.In ponds where nitrogen is limiting, organic and
inorganic fertilization programme may be directed towards
increasing the availability of nitrogen for phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton takes up dissolved nitrogen from the water
column in aquaculture ponds and is regarded as the primary
pathway of nitrogen removal (Hargreaves 1998).
Phosphorus (P) can be found either in particulate matter or
as soluble inorganic phosphorus, orthophosphate (PO43-
). In
ponds, phosphorus is very dynamic i.e. - found in either
particulate matter such as phytoplankton, zooplankton and
bacteria or in soluble forms (Knud-Hansen 1997).The
lowest concentration of dissolved nitrate and phosphate in
water is minimum in summer followed by winter and
highest during monsoon (Tidame and Shinde, 2013). All
the nutrient levels in the pond bottom sediment shows
minimum value during pre-monsoon and maximum value
in post-monsoon (Bordoloietal., 2012).
4.10. Productivity dynamics
Primary productivity is a measure of new organic matter
created in the water body (Wetzel 2001). It can be
determined by the oxygen production fluxes during short
periods of time per unit volume of water. It is influenced by
a number of physical and chemical factors. From Tilzeret
al. (1975), two primary factors controlling phytoplankton
productivity in water bodies are light and nutrient
availability, and these in turn are influenced by suspended
material and vertical mixing regimes. Algal primary
productivity is the driving force behind the secondary
productivity in fertilized ponds. There is a well established
and very strong relationship between net algal productivity
and the net fish yield for fishes whose diets consists of
natural food produced in the pond (Knud-Hansen 1997).
Potassium is required for all cells principally as an enzyme
indicator (Goldman and Horne, 1983).Net primary
productivity is maximum in summer and minimum in
monsoon. Gross primary productivity is maximum in
monsoon and minimum in winter (Tidame and Shinde,
2013).
4.11. Plankton Dynamics
The plankton community is comprised of the primary
producers or phytoplankton and the secondary producers or
zooplankton (Battish, 1992). It is well established fact that
more than 75% of freshwater fish feed on plankton at one
or the other stage of their life cycle. Phytoplanktons are the
primary producers of water bodies; these are the main
source of food directly or indirectly to the fish population.
The zooplankton and other micro invertebrates also depend
upon phytoplankton for their existence. Presence of
phytoplankton, filamentous algae and vascular aquatic
plants in an aquatic environment is essential to ensure the
proper aeration of water by releasing the oxygen and
absorbing the carbon dioxide; which is exhaled by fish and
other aquatic animals (Wetzel, 1975). Zooplanktons are
considered to be the ecological indicators of water bodies
(Gajbhiy and Desai 1981). Theinvestigation of zooplankton
forms an important aspect of limnology, since they
constitute the intermediate level between the primary
producers and secondary consumers. The availability of
zooplankton as food for larval fish is thought to be one of
the key factors that strengthen commercial fisheries (Kane,
1993). The accumulation of plankton biomass coincides
with the onset of the rainy season (May to September).
Generally, the sequence of annual phytoplankton
dominance is Chlorophyceae > Cyanophyceae >
Bacillariophyceae while the dominance for zooplankton is
Rotifera > Copepoda > Cladocera (Khan, 2010).
115 International Journal of Environmental Biology 2014; 4(2): 112-118
5. Hydrobiological correlations in freshwater ponds –
Recent researches
Mahajan and Mandloi (1998) showed that the plankton
production of pond was dependent upon available nutrient
value of soil and water, which came through inflow during
monsoon season.
Paul et al. (2007) found a significant correlation (P<0.05)
between the NPP and the Available-N, Available-P of soil.
No significant correlation was observed between the NPP
and Available-K of soil.
Thirugnanamoorthy and Selvaraju (2009) studied the
phytoplankton diversity in relation to physico-chemical
parameters of a temple pond of Chidambaram in Tamil
Nadu, India and reported that the distribution and
population density of phytoplankton species depend upon
the physico-chemical parameters of the environment.
Parikh and Mankodi (2010) reported the limnological status
of the urban pond, Vadodara, Gujarat from November 2007
to October 2008. Significant correlation is observed
between silica and phosphate; similarly alkalinity and
phosphate represent positive significance. This may be
attributed to possible decomposition of organic material.
Inverse relationship observed at significant level between
total hardness and alkalinity may be due to the presence of
more dissolved carbonates and bicarbonates. A direct
relationship was observed between dissolved oxygen and
temperature. Nutrients like phosphates and nitrates released
due to trophic level interactions and food chain relationship
shows increasing trend annually, but negative correlation
between them.
Singh and Bhatnagar (2010)studied four village fish culture
ponds (two wild and two managed ponds) from district
Hisar of Haryana, India. The study was undertaken, to
correlate the water quality and biological cycles in ponds
with fish production. Chlorides, total hardness, calcium,
magnesium, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
phosphates (O-PO4) and ammonia were high whereas
dissolved oxygen and fish growth/ yield was low in wild
ponds in comparison to managed ponds. This may be due
to high organic loads. The net primary productivity was
high in the wild ponds in comparison to the managed
ponds. The deterioration of water quality, as indicated by
very high ammonia and BOD in wild ponds might have
decreased the fish growth. On the other hand, grazing
pressure might have decreased the Net Primary
Productivity (NPP) but resulted in the high fish biomass in
managed ponds. Thus high fish yield or growth is not
directly related with net primary productivity.
The physico-chemical characteristics of pond water have
direct impact on prevailing organisms (Sayeshwaraet al.,
2011).
Shiddamallayya and Pratima (2011) investigated the
seasonal changes in phytoplankton community in Papnash
pond, Bidar, Karnataka along with physico-chemical
characteristics of water. Correlation coefficient matrix has
shown significant correlation between atmospheric
temperature and phosphate with Cyanophyceae. A
significant correlation was also found between atmospheric
temperature and pH with Euglenophyceae. Similarly
significant correlation existed between phosphate and
Bacillariophyceae. The observations indicated fluctuation
of various physico-chemical parameters in relation to
seasons and by intervenes of the people.
Water temperature (WT) showed positive correlation at the
level .01 (two tailed) with air temperature (AT), CO2, pH,
PO4, TDS, TH, TS and negative with DO and WC.
Transparency is negatively significantly correlated at the
level of .01 with TDS and total hardness. DO is negatively
correlated with AT, CO2, pH, TH and WT at the level of
.01 and positively correlated with NO3 at the level of .05.
CO2 is positively correlated with AT, pH, PO4, TDS and
WT at .01 level and negatively with DO, transparency.
Total hardness is positively correlated with pH, TDS,
transparency and WT while negatively with DO, NO3 and
water volume (Patilet al., 2011).
Ahmad et al. (2011) reported a negative and significant
correlation between zooplankton and water temperature,
nitrate (r = -0.700 and -0.861 respectively). Also,
zooplankton recorded positive correlation with
transparency, dissolved oxygen and phosphorus (r = 0.168,
0.469 and 0.529 respectively). Significant negative
correlation was found between TDS and transparency, total
hardness and also between conductivity and total hardness.
Positive correlation was established between TDS and
conductivity.
The limnological parameter and plankton diversity are
important criterion for determining the suitability of water
for fisheries purpose (Sharma etal., 2011).
Similarly, Pathak and Mankodi (2012) established several
correlation coefficients between physico-chemical
parameters and dissolved nutrients present in a water body.
Temperature showed a significant inverse relationship with
dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen shows a significant
negative relation with temperature, alkalinity, total
hardness, electrical conductance, nitrate, phosphate and
respiration. Total alkalinity shows a positive relationship
with temperature, depth of visibility, pH, total hardness,
TDS, conductivity, nitrate, phosphate and respiration.
Nitrate showed positive relation with temperature, pH,
alkalinity, total hardness, TDS, electrical conductivity,
phosphate and productivity, and negative relation with
dissolved oxygen. Gross Primary Production was found to
have positive correlation with dissolved oxygen, depth of
visibility, pH, nitrates and phosphates (Sharma etal., 2012).
The physico–chemical parameters like air and water
temperature, pH, alkalinity, conductivity, total-solids, total
dissolved solids and total suspended solids, nitrate,
phosphate, BOD and COD were found to correlate with
phytoplankton present in the pond. The study revealed that
the water of the temple pond can be classified as
moderately polluted in nature (Natarajan and Shakila,
2012).
The study of correlation coefficient of various physico-
chemical parameters and zooplankton groups shows that
they are related with each other. The temperature is
significantly positively correlated with rotifer and inversely
proportional to turbidity. The pH is positively correlated
D.O. gross primary productivity, chloride, phosphate and
negatively correlated with magnesium. The increase in
turbidity causes decrease in hardness, alkalinity and rotifer
116 International Journal of Environmental Biology 2014; 4(2): 112-118
density. Hardness shows significant positive correlation
with copepod density and shows an inverse relation with
cladocerans. The increase in carbon-dioxide shows
decrease in GPP, phosphate, D.O. and increase in NPP.
Dissolved oxygen shows positive correlation with
phosphate, GPP and negative with that of NPP. GPP shows
positive correlation with phosphate, chloride. The density
of copepod shows inverse relation with cladocera
population (Tidame and Shinde, 2012).
Varghese et al. (2012) revealed the changes in the algal
communities with the changes in the environmental
parameters and nutrient regime.
The distribution and density of zooplankton species was
influenced by several physical and chemical factors of the
pond environment (Aartiet al. 2013).
Correlation coefficients (r) for all pairs of determined
physico-chemical parameters showed that transparency had
a significant correlation with Dissolved Oxygen (0.52) and
pH (0.63) (p≤0.05 and 0.01 levels). Alkalinity had a
positive correlation with pH (0.43) and low negative
correlation (-0.30; -0.21) with DO and Free Carbon dioxide
(Idowuet. al., 2013).
6. Application of the knowledge – Aim and Scope
Maintenance of a healthy aquatic environment and
production of sufficient fish food organisms in ponds are
two factors of primary importance for successful pond
cultural operations. To keep the aquatic habitat favourable
for existence, physical and chemical factors like
temperature, turbidity, odour, colour, dissolved gases,
alkalinity, hardness and noxious gases will exercise their
influence individually or synergistically. While the nutrient
status of water and soil play an important role in governing
the production of planktonic organisms or primary
production in fish ponds (Banerjea, 1967).
Knowledge of the ecology of fish ponds provides an
important tool for managing them for higher yields (Nath
and Mandal, 2003). The utilization of the pond resources
depends upon their limnological, hydrobiological and
ecological knowledge in order to augment fish production
by adopting scientific approach (Paria and Konar, 2003).
As ponds play a vital role in commercial fisheries, sound
ecosystem based management is necessary and it is pre-
requisite to study their fundamental ecosystem dynamics
for proper utilization or conservation (Rao et. al., 1999).
DISCLAIMER
The first author declares that this review article is a part of
his M.F.Sc. (Aquaculture) thesis work and research
problem.
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Source of support: Nil; Conflict of interest: None declared