Environment i lecs 1 to 16 wbb34

ENGR. SAJJAD ALI MANGI (LECTURER)BE (Civil)-QUEST NawabshahME (Environment)-NED University Karachi

Email: [email protected]

Environmental Engineering-I Lecture No:01Dated: 7th Jan 2014

MARKS ALLOCATION:

Total = 100(Theory)+50(Practical)Theory Paper = 80Sessional Marks = 20

Attendance = 10 Class Test = 05 Presentation = 05

Practical Paper (MCQ)= 15 Practical Test = 10 Attendance = 05 Practical General = 05 Viva (External) = 15

Lecture No:01Dated: 7th Jan 2014

COURSE OUTLINE: Introduction to Environmental Engineering.

What is Environment, What is Environmental Engineering & Science?. Duties of an Environmental Engineer and Branches of Environmental Engineering. Terminologies used in Environmental Engineering. Environmental Segments, Environmental Pollution, Environmental Changes.

Water Supply Engineering. Water Quality, Physical, Chemical Characteristics of water. Water Demands. Water Treatment Unit Processes/Operations. Sedimentation Theory, Design of Sedimentation Tanks. Filtration Theory, Types of Filters. Water Collection & Water Conveyance. Design of Water Treatment Plant. Water Distribution Networks. Water Quality Management.

Environmental Legislation & Management.


Recommended Books:

1. Introduction to Environmental Engineering, L.Davis2. Water Supply Engineering, S.K Garg3. Environmental Pollution & Control, P.Aarne4. Environmental Management, Dr.Biswaryo


Part-IIntroduction to

Environmental Engineering


For your information: World celebrate the World Environmental Day on

5th June

What is Environment...?• Living & Non-Living Components surrounding us is known as

Environment.• Environment is consists of Air, Water & Land.• Environment is a sum of social, economical, Biological, Physical &

Chemical factors which constitutes surrounding of the man, who is both creator & modular of his environment.


Environmental Engineering & Environmental Science?

• Environmental Engineering can be defined as “ The application of Engineering Principles under limits to the protection & enhancement of the quality of the Environment and the protect and enhance the public health & welfare”.

• Environmental Science can be defined as “ Study of various Environmental issues (such as issues of water pollution, Air pollution & Land pollution), it does not include applications of Engineering principles to protect quality of the Environment.


Duties of Environmental Engineer

• Environmental Engineer deals with the structures, equipments, systems that are designed to protect & enhance the quality of the Environment and to protect & enhance the public health & welfare.

• For example Environmental Engineer Plan, Design, Construct, Operate and Maintain the Water Treatment Plants to supply pure water to the Public.

• Environmental Engineer also conduct an EIA of various Engineering Projects & give mitigation options.


Branches of Environmental Engineering

• Environmental Chemistry & Micro-biology. • Drinking water Treatment, Distribution & Monitoring.• Sewage & Industrial wastewater treatment, disposal and

water pollution control.• Strom water drainage & Control.• Solid & Hazardous waste management.• Air & Noise Pollution & Control.• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)• Environmental quality modeling & monitoring.

– Environmental Monitoring Agencies in Pakistan EPA (Environmental Protection Agency ) & PCIR (Pakistan Council of Industrial Research)


Environmental Terminologies

• Following terms of Environment are most important and we must know about these technical terms.1. Ecology2. Organisms 3. Species4. Ecosystem5. Micro Organism6. Microbes 7. Pathogens8. Biodiversity


Environmental Terminologies

1. Ecology: Ecology deals with the living & non-living components of the environment in relation to their surrounding.

2. Organisms: Any living entity Animal or Plant which capable of growth and reproduction are called organisms.

3. Species: A group of organisms having common attributes/quality are called Species.

4. Ecosystem: A group of organisms interacting among themselves & surrounding Environment forms an eco-system which includes both living & non-living components of the Environment.

5. Micro Organism: Very small living entity see only with the help of microscope is called micro-organisms.

6. Microbes: Micro Organisms are simply called microbes, all microbes are not harmful for human health.

7. Pathogens: Harmful microbes which causes disease.8. Biodiversity : The verity of life forms on earth & its process.


Environment Segments

Environment is consists / composed of following 4 segments

1. Lithosphere.2. Hydrosphere.3. Biosphere.4. Atmosphere.


Environmental Pollution

• Pollution is defined as undesirable change in Physical, Chemical & Biological characteristics of Water, Air or Soil, that will harmfully affected the Human life and other organisms.


Environmental Changes

1. Environment changes are carried by following two ways1. Natural Changes

1. Natural Process 2. Natural Disasters (Earthquakes, Floods, Sea storms, Droughts

2. Anthropogenic Changes 1. Technology2. Industrial Revolution 3. Transportation 4. Urbanization5. Dam Construction 6. Intensive Agriculture implements


Part-IIWater Supply Engineering


Water Quality • Water is one of the most important material required to sustain life

& is considered as the source of human illness. It is rarely available in nature because it has great tendency to dissolve various substances in it while flowing on the surface of earth.

• The topic of water quality focuses on the presence of foreign substances in it & their effect on human & other aquatic life.

• At present more than 85 chemicals are listed in US EPA drinking water standards.

• Where as WHO listed over 100 chemicals in guide lines for drinking water.

• In addition, the public need water that is soft, non-corrosive, free from pathogens & suspended solids.

• Due to inferior quality of water millions of children die every year. In the world under the age of 5years, due to water born diseases.

• Water quality for one purpose is not good / suitable for other purpose.


Parameters of Water Quality • There are three parameters of water quality,

1. Physical Parameter. 2. Chemical Parameter. 3. Biological Parameter.Impurities in water:

All type of water such as surface water, rain water & under ground water contains various impurities because water has great tendency to dissolve other substances in it. While flowing on surface of earth rain water collects dust & gases from atmosphere. Surface water dissolve sand, silt, suspended solids, organic matter, minerals & colloidal matter while flowing on surface.underground water mostly free from suspended solids, colloidal & organic imparities but it contain various chemicals, minerals & salts. It contain less impurities due to natural filtration action of underground soil.


Physical Parameters of Water Quality 1. Color2. Taste & Odor 3. Suspended Solids 4. Turbidity 5. Temperature


Physical Parameters of Water Quality 1. Color: color of water is due to presence of colloidal matter, decaying

vegetation.scale of color from 0 to 70 unitsDrinking water should not be more than 15 color units.Normally mineral water available in market have 5 color unit.


Physical Parameters of Water Quality 2. Taste & Odor: Taste & odor of water is due to presence of decomposed organic

materials, minerals & salts of iron & Meneginies (Fe & Mn). Vegetation, chlorine, algae etc.odor is measured in “Threshold odor number” pure drinking water is always Taste less & Odor less & also color less.

3. Suspended Solids (SS): SS in the water may be in the form of clay, silt, sand, silica & Calcium carbonate or they may be in the form of organic matter oils, fats, grease. The SS may easily be removed by sedimentation & Filtration.

4. Turbidity: it is caused by SS fine insoluble partials, silt, sand, clay & algae. Turbid water does not allow passage of light which is either scattered or absorbed depending upon the size & surface characteristic of partial. It also cause undesirable taste & odor to water & affect the process of photosynthesis for algal growth in lakes & ponds. Completely treated water has turbidity of less than 1 TU (Turbidity Unit).Clear lake water has 25 TU where as muddy water has >100TUTurbidity is measured by Jackson turbidity meter. A graduated rod is immersed in surface water to obtain turbidity level.


Physical Parameters of Water Quality

5. Temperature: Solubility, Viscosity, Portability & Chemical reaction are influenced by temperature. More quantities of chemicals get dissolved at higher temperature but gases (D.O) are released. water should not have higher temperature because due to that aquatic life & plants are threatened/endangered.Due to rise in temperature of lakes & Rivers, fishes may be die or they have to migrate.


Chemical Parameters of Water Quality

Many organic & inorganic chemicals affect water quality. In drinking water these chemicals affects public health, where as in surface water it affect to the aquatic life. Most important chemicals are,

1. Acidity, Alkalinity & pH2. Hardness3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)4. Toxic Chemicals5. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)6. Fluorides 7. Chlorides 8. Sulfates 9. Nitrates 10. Phosphates


pH Lecture No:02Dated: 8th Jan 2014

Biological Parameters of Water Quality

The presence & absence of living organisms in water can be one of the most useful indicator of the quality of water.The verity of species (Fishes) present in the lake be a sign of unpolluted lake.

1. Micro-organisms2. Bacteria 3. Algae4. Protozoa 5. Viruses


Water requirement

Water requirement of any Town or City is determined by following two factors,

1. Consumption per head per day or per capita demand.2. Population

1. Per Capita Demand:If “P” is population of the city or Town or Village and “Q” is the Total water requirement in a year, then per capita demand is calculated by following formula,Per capita demand = Q/ (P*365) Liters or Gallons per day


Water Demand • Various Type of Water Demands

1. Domestic Water Demand2. Industrial Water Demand 3. Public Water Demand4. Fire Water Demand5. Losses & Wastages

S.No: Purpose Consumption Per Capita Per day

01 Drinking 5 Liters

02 Cooking 5 Liters

03 Bathing 50 Liters

04 Washing 25 Liters

05 Washing utensils 15 Liters

06 Cleaning of House 10 Liters

07 Sewer flushing 25 Liters

Total Consumption/C/d 135.0


Water borne diseases Lecture No:03Dated: 9th Jan 2014

Water borne diseases Lecture No:03Dated: 9th Jan 2014

Water Supply Schemes Before a project of water supply for a particular locality is taken in

hand, a scheme is drawn out the different aspects of the whole scheme are carefully viewed from different angles.

Water supply schemes are prepared by the combination of field observations and office work.

Following are the points of importance in any water supply scheme: Financial aspect Population Quality of water Rate of consumption Sanitary survey of the area Sources of water supply Topography of the area Trends of town development


Water Supply Schemes Financial aspect: The data regarding the availability of funds for the fulfillment

of the water supply scheme should be obtained in the initial stage of the scheme only. The scheme should then be adjusted in relation to the funds available. Every step should be taken to make the scheme as economical as possible.

Population: From the available census of previous years, the present population should be determined and it is general practice to make the scheme to accommodate population after three or four decades. Failure to provide for future expansion results in great hardship in future.

Quality of Water: The more pure water (Source of supply) is, the less is the cost of treatment. Hence, samples of available sources of water should be taken and properly analyzed and the results of various tests should be thoroughly studied to suggest an economical water supply scheme.

Rate of consumption: The demand of water depends on various uses such as domestic, industrial, public etc. the rate of consumption per capita should be decided by carefully considering all the possible uses. This rate, when multiplied by the population, give the total quantity of water required for the water supply scheme.


Water Supply Schemes Sanitary survey of the area: The sanitary of area surrounding the

available water sources should be carefully carried out. Such a survey helps in estimating the possible pollution or contamination of water from such sources.

Sources of water supply: It is quite clear that the success of a water supply scheme entirely depends on a good source of supply of water. The source should be selected while keeping in view its adequacy, quality of water and cheapness.

Topography of the area: The topography map of the area to be served by the scheme should be prepared and it should be suitable in relation to low lying area, ridges, density of population, etc. The study is essential to develop a simple & economical water supply scheme.

Trends of town development: The trends of town development in future should be predicted & properly adjusted in the water supply scheme. Such trend may take various forms such as possibility of new industries, public recreation, public institutions, residential blocks, etc.


Water Supply SystemProfessionals, working in Municipal Services or Public Health deptt: are responsible for designing systems that provide a reliable and clean water supply. A water supply system begins at a water source. Water is transported to a treatment facility where the water is treated to ensure the supply is safe. Once Treated, the water is transported to a storage facility (OHWT) where it is stored for future demand.


Sources of Water• Under ground water• Surface water

• River • Lakes • Reservoirs


Water StorageTreated water is pumped to a storage tank. Storage tanks are often elevated. A storage tank serves two purposes.

1.It stores the water until it is needed, which reduces the peak demand on the treatment facility.

2.Elevated water tanks create pressure in the water distribution system.

Min: water pressure in distribution line (1 psi = 2.31 feet of water)


Estimating Population The term population is used to indicate the total number of

human beings in a certain area at any particular time. The present population is obtained by referring to the statistics of

census records prepared by the local body. The water supply projects is not designed only for present

population. But it is made to accommodate the future population. The growth of population may be sharp, slow or even stationary

depending upon the factors contributing to the future development of the locality such as coming up of new industries, trade expansion, etc.

The future period for which various services units of water supply or sanitary engineering are designed is known as the period of design.

The period of design may varies from 20 to 40 years or even upto 50 years.


The period of design for important components of water supply Projects

Lecture No:04Dated:9th Jan 2014

S.No: Component Period of Design In years

01 Clear water service reservoirs 15

02 Conveying pipes for raw water and clear water 30

03 Distribution system 30

04 Electrical Motors and pumps 15

05 Infiltration works 30

06 Storage reservoirs 50

07 Water treatment units 15

Population forecasts Methods:(1) Arithmetical increase method:

In this method, the average increase of population for the last three or four decades is worked out and then for each successive future decade, this average is added. This method gives low results and it is to be adopted for large cities which have practically reached their maximum development.

(2) Geometrical increase method: In this method, it is assumed that the percentage increase in population

from decade to decade remain constant. From the available census record, this percentage is fixed and then population of each future successive decade is worked out. This fixation of percentage is case of developing cities should be done carefully. Otherwise this method is likely to give high results. This method gives better results for old cities which are not undergoing future development.

(3) Incremental increase method: This method combines the above two methods. The population of each successive future decade is first worked out by the arithmetical increase method and to these values incremental average per decade is added. It combines the advantages of both the above methods and hence, it gives satisfactory results.


Problem No:01The census record of a city show population as follows:Present = 50000Before one decade = 47100Before two decade = 43500Before three decade = 41000

Work out the population after one, two and three decade by using arithmetical increase method.

Solution:The average increase of population b/w successive decades up to present is

worked out as follows,Present and first decade =50000-47100 =2900 first and 2nd decade =47100-43500 =36002nd and 3rd decade =43500-41000 =2500

TOTAL =9000Average increase per decade = 9000/3 = 3000.

Lecture No:04Dated: 10th Jan 2014Population forecasting Example

The population after each successive future decade is obtained by adding this average as follows:

Population after one decade = 50000+3000=53000Population after two decade = 53000+3000=56000Population after three decade = 56000+3000=59000

Answer again work out the population by using Geometrical increase method.

Solution;Present and 1st decade = (50000-47100) /47100 * 100 = 6.161st and 2nd decade = (47100-43500) /43500 * 100 = 8.282nd and 3rd decade = (43500-41000) /41000 * 100 = 6.10

TOTAL = 20.54Average percentage = 20.54/3 =6.85 say 7Population after one decade = 50000+ (50000*0.07)=53500Population after two decade = 53500+(53500*0.07)=57245Population after three decade = 57245+(57245*0.07)=61252

Answer


again work out previous problem by using incremental increase method.Solution:Increase in population

present and first decades = 2900first and second decades = 3600second and third decades = 2500

Incremental increase 2900-3600 = -7003600-2500 = 1100Net = + 400average incremental increase = 400 / 2 = 200average incremental increase = 400 / 2 = 200average arithmetical increase as worked out in problem No:01 = 3000The population after each successive future decade is obtained by adding arithmetic increase and this average incremental increase as follows:

Population after one decade = 50000 + 3000 + (1*200)= 53200 Population after two decades = 53200 + 3000 + (2*200)= 56600Population after three decade = 56600 + 3000 + (3*200)= 60200

Answer


Problem No:02The census record of a city show population as follows:Present = 16000Before one decade = 14500Before two decade = 12000Before three decade = 10000

Work out the population after one, two and three decade by using arithmetical increase method and by using Geometrical increase method.

Solution:The average increase of population b/w successive decades up to present is

worked out as follows,Present and first decade =16000-14500 =1500 first and 2nd decade =14500-12000 =25002nd and 3rd decade =12000-10000 =2000

TOTAL =6000Average increase per decade = 6000/3 = 2000.


The population after each successive future decade is obtained by adding this average as follows:

Population after one decade = 16000+2000=18000Population after two decade = 18000+2000=20000Population after three decade = 20000+2000=22000

Answer again work out the population by using Geometrical increase method.

Solution;Present and 1st decade = (16000-14500) /14500 * 100 = 10.341st and 2nd decade = (14500-12000) /12000 * 100 = 20.832nd and 3rd decade = (12000-10000) /10000 * 100 = 20.00

TOTAL = 51.17Average percentage = 51.17/3 = 17Population after one decade = 16000+ (16000*0.17)=18720Population after two decade = 18720+(18720*0.17)=21902Population after three decade = 21902+(21902*0.17)=25625

Answer


Population forecasts Methods:(4) Graphical method:

In this method a curve is plotted between Time & Decades on x-axis and population in thousands on y-axis, the curve is then extended carefully depending upon its previous shape and population for the future decade is determined from y-axis.

(5) Comparative method: This method is based on assumptions that the

city under consideration may be developed as similar cities have developed. In this case similar three or four cities are taken which have similar environment, similar culture, similar population etc. after that graph are plotted and are extended for next 30 or 40 years to estimate future population.


Population forecasts Methods: (6) Growth Composition method: There are three factors which can change

population of any city or Town.I. By birth II. By deathIII. By migration

If the above three factors for a city under consideration or properly analyzed, the estimated population for some future period can be obtained by following equation,

Estimated Population=Present Population + Natural increase or decrease + Migration (7) Logistic curve method:

In this method following formula is used to calculate population for next required period,

P= Ps 1+ (Ps-Po/Po) Loge

-1 (-K.Ps.t)Where as;P=Population at any time “t” (for future period)Ps=Saturation Population


Population forecasts Methods:Po=Population at start of curve K=Constant t=t1+t2 (two time periods)Substituting (Ps-Po / Po)=m & -K.Ps=n Now the formula for calculating future population will be;P= Ps

1+ mLoge-1 (n.t)

This is known as equation of logistic curve.Mc.Lean an Engineer suggested that only thee points of characteristics value

Po, P1 & P2 at time to=0, t1+t2=2t, extending over the useful range of census. Population are chosen then saturation values “Ps” & the constant “m” & “n” can be evaluated from following three simultaneous equations


Population forecasts Methods:

Knowing Po, P1 & P2 from census data using then in above three equations, the values of Ps, m & n are known from the equation of logistic curve then the population “P” can be estimated at any time “t”


Water Demand 1. Domestic Water Demand:

In this case water is needed for drinking, bathing, washing, utensils & cleaning of house & sewer flushing etc. domestic demand to be taken as 50% of Total water requirement.

2. Industrial or commercial Water Demand:It includes water for factories, hotels, markets etc. the consumption depends upon the type of industries & the city where it is located. The percentage of water required varies from 20 to 25 % of Total water requirement.

3. Public Water Demand:In this case water is needed for colleges, schools, Hostels, public gardens, picnic points, large hospitals, city community halls, jails etc. the percentage of water requirement for this purpose to be taken as 10% of Total water requirement.

4. Fire Water Demand:It is very important for the municipal body to give adequate protection against fire, during fire the demand of water is very high because large quantity of water is required on urgent basis to control on the fire for this purpose fire hydrant are provided on all street at some extant from where water can be pumped at the rate of 950 to 1150 Liters / minute.


Water Demand Following formulas are used to calculate fire demand.4. Fire Water Demand:I) Kuchling’s formula:

Q = 3182 √P Where as Q = Total water quantity (Liters/minute)P = Population of the town in thousands II) Free man’s Formula:

Q = 1136 [(P/5)+10]II) National Board of Fire Formula:

Q = 4637 √P (1-0.01 √P )Note:

about 1 to 5 L/C/d may be taken as fire demand. It depends on factors like possibility of fire, nature of town habits of peoples etc.

4. Losses & Wastages:About 10 to 15% of Total water requirement goes for losses & wastages due to unauthorized connection & leakages.


Variation in Water Demands

– The total per capita average demand in Pakistan about 200 to 300 L/C/d, where as in USA it is about 500 to 700 L/C/d.

– In any community water demands varies, depending upon factors like climate, duration of water supply, standard of living, drainage system.

– For example water consumption is more in morning time and evening time it varies hourly, daily.

– Water demand more on Sunday due to leave while planning any water supply scheme we have to calculate the average per capita demand & depending on that the Total quantity of water is determined for the Town, City, Village.

– It is important to note that mostly water supply schemes are designed for the period of 15 to 30 years.


Stages in water treatment

1. Screening2. Plain Sedimentation 3. Sedimentation with

coagulation4. Flocculation5. Filtration6. Aeration7. Disinfection 8. Softening


Stages in water treatment 1. Screening:

The process of removing large size particles such as bushes of trees, dead animals, fishes from the water with the help of various type of screens are called screening.Screens are installed at different distances before treatment plant.


Stages in water treatment 2. Plain Sedimentation:

The process of retaining water in large basin so that the suspended particles may settle down due to action of gravity is called plain sedimentation.

3. Sedimentation with Coagulation;The process of adding certain chemicals in the water to remove fine particles & colloidal particles with the help of floc formation is called sedimentation with coagulation. Various chemicals which are added in water are called coagulants. The most popular coagulant used widely is Alum.


Stages in water treatment 4. Flocculation:

The process of formation of flock is called flocculation.In flocculation process fine & colloidal particles are caught by flock & the size of floc will going to be increase & then settle down by catching more impurities.

5. Filtration:The process of passing the water through thick layer of sand which acts as strainer is called filtration.


Stages in water treatment 6. Aeration:

The process of bringing water in intimate contact with air in the form of shower is called Aeration.

7. Disinfection:The process of killing bacteria from water & to make it safe for public health is called disinfection.In this method various chemicals & gasses are used to kill the bacteria present in water.The most popular chemical used for his purpose is Chlorine.

8. Softening:The process of special treatment for removing the dissolved impurities from water is called water softening.


Process Flow Chat Lecture No:06Dated: 16th Jan 2014

Water Treatment Plant @ Jacobabad City Lecture No:06Dated: 16th Jan 2014

Assignment No:01 (Presentation)


Make a presentation on existing water supply system of your City/Town.Presentation contents: • Population of Town / City / Village.• Map of Town / City / Village.• Sources of water supply.• Existing system of Treatment.• Quality of water supplied to public.• Functional / Non-Functional of existing system.• Your own recommendations for your Town / City / Village.

Present a Presentation in class on Friday 24th Jan 2014 and submit a hard copy of it.

Sedimentation• Particles that will settle within a reasonable period of time can be removed in a

sedimentation basin (also called clarifier).• Sedimentation usually rectangular or circular with either a radial or upward flow

pattern.• Rectangular type basin, design can be divided into four zones: Intel, Settling,

Outlet and Sludge storage.• The purpose of inlet zone is to evenly distribute the flow and suspended

particles across the cross section of the settling zone.• Intel zone consists of a series of inlet pipes & baffles placed about 1m into the

tank and extending the full depth of the tank.• The inlet velocities may never subside to the settling zone design velocity.• The configuration & depth of sludge zone depends upon the method of cleaning,

the frequency of cleaning & quantity of sludge estimated to be produced.• If the tank is long enough, storage depth can be provided by bottom slop, if not,

a sludge hopper is necessary at the inlet end.• Mechanically cleaned basins may be equipped with a bottom scraper.• A sludge hopper is designed with sides sloping with a vertical to Horizontal ratio

of 1.2:1 to 2:1

Lecture No:08 & 09Dated:21st Jan 2014

Zones of Sedimentation (a) Horizontal flow clarifier (b) up-flow clarifier

Lecture No:08 & 09Dated:21st Jan 2014

Zones of Sedimentation (a) Horizontal flow clarifier (b) up-flow clarifier

Inlet ZoneIt evenly distributes the flow and suspended solids across the cross-section of the settling zones. It covers approximately 25% of the tank length.Settling ZoneWhere the actual settling of particles takes place.Sludge Collection Zone of SludgeConfiguration and depth of the sludge zone depends on the method of cleaning and quantity of sludge deposited. Well flocculated solids, 75% settle in the 1/5th of the tank length.Outlet ZoneRemoval of settled water without carrying away any of the flocs. Should be designed to avoid scouring by having either weirs or trough (drain/channel).

Zones of Sedimentation (b) up-flow clarifier

Sedimentation• Outlet zone is designed so as to remove the settled water from the basin without

carrying away any of the floc particles.• A fundamental property of water is that the velocity of flowing water is proportional to

the flow rate divided by the area through which the water flows, that is, Vo= Q/A• There are two important terms to understand in sedimentation zone design. The first is

the particle (floc) settling velocity Vs, the second is the velocity at which the tank is designed to operate, called the overflow rate Vo.

• If Vs > Vo one would expect 100% particle removal.• If Vs < Voone would expect 0% particle removal.• For design purpose, Vo is set at 50 to 70% for Vs for upflow clarifier.• Hence an overflow rate is the same as a liquid velocity:

Vo = (Volume/Time) / Surface AreaVo = (Depth*Surface Area) / Time * Surface Area = Depth / Time Vo = h / t or Vo = Q/ As

• An Ideal Horizontal sedimentation tank is based upon three assumptions1. Particles & Velocity vectors are evenly distributed across the tank cross section.

(This is the function of inlet zone).2. The liquid moves as an ideal slug/hit down the length of the tank.3. Any particle hitting the bottom of tank is removed.

Lecture No:08 & 09 Dated: 21st Jan 14

Critical Settling Velocity and Overflow Rate

This figure shows that 50% of these particles (those below half the depth of the tank) will be removed. That is they will hit the bottom of the tank before being carried out because they only have settle one-half the tank depth. The percentage of particles removed P, with a settling velocity of Vs, in a sedimentation tank designed with an overflow rate Vo is

P = Vs/Vo * 100

Lecture No:08 & 09Dated: 21st Jan 2014

What percent of the particles will be removed?

A water treatment plant has a flow rate of 0.6 m3/sec. The settling basin at the plant has an effective settling volume that is 20 m length, 3 m depth and 6 m wide. Will particles that have a settling velocity of 0.003 m/sec be completely removed? If not, what percent of the particles will be removed?

v0 = Q/A = 0.6 m3/sec / (20 m x 6 m) = 0.005 m/sec

Since V0 > Vs the settling velocity of the particle of interest, they will not be completely removed.

The percent of particles which will be removed may be found using the following formula:

Percent removed = (vs / v0) 100

Percent removed = (0.003/0.005) 100 = 60 %

Lecture No:08 & 09 Dated: 21st Jan 2014

Find out Detention time for a Sedimentation Tank

Problem No:01: A Sedimentation Tank has a volume capacity of 20000 m3, if the average flow rate entering the tank is 130 Million Liters/day. What is the detention time ?

Data:Volume (V) = 20000 m3

Flow rate (Q) = 130 ML/daySolution:As we know that

Q = V / TT = V / Q

Detention Time (TD) = (20000 * 1000 ) Liters / 130000000 L/dDetention Time (TD) = 0.15385 per day Detention Time (TD) = 3.69 Hours


Sedimentation Tank Practice Problems Assignment No:02

1. A Sedimentation Tank with a 50ft diameter and SWD of 9ft treat a flow of 15000 gpd. What is the detention time ?

2. Compute the required volume of a sedimentation tank that provides 3hrs of detention time for a flow of 10 ML/d. if tank is 10m by 25m in plan dimensions, how deep is the water in the tank.

3. A circular settling tank is to have a minimum detention time of 3 hrs and a maximum overflow rate of 800gpd/ft2. Determine the required basin diameter and SWD for a flow rate of 2mgd.

4. A rectangular settling tank is to have a minimum detention time of 3.5 hrs and a maximum surface loading of 25m/d. The tank length is to be twice of its width. Determine the required tank dimensions, including freeboard, for a flow of 5000 m3/day.

Note: submit your assignment earlier than Tuesday 28th January 2014.


Sedimentation Tank Problems (Previous paper 2012 of 09CE)

Problem:Calculate the diameter and side water depth (SWD) of a sedimentation tank 20 ML/day. The maximum surface over flow rate (SOR) 18m3/m2.day and detention period of 3hrs.Data: Depth =?surface over flow rate (SOR) =18m3/m2.day Flow rate (Q)= 20 ML/day = 20000 m3/dayDetention Time = 3hrs

Solution:As we know thatQ = Volume / Detention timeV = Q * TD

= 20000 m3/day * (3/24)day = 2500 m3

As we know that Surface loading Vo= Q/As As = Q/Vo = 20000 m3/day / 18m3/m2day = 1111.11 m2

Therefore Volume = surface area * depthDepth = Volume / Surface area Depth = 2500 m3 / 1111.11 m2

SWD = 2.25 mNow find out the Diameter D= (4*A/3.1415)0.5

D=37.6m

Lecture No:10Dated: 22nd Jan 2014

Coagulation & Flocculation Coagulation/flocculation is a process used to remove turbidity, color, and some

bacteria from water. In the flash mix chamber, chemicals are added to the water and mixed violently for less than a minute. These coagulants consist of primary coagulants and/or coagulant aids. Then, in the flocculation basin, the water is gently stirred for 30 to 45 minutes to give the chemicals time to act and to promote floc formation. The floc then settles out in the sedimentation basin.

We can define Coagulation as a method to alter the colloids so that they will be able to approach and adhere to each other to form larger floc particles.

In water treatment operations, the processes of coagulation and flocculation are employed to separate suspended solids from water.

Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by neutralizing the forces that keep them apart.

Flocculation, is the action of polymers to form bridges between the flocs. and bind the particles into large clumps.

Once suspended particles are flocculated into larger particles, they can usually be removed from the liquid by sedimentation.

Lecture No:11 Dated: 24th Jan 2014

Types of Coagulants Coagulant chemicals come in two main types - primary coagulants and

coagulant aids. Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which causes the particles to clump together. Coagulant aids add density to slow-settling flocs and add toughness to the flocs so that they will not break up during the mixing and settling processes.

Primary coagulants are always used in the coagulation/flocculation process. Coagulant aids, in contrast, are not always required and are generally used to reduce flocculation time.

Chemically, coagulant chemicals are either metallic salts (such as alum) or polymers. Polymers are man-made organic compounds made up of a long chain of smaller molecules. Polymers can be either cationic (positively charged), anionic (negatively charged), or nonionic (neutrally charged.)

Lecture No:11 Dated: 23rd Jan 2014

Chemical Name Chemical Formula Primary Coagulant Coagulant Aid

Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3 · 14 H2O X

Ferrous sulfate FeSO4 · 7 H2O X

Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3 · 9 H2O X

Ferric chloride FeCl3 · 6 H2O X

Cationic polymer Various X X

Calcium hydroxide (Lime) Ca(OH)2 X* X

Calcium oxide (Quicklime)

CaO X* X

Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4 X* X

Bentonite Clay X

Calcium carbonate CaCO3 X

Sodium silicate Na2SiO3 X

Anionic polymer Various X

Nonionic polymer Various X

The common coagulant chemicals, which are used as primary coagulants or as coagulant aids.Lecture N

o:11 Dated: 24th Jan 2014

Primary coagulants or as coagulant aidsAlum:• There are a variety of primary coagulants which can be used in a water treatment

plant. One of the earliest, and still the most extensively used, is aluminum sulfate, also known as alum. Alum can be bought in liquid form with a concentration of 8.3%, or in dry form with a concentration of 17%. When alum is added to water, it reacts with the water and results in positively charged ions.

Coagulant Aids• Nearly all coagulant aids are very expensive, so care must be taken to use the proper

amount of these chemicals. In many cases, coagulant aids are not required during the normal operation of the treatment plant, but are used during emergency treatment of water which has not been adequately treated in the flocculation and sedimentation basin. A couple of coagulant aids will be considered below.

• Lime is a coagulant aid used to increase the alkalinity of the water. The increase in alkalinity results in an increase in ions (electrically charged particles) in the water, some of which are positively charged. These positively charged particles attract the colloidal particles in the water, forming floc.

• Bentonite is a type of clay used as a weighting agent in water high in color and low in turbidity and mineral content. This type of water usually would not form floc large enough to settle out of the water. The bentonite joins with the small floc, making the floc heavier and thus making it settle more quickly.


Mixing or Rapid Mixing Mixing, or Rapid mixing as it is called, is the process whereby the chemicals are

quickly and uniformly dispersed in the water. Ideally, the chemicals would be instantaneously dispersed throughout the

water. Rapid mixing is probably most important physical operation affecting coagulant

dose efficiency. The chemical reaction in coagulation is completed in less than 0.1 second, therefore, it is necessary that mixing be as instantaneous and complete as possible.

The treatment of water and wastewater the degree of mixing is measured by the velocity gradient, G.

The higher the G value, the more violent the mixing. The velocity gradient is a function of the power input into a unit volume of

water. It is given by G = ( P/µV)0.5

Where as;G = Velocity gradient s-1

P = Power input, WV = Volume of water in mixing tank, m3µ = Dynamic viscosity, Pa.s or kg/m-s


Temperature - t -(oC)

Dynamic Viscosity

- µ -

(Pa s, kg/m-s, N s/m2) x 10-3

0 1.7875 1.519

10 1.30720 1.00230 0.79840 0.65350 0.54760 0.46770 0.40480 0.35590 0.315

100 0.282

Mixing or Rapid Mixing Lecture No:11Dated: 24th Jan 2014

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/dynamic-absolute-kinematic-viscosity-d_412.html

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/dynamic-absolute-kinematic-viscosity-d_412.html

Flocculation While rapid mixing is the most important physical factor affecting coagulant efficiency,

flocculation is the most important factor affecting particle-removal efficiency. Flocculation is the gentle mixing phase that follows the rapid dispersion of coagulant

by the flash mixing unit. The object of the flocculation is to bring the particles into contact so that they will

collide, stick together, and grow to size that will readily settle. Enough mixing must be provided to bring the floc into contact and keep the floc from

settling in the flocculation basin. Too much mixing will shear the floc particles. Therefore, the velocity gradient must be controlled. The flocculation basin should be divided into at least three compartments.


Types Flocculation can be provided by

either mechanical mixers or baffles.General design criteria for a basic rectangular flocculation tank:

DT= 20-30 minutes at Qmax. Depth= 10ft to15fts G=30 s-1 average


Selection Criteria: Selection of the flocculation process should be based on the following criteria:- Treatment process: conventional, direct, softening or sludge conditioning- Raw water: turbidity, color, TDS

Design problem of Rapid Mixing

Problem:The design flow for a Water Treatment Plant (WTP) is 1 MGD (3.785x103 m3/d). The rapid mixing tank will have a mechanical mixer and the average alum dosage will be 30mg/L. The theoretical mean hydraulic detention time of the tank will be 1 minute. Determine the following:a) the quantity of alum needed on a daily basis in kg/d,b) the dimensions of the tank in meters for a tank with equal length, width, and depth,c) the power input required for a G of 900 sec-1 for a water temperature of 10 oC express the answer in kW.


Filtration The water the leaving the sedimentation tank still contain floc particles. The settled

water turbidity is generally in the range from 1 to 10 TU with a typical value being 3TU. In order to reduce this this turbidity to 0.3TU, a filtration process is normally used.

Water filtration is a process for separation suspended or colloidal impurities from water by passage through a porous medium, usually a bed of sand or other medium.

Water fills the pores (open spaces) b/w the sand particles, and the impurities are left behind, either clogged in the open spaces or attached to the sand itself.

There are several methods of classifying filters. One way is to classify them according to the type of medium used, such as sand, coal (called anthracite), dual media (coal plus sand), or mixed media (coal, sand and garnet).

Another way to classify the filters is by allowable loading rate. Loading rate is the flow rate of water applied per unit area of the filter. It is velocity of the water approaching the face of the filter. V =Q/As

Based on loading rate the filters are described as being slow sand filters, rapid sand filters, or high-rate sand filters.


Slow sand Filters Slow sand Filters: Slow sand filters were first introduced in the 1800s. The water is applied to the sand at a loading rate of 2.9 to 7.6 m3/m2.d. As the suspended or colloidal material is applied to the sand, the particles

being to collect in the top 75mm and to clog the pore spaces. As pores become clogged, water will no longer pass through the sand and at this point top layer of sand is scraped off, cleaned and replaced.

Slow sand filters required large areas of the land and are operator intensive.


Rapid Sand Filters Rapid Sand Filters: In the early 1900s there was a need to install filtration system in large numbers in

order to prevent epidemics/infection/disease. Rapid sand filters were developed to meet this need. These filters have graded

(layered) sand within the bed. The sand grain size distribution is selected to optimize the passage of water while

minimizing the passage of particulate matter. Rapid sand filters are cleaned in place by forcing water backward through the sand.

This operation is called backwashing. The wash water flow rate is such that the sand is expanded and the filtered

particles are removed from the bed. After backwashing, the sand settle back into place. The larger particles settle first,

resulting in fine sand layer on top and coarse sand layer on the bottom. Rapid sand filters are the most common type of filters used in water treatment

today. Traditionally, rapid sand filters have been designed to operate at a loading rate of

120 m3/m2.d. The surface area of the filter tank (often called a filter box) is generally restricted in

size to about 100 m2.


Dual-media & Mono-media filters

Dual-media filters: In the war time era of the early 1940s, dual-media filters were developed. They are designed to utilize more of the filter depth for particle removal. In rapid sand filters, the finest sand is on top; hence, the smallest pore spaces are

also on the top. Therefore, most of the particles will clog in the top layer of the filter. In order to use more of the filter depth for particles removal, it is necessary to have the large particles on top of the small particles. This was accomplished by placing a layer of coarse coal on top of the layer of fine sand.

Coal has a lower specific gravity than sand, so, after backwash, it settle slower than the sand and ends up on top.

Dual-media filters are operated up to loading rate of 300 m3/m2.d. Mono-media filters: In the mid 1980s, deep-bed Mono-media filters came into use. The filters are designed to achieve higher loading rates while at the same time

producing lower finishing water turbidities. The filters typically consist of 1.0-mm to 1.5-mm diameter anthracite about 1.5-m

to 2.5-m deep. Dual-media filters are operated up to loading rate of 800 m3/m2.d.



Backwashing of filters Lecture No:12 Dated: 28th Jan 2014

Filters are employed to remove particles from liquids. Water treatment filters that can be backwashed include rapid sand filters, pressure filters and granular activated carbon (GAC) filters.filters are backwashed according to the proprietary arrangement of pumps, valves and filters associated with the filtration system.Spent backwash water is either discharged without treatment to a sanitary sewer system or is treated and recycled within the plant

Backwashing of granular media filters involves several steps. First, the filter is taken off line and the water is drained to a level that is above the surface of the filter bed. Next, compressed air is pushed up through the filter material causing the filter bed to expand breaking up the compacted filter bed and forcing the accumulated particles into suspension. After the air scour cycle, clean backwash water is forced upwards through the filter bed continuing the filter bed expansion and carrying the particles in suspension into backwash troughs suspended above the filter surface.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_(water)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_sand_filter

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_filtering

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)

Filter Design Problem Lecture No:13 Dated: 29th Jan 2014

A city is to install rapid sand filters downstream of the clarifiers. The design loadingrate is selected to be 160 m3/(m2 d). The design capacity of the water works is 0.35 m3/s. The maximum surface per filter is limited to 50 m2. Design the number and size of filters and calculate the normal filtration rate.Data:

Loading rate v = 160 m3/(m2 d)Capacity Q = 0.35 m3/s or (0.35*60*60*24) m3/dMax. As of filter = 50 m2.

Step-1Determine the Total As required = Q/v = 30240m3/d / 160 m3/(m2 d)

= 189 m2Step-2

Determine the No: of filters (n) = 189/50 = 3.78 Select four number of filtersThe surface area of each filter is (a) = 189 /4 = 47.25 m2We can use 7m X 7m plan dimensions of the filter tank.

Step-3if 7mX7m filter is installed, the normal filtration rate is; v =Q/A = 30240/(4*49) = 154.28 m3/m3.day

What is Disinfection & Methods of Disinfection

Disinfection refers to the reduction of pathogens (disease causing organisms)Disinfection of water refers to the inactivation or destruction of undesirable pathogenic organisms living in the water.Disinfection of water started back in 500 BC with the boiling of water. Later chlorination started in Europe (1880’s) and finally in the U.S. (1909). Three general types of disinfection treatment are heat, radiation, and chemical.The heat method is to boil the water. This procedure is still used in cases of emergency. The use of UV light to disinfect the water is radiation treatment. This process disinfects when the UV light is passed through the water at close proximity to the water. Only a small area of water can be treated by this method, therefore is only used for small quantities of water.chemical treatment is the most common form used to disinfect the water. Chemicals will disrupt the life processes of an organism and it usually dies before it can adjust. There are many different chemicals that can be used depending on the situation and the targeted results. Many of the chemicals have multiple purposes. Any of these different methods can be used to disinfect water depending on how different treatment plants are equipped.


ChlorinationChlorination is the most widely accepted and adopted method of disinfection. It has been looked upon as the solution of problems and the creator of others. Prior to chlorination, waterborne disease was a regular occurrence. Throughout the 1800’s and 1900’s there was a high rate of incidence of illness due to diseases like typhoid, dysentery and cholera. The rate of illness and death due to these diseases dropped off with the institution of chlorination.

Factors influencing disinfection by chlorination are: concentration of the chlorine, contact time, temperature of the water, pH of the water, and how many foreign substances there are in the water. Chlorine gas can be added at different points in the water treatment process, and each step has different effects. Various forms in which Chlorine is used:In the form of Liquid chlorine or Chlorine gas.In the form of Hypo chlorides or bleaching powder.In the form of Chloramines i-e Mixture of ammonia & Chlorine.In the form of Chlorine dioxide.


Types of ChlorinationPre-Chlorination: This means that chlorine is applied to raw water before other treatments such as filtration, sedimentation.Post-Chlorination: This means that chlorine is applied to treated water after passing from filtration, sedimentationDouble-Chlorination: This means that water has been chlorinated twice. The Pre-Chlorination & Post-Chlorination are generally used in double Chlorination. Break Point Chlorination: This means that the extent (amount) of Chlorine added to water. This represents such dose of chlorine beyond which any further addition of chlorine will appear as free residual chlorine.Super-Chlorination: it indicates the addition of excessive (too much) amount of chlorine (i.e 5 – 15 mg/l) to water. This may be required in some special cases of highly polluted water or during epidemics of water.De-Chlorination: This means that removing of chlorine from water. This generally required when super-chlorination has been practiced.Free available-Chlorination: The sum of hypo chlorous acid, hypo chloride ions and molecular chlorine existing in a sample of water is treated as free available chlorine.Chlorinator: The instrument used to applying chlorine to water is called chlorinator.



Disinfection By-Products Lecture No:13 Dated: 29th Jan 2014

Water is almost never pure H2O. In rivers and reservoirs there is organic matter naturally floating in the water. This natural organic matter (NOM) complicates simple reactions, allowing side reactions to take place. These side reactions form by-products other than the desired products of the primary reaction. The chlorine reacts on a secondary level with natural organic matter. A scientist in the Netherlands discovered Trihalomethanes (THMs) in 1974 . THMs are a by-product of chlorine disinfection. Four of the common THMs are Chloroform, Bromodichloromethane, Dibromochloromethane, and Bromoform. The mechanism is not exactly known for the formation of THMs but the general equation is as follows:Free Chlorine + Precursors THM’s + Other Halogenated (Humic Substances & Non-Halogenated & Bromide) By-productsThese precursors come from sources like plants, algae and human activity.

Calculation of Chlorine dose Lecture No:14 Dated:30th Jan 2014

The actual dose of chlorine depends upon quality & quantity of water and the level of impurities & bacteria present in water. This also depends upon the pH value & Temperature of water.The normal dosage of chlorine may vary b/w 0.3 to 1.1 mg/l, but chlorine dose is increased in rainy seasons & in case of highly polluted water.Following formula is used to calculate dose of Chlorine to treat water properly,

Kg /d=Q * C

Where as,Kg/d = Amount of chlorine required in kg per dayQ = Average flow rate in ML/d (million liters / day)C = Chlorine concentration mg/l

ORlb /d=8.34*Q * C

Where as,Kg/d = Amount of Chlorine required in pounds per dayQ = Average flow rate in mgd (million gallons / day)C = Chlorine concentration mg/l

Calculation of Chlorine dose Lecture No:14 Dated: 30th Jan 2014

Example:A total of 15 kg of chlorine is used in 1 day to disinfect a volume of

50ML of water. What should be the Chlorine dose??Data:

Kg of Chlorine per day = 15Flow rate (Q) = 50 MLChlorine dose C = ??

As we know that,Kg /d=Q * CC = Kg/d / Q = 15kg/d/50*106 L C =15*106 mg/d/50*106 L C = 0.3 mg/l

Chlorine Dose: Demand and Residual Lecture No:14 Dated: 30th Jan 2014

The chlorine dose required depends on two considerations: the chlorine demand and the desired chlorine residual. Dose (mg/L) = Demand (mg/L) + Residual (mg/L)

The chlorine demand is the amount of chlorine used in reacting with various components of the water such as harmful organisms and other organic and inorganic substances.

In other cases, however, such as at the end of the treatment process, it is desirable to have an additional amount of chlorine in the water available for disinfection as it travels through the distribution system. This additional chlorine is called the chlorine residual.Example Problem: A water is tested and found to have a chlorine demand of 1.9 mg/L. If the desired chlorine residual is 0.8 mg/L, what is the desired chlorine dose in mg/L? Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual Chlorine Dose = 1.9 mg/L + 0.8 mg/L Chlorine Dose = 2.7 mg/L

Chlorine Dose: previous paper Regular examination 2010 of 07 Batch


Problem: The water is treated at treatment about 20,000m3/day, The chlorine usage is 6kg/day, the residual after 10 minutes contact time is 0.10mg/L. Calculate the dosage in mg/L and chlorine demand of water.

Chlorine Dose C = Kg/d / Q = 6kg/d/20,000m3/d C = 6,000,000 mg/d/20,000,000 L/d C = 0.3 mg/l

Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual Chlorine Dose - Chlorine Residual = Chlorine Demand 0.3 mg/L – 0.10 mg/L = Chlorine demandChlorine demand of water = 0.20 mg/L

Hardness of water Lecture No:15 Dated: 31st Jan 2014

Hardness of water: The presence of multivalent cations, most notably Calcium (Ca) &Magnesium (Mg) ions, is referred as water Hardness. Ground water special prone to excessive concentration of there ions. Hardness causes two different problems, first, the reaction b/w hardness and soap produces a sticky, gummy deposit called “soap curd” (the ring around the bathtub). Essentially all home cleaning activities, from bathing and grooming to dishwashing and laundering, are made more difficult with hard water.When hard water is heated, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] readily precipitate out of solution, forming a rocklike scale that clogs hot water pipes and reduces the efficiency of water heaters, boilers etc. Pipe filled with scale must ultimately be replaced, usually at great expense. Heating equipment that has scaled up not only transmits heat less readily, thus increasing fuel costs, but also is prone to failure at a much earlier time. For both of reasons, if hardness in not controlled at the water treatment plant itself, many individuals and industrial facilities find it worth the expense to provide their own water softening. Hardness is defined as the concentration of all multivalent metallic cations in solution. The principal ions causing hardness in natural water are calcium & magnesium. Others, including iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), strontium (Sr), aluminum (Al) may be present, though in much smaller quantities.

Lecture No:15 Dated: 31st Jan 2014

By Natural process: The Natural process by which water become hard, when rainwater enters the topsoil, the respiration of micro organisms increases the CO2 contents of water. The CO2 reacts with Water to form H2CO3. What is Total Hardness (TH)Total Hardness = Calcium (Ca) +Magnesium (Mg)

TH = Ca + MgWhere as concentration of each are in consistent units mg/L as CaCO3.The Total hardness is also broken down into two components

1. Carbonate Hardness2. Non-Carbonate Hardness

TH= CH + NCHCarbonate Hardness is defined as the amount of hardness equal to the total

hardness or the total alkalinity. CH = TH or Total alkalinity, whichever is less.Non-Carbonate Hardness is defined as the total hardness in excess of the

alkalinity. It is called permanent hardness. It is not removed when water is heated. NCH = TH - CH

Hardness range (mg/L CaCo3) Description 0 – 75 soft

75 – 100 Moderately hard

100 – 300 Hard

> 300 Very hard

Natural process by which water become hard

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Subsoil

Limestone CaCO3(s) + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2MgCO3(s) + H2CO3 Mg(HCO3)2

Precipitation

Topsoil


REMOVAL OF HARDNESSLecture No:15 Dated: 31st Jan 2014

A. FOR TEMPORARY HARDNESS:1. Boiling2. Addition of LimeB. FOR PERMANENT HARDNESS:3. Lime soda process4. Zeolite process5. Demineralization

LIME – SODA PROCESS• In this process, lime and sodium carbonate or soda ash are used to remove permanent

hardness from water.• The compounds calcium carbonate CaCO3 and magnesium hydroxide Mg (OH)2 are

insoluble in water and they can, therefore, be arrested in the sedimentation tank.• The other compounds formed during the chemical reactions are soluble in water and they

do not impart the property of hardness to water.• Lime often added as CaO, quick lime

– CaO + H20 --> Ca(OH)2

• Equipment required– Feeding & Mixing apparatus – Settling Tank– Re-carbonation plant– Filters

• Re-carbonation plant: it is necessary to remove calcium carbonate formed in this process. Otherwise it will precipitate in sand filters and also cause incrustation in pipes. For this reason, the water is allowed to pass through a re-carbonation plant after it has passed through settling tank. In the settling tank, a dose of alum may be given which will produce carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide react with calcium carbonate in this way,

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O = Ca (HCO3)2

• Alternatively, the CO2 gas may be diffused into water in the re-carbonation plant.


Zeolite process is also known as base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The zeolites are compounds of aluminium, silica and soda.The have excellent property of interchanging base.They may be obtained from nature or may be prepared synthetically.The natural zeolite is green in color and therefore known as green sand.This is discovered in 1850s. J.T way, he succeeded in preparing base-exchange materials.In 1906 Gans and other German chemist applied this discovery and prepared a synthetic known as “Permutit”

Zeolite process-Ion Exchange Lecture No:15 Dated: 31st Jan 2014



Water DesalinationObtaining reliable fresh water supplies

from challenging water sources

Lecture No:16 Dated: 4th Feb 2014

What is Desalination…? Lecture No:16 Dated: 4th Feb 2014

Water, desalination is process of removing soluble salts from water to make it suitable for drinking, irrigation, or industrial uses. The principal methods used for desalination include distillation (or evaporation), electro-dialysis, freezing, ion exchange, and reverse osmosis.

In distillation saltwater is heated in one container to make the water evaporate, leaving the salt behind. The desalinated vapor is then condensed to form water in a separate container. Although, distillation has found limited application in water supply because of the fuel costs involved in converting saltwater to vapor. Representative of the early attempts in this direction were the solar distillation methods employed (49 B.C.) by the legions of Julius Caesar for using water from the Mediterranean sea. Modern technological advances led to the development of more efficient distillation units using solar energy; however, since these units have small capacities, their utility is restricted.

http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0815646.html

Desalination Technologies

1. Thermal Desalination Processes– Similar to the Earth’s natural water cycle– Water is heated, evaporated and collected– Produces clean water and brine

Example: Multi-Stage Flash DesalinationProcess uses multiple boiling chambers kept

at different atmospheric pressuresSaltwater enters the system and is boiled and

evaporated in each chamberProcess produces clean water and brine


Desalination Technologies

2. Membrane Desalination ProcessesSaltwater is forced through membrane sheets at high

pressuresMembrane sheets are designed to catch salt ionsProcess produces clean water and brine

Example: Reverse OsmosisSaltwater is forced through a membrane

at 600 to 1000 psiMultiple layers of membranes remove as

many of the salt ions as possible


Desalination Plants around the World

Jabel Ali Desalination Station in Dubai

Capacity: 140 million gallons per day

Opened June 2010


DHA Desalination PlantOwner: DHA COGEN LTD. Capacity :03 MIGD (million imperial gallons of water per day)REGISTRATION: 29th Jan 2003

What is Fluoridation & De-fluoridation? Lecture No:16 Dated: 4th Feb 2014

Fluoridation:Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral that is proven to protect against tooth decay.Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities; this can occur naturally or by adding fluoride.Almost all water contains some naturally occurring fluoride, but usually at levels too low to prevent tooth decay.Fluoride helps to re-mineralize tooth surfaces and prevents cavities from continuing to form. De-fluoridation:If water is found to contain fluoride in excess quantity than permissible, de-fluoridation be carried out as the concentration of the fluoride ions in drinking water is of great significance from the physiological point of view.The permissible limit of fluoride in drinking water in Pakistan have been set up 1.5 ppm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooth_decay

Methods of De-fluoridation? Lecture No:16 Dated: 4th Feb 2014

Activated carbons prepared from various materials can be used as de-fluoridation.During lime soda process of water softening, fluorides are also removed along with the removal of magnesium.The materials such as calcium phosphate, bone charcoal, synthetic tricalcium phosphate, etc may be added for removal of excess fluoride content in water.Water may be allowed to pass through filter beds containing fluoride retaining materials.

Most of the above methods of de-fluoridation suffer from one or the other disadvantage such as high initial cost, expensive regeneration, poor fluoride removal capacity, etc