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Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units, Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units,
66thth Edition Edition Chapter 26: Chapter 26:
Abrasive Machining and Finishing Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations Operations
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Chapter Outline Introduction Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives The Grinding Process Grinding Operations and Machines Design Considerations for Grinding Ultrasonic Machining Finishing Operations Deburring Operations Economics of Abrasive Machining and Finishing Opera
tions
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Introduction Some manufacturing processes cannot produce the
required dimensional accuracy or surface finish An abrasive is a small, hard particle having sharp
edges and an irregular shape Abrasives is removing of small amounts of material
from a surface through a cutting process that produces tiny chips
Grinding wheels can sharpen knives and tools
Sandpaper or emery cloth can smoothen surfaces and remove sharp corners
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Introduction Abrasives are hard and used in finishing processes for
heat-treated metals and alloys Applications include:1. Finishing of ceramics and glasses2. Cutting off lengths of bars, structural shapes, masonry
and concrete3. Removing unwanted weld beads and spatter4. Cleaning surfaces with jets of air or water containing
abrasive particles.
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Introduction
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives Abrasives that are commonly used:1. Conventional abrasives2. Superabrasives Above abrasives are harder than conventional cutting-
tool materials Cubic boron nitride and diamond are the two hardest
materials known; referred to as superabrasives Friability defined as the ability of abrasive grains to
fracture into smaller pieces
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Abrasives and Bonded AbrasivesAbrasive Types Commonly found in nature are emery, corundum
(alumina), quartz, garnet and diamond Abrasives that have been made synthetically:1. Aluminum oxide2. Seeded gel3. Silicon carbide4. Cubic boron nitride5. Diamond
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Abrasives and Bonded AbrasivesAbrasive Grain Size Abrasives are very small when compared to the size of
cutting tools and inserts Abrasives have sharp edges and allow removal of
small quantities of material Very fine surface finish and dimensional accuracy can
be obtained using abrasives as tools Size of an abrasive grain is identified by a grit number Smaller the grain size, larger the grit number
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Abrasives and Bonded AbrasivesAbrasive–workpiece-material Compatibility Affinity of an abrasive grain to the workpiece material is
important The less the reactivity of the two materials, the less
wear and dulling of the grains occur during grinding Recommendations when selecting abrasives:1. Aluminum oxide: Carbon steels, ferrous alloys, and
alloy steels.2. Silicon carbide: Nonferrous metals, cast irons3. Cubic boron nitride: Steels and cast irons4. Diamond: Ceramics, cemented carbides, hardened
steels
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:Grinding Wheels Each abrasive grain removes only a very small amount
of material at a time High rates of material removal can be achieved when
large number of these grains act together Done by using bonded abrasives
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:Grinding Wheels In bonded abrasives, porosity is essential to provide
clearance for produced chips and cooling Porosity can be observed by the surface of grinding
wheel For non-porosity, it is fully dense and solid
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:Grinding Wheels Due to their high cost, only a small volume wheels
consists of superabrasives Bonded abrasives are indicated by the type of abrasive,
grain size, grade, structure, and bond type
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:Grinding Wheels Cost of grinding wheels depends on the type and size
of the wheel
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:Bond Types Common types of bonds:1. Vitrified:
Consist of feldspar and clays Strong, stiff, porous, and resistant to oils acids, and
water2. Resinoid:
Bonding materials are thermosetting resins Resinoid wheels are more flexible than vitrified
wheels
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Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:Bond Types3. Reinforced Wheels:
Consist of layers of fiberglass mats of various mesh sizes
4. Thermoplastic: Used in grinding wheels With sol-gel abrasives bonded with thermoplastics
5. Rubber: Using powder-metallurgy techniques Lower in cost and are used for small production
quantities
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives:Wheel Grade and Structure The grade of a bonded abrasive is a measure of its
bond strength The grade is also referred to as the hardness of a
bonded abrasive A hard wheel has a stronger bond and/or a larger
amount of bonding material between the grains than a soft wheel
Structure of a bonded abrasive is a measure of its porosity
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The Grinding Process Grinding is a chip-removal process that uses an
individual abrasive grain as the cutting tool
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The Grinding ProcessGrinding Forces Knowledge of grinding forces is essential for:1. Estimating power requirements2. Designing grinding machines and work-holding fixtures
and devices.3. Determining the deflections that the workpiece
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The Grinding Process In surface grinding, undeformed chip length and
thickness is approximated by equation
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Ddl
Dd
VCrvt 4
The Grinding ProcessGrinding Forces A knowledge of grinding forces is essential for:1. Estimating power requirements2. Designing grinding machines and work-holding fixtures
and devices3. Determining the workpiece and grinding machine
deflections Grain force is proportional to the process variables:
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
UTS ForceGrain
Dd
Vv
The Grinding ProcessSpecific Energy Energy dissipated in producing a grinding chip consists
of energy required from:1. Chip formation2. Plowing3. Friction
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The Grinding ProcessEXAMPLE 26.1 Forces in Surface GrindingA surface-grinding operation is being performed on low-carbon steel with a wheel of diameter D=250 mm that is rotating at N=4000 rpm and a width of cut of w=25 mm. The depth of cut is d=0.05 mm and the feed rate of the workpiece, is 1.5 m/min. Calculate the cutting force and the thrust force.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding ProcessSolution Forces in Surface GrindingThe material-removal rate (MRR) is
The power consumed is
Since power is
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
N 241000
1400022
2507500
cc FF
TwPower
Nm/min 000,75187560140
MMRuPower
3mm 187515002505.0 dwvMMR
The Grinding ProcessSolution Forces in Surface GrindingThrust force can be estimated by noting from experimental data in the technical literature that it is about 30% higher than the cutting force
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
N 31243.1 nF
The Grinding ProcessTemperature Temperature rise in grinding is important as it can:1. Adversely affect the surface properties2. Cause residual stresses on the workpiece3. Cause distortions due to thermal expansion and
contraction of the workpiece surface Surface-temperature rise in grinding is
Temperature increases with increasing d, D, and V Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
2/14/34/1
vVdDT
The Grinding ProcessSparks Sparks produced are chips that glow due to exothermic
(heat-producing) reaction of the hot chips with oxygen in the atmosphere
When heat generated due to exothermic reaction is high, chips can melt
Tempering Excessive temperature rise in grinding can cause
tempering and softening of the workpiece surface
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The Grinding ProcessBurning Excessive temperature during grinding may burn the
workpiece surface A burn is characterized by a bluish color on ground
steel surfaces
Heat Checking High temperatures in grinding may cause the
workpiece surface to develop cracks
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The Grinding Process:Grinding-wheel WearAttritious Grain Wear Similar to flank wear in cutting tools Cutting edges become dull and develop a wear flat Selection of abrasive is based on the reactivity of the
grain, workpiece hardness and toughness
Grain Fracture The grain should fracture at a moderate rate So that new sharp cutting edges are produced
continuously during grinding
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Grinding Ratio Grinding ratio is defined as
Higher the force, greater the tendency for the grains to fracture
Higher the wheel wear, lower the grinding ratio
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wear wheelof Volumeremoved material of Volume
G
The Grinding Process:Grinding RatioEXAMPLE 26.2 Action of a Grinding WheelA surface-grinding operation is being carried out with the wheel running at a constant spindle speed. Will the wheel act soft or hard as the wheel wears down over time? Assume that the depth of cut, d, remains constant and the wheel is dressed periodically.
As D becomes smaller, the relative grain force increases, the wheel acts softer
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Dressing, Truing, and Shaping of Grinding Wheels Dressing is the process of:1. Conditioning2. Truing Dressing is required for dulls wheel or when the wheel
becomes loaded Loading occurs when the porosities on the wheel
surfaces become filled with chips from the workpiece Dressing techniques and their frequency affect grinding
forces and workpiece surface finish Grinding wheels can be shaped to the form to be
ground on the workpiece
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Dressing, Truing, and Shaping of Grinding Wheels
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Grindability of Materials and Wheel Selection Grindability of materials is a general indicator of how
easy it is to grind a material Include quality of the surface produced, surface finish,
surface integrity, wheel wear, cycle time, and overall economics of the operation
Wheel selection involves shape of the wheel, shape of the part to be produced and characteristics of the workpiece material
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Selection of a grinding process and machine depends on the workpiece shape and features, size, ease of fixturing, and production rate required
Relative movement of the wheel may be along the surface of the workpiece or move radially into the workpiece
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Surface Grinding Surface grinding involve the grinding of flat surfaces Workpiece is secured on a magnetic chuck attached to
the worktable of the grinder Traverse grinding is where the table reciprocates
longitudinally and is fed laterally after each stroke. In plunge grinding, it involves the wheel moving
radically into the workpiece Vertical spindles and rotary tables allow a number of
pieces to be ground in one setup
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Cylindrical Grinding The external cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of
workpieces are ground Rotating cylindrical workpiece reciprocates laterally
along its axis to cover the width to be ground Capable of grinding rolls with large diameter
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Cylindrical Grinding Can also produce shapes in which the wheel is dressed
to the workpiece form to be ground Non-cylindrical parts can be ground on rotating
workpieces Workpiece spindle speed is synchronized between the
workpiece and the wheel axis
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Cylindrical Grinding Thread grinding is done on cylindrical grinders using
specially dressed wheels matching the shape of the threads
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
EXAMPLE 26.3Cycle Patterns in Cylindrical Grinding Cycle patterns for a CNC precision grinder
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Internal Grinding A small wheel is used to grind the inside diameter of
the part Internal profiles is ground with profile-dressed wheels
that move radially into the workpiece
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Centerless Grinding A high-production process for continuously grinding
cylindrical surfaces Workpiece is supported by a blade Parts with variable diameters can be ground by
centerless grinding called infeed or plunge grinding
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Centerless Grinding In internal centerless grinding, the workpiece is
supported between three rolls and is ground internally
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Creep-feed Grinding Grinding can also be used for large-scale metal-
removal operations to compete with milling, broaching and planing
In creep-feed grinding, the wheel depth of cut, d, is small and the workpiece speed is low
To keep workpiece temperatures low and improve surface finish, the wheels are softer grade resin bonded and have an open structure
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Heavy Stock Removal by Grinding Grinding can also be used for heavy stock removal by
increasing process parameters The dimensional tolerances are on the same order as
those obtained by most machining processes
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
EXAMPLE 26.4 Grinding versus Hard Turning Dimensional tolerances and surface finish in hard
turning approaching to those obtained with grinding Turning requires much less energy than grinding Cutting fluids not necessary and the machine tools are
less expensive Work-holding devices for large and slender workpieces
for hard turning is a problem Tool wear and its control is also a problem
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Other Grinding Operations Universal tool and cutter grinders are used for grinding
single-point or multipoint tools Tool-post grinders are self-contained units and attached
to the tool post of a lathe Swing-frame grinders are used in foundries for grinding
large castings Portable grinders are driven pneumatically or
electrically Bench and pedestal grinders are used for the routine
offhand grinding of tools and small parts
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Operations and Machines
Grinding Fluids Importance of using a fluid:1. Reduces temperature rise in the workpiece2. Improves part surface finish and dimensional accuracy3. Improves the efficiency of the operation Grinding fluids are
water-based emulsions for grinding and oils for thread grinding
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Chatter
Chatter adversely affects surface finish and wheel performance
Chatter marks on ground surfaces can be identified from:
1. Bearings and spindles of the grinding machine2. Non-uniformities in the grinding wheel 3. Uneven wheel wear4. Poor dressing techniques5. Using grinding wheels that are not balanced properly6. External sources
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The Grinding Process:Grinding Chatter
Ways to reduce the tendency for chatter in grinding:1. Using soft-grade wheels2. Dressing the wheel frequently3. Changing dressing techniques4. Reducing the material-removal rate5. Supporting the workpiece rigidly
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
The Grinding Process:Grinding Chatter
Safety in Grinding Operations Grinding wheels are brittle and when rotate at high
speeds, they can fracture and cause serious injury There must be care in handling, storage and usage of
grinding wheels Damage to a grinding wheel can reduce its bursting
speed severely
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Design Considerations for Grinding Specific attention should be given to:1. Parts should be designed so that they can be mounted
securely2. Interrupted surfaces should be avoided as they can
cause vibrations and chatter3. Parts for cylindrical grinding should be balanced4. Short pieces should be avoided as they may be difficult
to grind5. Design kept simple to avoid frequent form dressing of
the wheel6. Holes should be avoided
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Ultrasonic Machining Material is removed from a surface by microchipping
and erosion with loose, fine abrasive grains in a water slurry
Best suited for materials that are hard and brittle Form tool is required for each shape to be produced Materials for abrasive grains are boron carbide,
aluminum oxide or silicon carbide
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Ultrasonic MachiningRotary Ultrasonic Machining Abrasive slurry is replaced by metal-bonded diamond
abrasives either impregnated or electroplated on the tool surface
Tool is vibrated ultrasonically and rotated at the same time
It is being pressed against the workpiece surface at a constant pressure
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Ultrasonic MachiningDesign Considerations for Ultrasonic Machining Basic design guidelines:1. Avoid sharp profiles, corners, and radii2. Holes produced will have some taper3. Bottom of the parts should have a backup plate
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Finishing OperationsCoated Abrasives Coated abrasives are made of aluminum oxide, silicon
carbide and zirconia alumina Coated abrasives have more open structure than the
abrasives on grinding wheels They are used to finish flat or curved surfaces of
metallic and nonmetallic parts, metallographic specimens, and in woodworking
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Finishing OperationsBelt Grinding Used as belts for high-rate material removal with good
surface finish Replace conventional grinding operations Microreplication perform more consistently than
conventional coated abrasives and the temperatures involved are lower
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Finishing OperationsEXAMPLE 26.5 Belt Grinding of Turbine Nozzle Vanes Turbine nozzle vanes shown The vanes were mounted on a fixture and ground dry at
a belt surface speed of 1,800 m/min
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Finishing OperationsWire Brushing Also called power brushing The workpiece is held against a circular wire brush that
rotates Wire brushing is used to produce a fine or controlled
surface texture
Honing Used to improve the surface finish of holes Tool has a reciprocating axial motion and produces a
crosshatched pattern on the surface of the hole
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Finishing OperationsSuperfinishing Light pressure is applied and the motion of the honing
stone has a short stroke Motion of the stone is controlled so that the grains do
not travel along the same path on the surface
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Finishing OperationsLapping Used for finishing flat, cylindrical, or curved surfaces The lap is soft and porous and is made of cast iron,
copper, leather or cloth The abrasive particles are embedded in the lap or
carried in a slurry
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Finishing OperationsPolishing A process that produces a smooth, lustrous surface
finish Softening and smearing of surface layers by frictional
heating and fine scale abrasive removal from the workpiece surface
Produce shiny appearance of polished surfaces
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Finishing OperationsChemical–mechanical Polishing Uses a suspension of abrasive particles in a water-
based solution with a controlled corrosion Removes material from the workpiece through
combined abrasion and corrosion effects Major application of this process is the polishing of
silicon wafers
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Finishing OperationsElectropolishing Mirrorlike finishes can be obtained on metal surfaces No mechanical contact with the workpiece For polishing irregular shapes
Polishing in Magnetic Fields 2 basic polishing methods: 1. Magnetic-float2. Magnetic-field-assisted
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Deburring Operations Burrs are thin ridges developed along the edges of a
workpiece from operations Burrs can be detected by simple means or visual
inspection Burrs have several disadvantages: 1. Jam and misalignment of parts, 2. Safety hazard to personnel3. Reduce the fatigue life of components4. Sheet metal have lower bend ability
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Deburring Operations Deburring operations include:1. Manual deburring with files and scrapers2. Mechanical deburring by machining pieces3. Wire brushing4. Using abrasive belts5. Ultrasonic machining6. Electropolishing7. Electrochemical machining8. Magnetic–abrasive finishing9. Vibratory finishing10. Shot blasting or abrasive blasting
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Deburring OperationsVibratory and Barrel Finishing Used to remove burrs from large numbers of relatively
small workpieces Container is vibrated or tumbled by various mechanical
means Impact of individual abrasives and metal particles
removes the burrs and sharp edges from the parts Can be a dry or a wet process
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Deburring OperationsShot Blasting Also called grit blasting Involves abrasive particles propelling by a high-velocity
jet of air, or by a rotating wheel, onto the surface of the workpiece
Surface damage can result if the process parameters are not controlled
Microabrasive blasting consists of small-scale polishing and etching on bench-type units
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Deburring OperationsAbrasive-flow Machining Involves the use of abrasive grains that are mixed in a
putty-like matrix Movement of the abrasive matrix under pressure
erodes away both burrs and sharp corners and polishes the part
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Deburring OperationsThermal Energy Deburring Consist of placing the part in a chamber and injected
with a mixture of natural gas and oxygen Drawbacks to the process: 1. Larger burrs tend to form2. Thin and slender parts may distort3. Does not polish or buff the workpiece surfaces
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Deburring OperationsRobotic Deburring Deburring and flash removal by programmable robots Using a force-feedback system for controlling the path
and rate of burr removal Eliminates tedious and expensive manual labor
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Economics of Abrasive Machiningand Finishing Operations Abrasive machining and finishing operations are
necessary to achieve high enough dimensional accuracy or good-quality surface finishes
Abrasive processes are used both as a finishing process and as a large-scale material-removal operation
As the surface-finish requirement increases, more operations are needed and cost increases further
Total cost of abrasive operations depends on part size, shape, surface finish, dimensional accuracy, machinery, tooling and labor involved
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Economics of Abrasive Machiningand Finishing Operations
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