Word meaning

Dictionary Meaning

A. Ait Taleb, Y. Taia, Z. JamaatiSemantics and Pragmatics Course

Prof. Chouaibi

Outline

. Introduction.1. The definition and the history of dictionary.2. Meaning and the dictionary.

A-A typical dictionaryB- Semantics & lexicography.

3. Approaches to definition4. Types of dictionaries5. Properties of dictionaries6. Sense relations affecting word meaning.7. Knowledge of meaning (dictionary) Vs . Factual

Knowledge (encyclopedia).8. . Problems of distinction b/w Dictionary and encyclopedia9. Clues to differentiate b/w a dictionary and encyclopedia

Introduction• Among the kinds of questions semanticists ask are the following:• What are meanings ?

definitions? Ideas in our heads? Sets of objects in the world?

• Can all meanings be precisely defined?

People may feel that the dictionary definition of a word is the best representation of a word's meaning, but the reality is that dictionaries model usage.

This presentation considers the role of DICTIONARY definition in the description of meaning.

1- The definition and history of dictionary:

A. Definition:• The word ‘Dictionary’ is derived from the

medieval Latin word ‘Dictionarium’. It originated from the term ‘dictio’ meaning ‘a

word’ or a ‘phrase’. Thus, a dictionary deals with the words.

B- The history of the dictionary• Different sorts of ‘proto-lexicographical’ documents

(glossaries, word lists,…)existed in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. They were used to keep a record of words which had fallen out of use in everyday language, but which continued to be used in specialized speech genres like poetry.

• Bilingual dictionaries (They contain equivalents or translation) have been developed before the monolingual ones.

• Monolingual dictionaries (They contain definitions) did not exist in the West until about the sixteenth century (Matoré 1968. Cf. Riemer,2010:49).

2-A-Meaning and the dictionary:

• The concept of word’s meaning is closely related to the concept of definition.

• Definitions have been particularly important for conceptual theories of meaning

• Example:If you know the concept ‘horse’, you will be able to use the word ‘horse’ in a way that accords with or fits its definition.

• This means, you will agree with a large number of propositions which are based on the definition that the ‘horse’ is:“a large, four-footed mammal with hooves and a

mane”

• Examples:• a. If X is a horse, X is an animal.• b. If X is a horse, it has a mane.• c. If X is a rooster, so X is not a horse.• d. If X is a horse, it is a large four-footed

mammal with hooves and a mane. (P:46)

• As a result, an understanding of definition is necessary for any attempt to develop a conceptual theory of word meaning.

• Moreover, when people think of a word’s meaning, they tend to think of something like its definition in a dictionary.

2-b- A typical dictionary:

• A dictionary is a central part of the description of any language. A good ordinary household dictionary typically gives (at least) three kinds of

information about words: Phonological information about how the word is pronouncedGrammatical (syntactical and morphological)

information about its part of speech (e.g. noun, verb) and inflections (e.g. for plural number or past tense)

semantic information about the word’s meaning.

Example:

• Green: /gri:n/, adj. of the color of growing foliage

Phonological Grammatical Semantic

2-c- Semantics and lexicography

• Lexicography/ dictionary writing is ‘a craft, a way of doing something useful. It is not a theoretical exercise to increase the sum of human knowledge but practical work to put together a book that people can understand.’ Landau (1984: 121 Cf. Reimer,2010:46)

• By contrast, linguistic semantics , in addition to its concern with the meanings of words, is a theoretical exercise.

• The primary goal of linguistic semantics is the specification of the stored meaning representation associated with each lexeme in the mental lexicon.

• mental lexicon: A stock of words and meanings stored in long-term memory.

• When the speaker/writer accesses words, it’s a matter of matching ideas with those stored meaning representations that are associated with stable word forms in the mental lexicon.

This process is analogous to consulting a dictionary.

• Therefore, the dictionary constructed by a semanticist is supposed to represent important aspects of the mental knowledge about meaning that any typical native speaker of the language would have.

• Ordinary dictionaries usually fail to cater for all the aspects of this mental knowledge.

3- Approaches to definition

1- Word-based/ semiological approach: It starts with a language’s

individual lexemes, and tries to specify the meaning of each one.

-Example:Start with this list :scare, frighten, terrify, startle, spook, and panic . Then, specify a slightly different meaning for each.

You access meanings through words( Dictionary)

Meaning-based/ Onomasiological approach:• It starts with a particular

meaning, and list the various forms available in the language for its expression.- Example:start with a general concept, FRIGHTEN, and list all of those verbs ( scare, terrify,..)as its possible realizations.

You get access to different words through a particular concept (A thesaurus) (Reimer,2010:50)

Semasiological and onomasiological analysis are in no way exclusive:

• the semasiological approach emphasizes differences between lexemes, the onomasiological one similarities.

• Both are necessary to a full description of the processes underlying communication.

Types of dictionaries

• There are two types of dictionaries:– The ordinary

dictionary.– The semanticist

dictionary.

• The ordinary dictionary is generally written by ordinary dictionary writers or by linguists, usually under the supervision of publishing houses.

• The semanticist dictionary is written by semanticist.

Types of dictionaries

• Both writers share the same goals when writing dictionaries; that is to be as comprehensive as possible in defining words.

• Difference is styles and approaches to reach their goals

Task

Properties of dictionaries

Interconnectedness based on the definitions of the Consise Oxford Dictionary (6th edition, 1976).

marry

Wife Join

Husband

Unite

Marriage


• Interconnectedness:

• In all dictionaries, definitions are in most of the time interconnected. It is a feature that is desirable and can’t be avoidable.

• It is more relied on by semanticists as they aim to represent comprehensively the knowledge a native speaker has about all sense relations between predicates.

• Semanticists are interested more in word sense relations; (hyponymy, antonymy, polysemy, etc.)


• Circularity:• Semanticist leave some terms undefined or

ambiguous compared to ordinary dictionary writers, who try to exhaust definition of a term as much as possible.

Semantic primes


• Semantic Primes (Def.):

‘metalanguage which incorporates elements of the object

language can also be said to ‘defer full payment’. Only a

metalanguage which is completely independent of the

object language is in a position to offer a complete, non-

circular explanation in which every definiendum receives its

own semantic analysis independently of the analysis of the

others. Without such a metalanguage, there will always be a

residue of unexplained terms which escape definition.’


• They are actually words that cannot be understood with simple words and they are difficult to define without resorting to other ambiguous terms.

• The equivalent of Semantic primes in ordinary dictionaries are the use of technique or abstruse terms in definition, or in some cases define the words in another unfamiliar language to

• e.g.:Male: Of the sex that can beget offspring by

performing the fertilizing functions; (of plants) whose flowers contain only fecundating

organs of men or male animals or plants.


• The framework of logic:• Another important property that semanticists use

in dictionaries to describe the meaning.

• Note that those technical terms are not used by ordinary dictionaries to mislead in understanding of a term, but rather to describe the meaning.

• Both semanticists and ordinary dictionary writers aim to describe the sense relation between predicates as they understand them, in their own everyday life. (synonymy, antonymy, etc.)


• Precision:• The main and essential property of any dictionary

is Precision.

• Good ordinary dictionaries achieve high standard of precision. However, in many cases they fail to define some words with enough exactness.


• The distinction between homonymy and polysemy increase the precision of a dictionary. However it is difficult as in most of the time is arbitrary.

• The use of vague terms, such as ‘etc.’, ‘more or less’, ‘especially’, ‘usually’ affect the preciseness of a dictionary.

• It is generally argued that the use of vague words in an unavoidable as simply meanings cannot deduced with absolute preciseness. It is a valid argument.

Sense relations that affect word meanings

• Incompatibility: "mutual and binary exclusiveness within the same superordinate category" (e.g. male Vs. female)

• Symmetry: Interchangeability and belong of x to why and vice versa

• Hyponymy: "inclusion of meaning" (cat is a hyponym of animal)

• Are generally assumed clear by ordinary dictionaries. However Semanticist dictionaries focus more on finding all sense relation between words.

• The aim after all is to present language as it is known by native speakers.

Sense relations that affect word meanings

• Answer the following questions about sense relations between words and sentences as you understand them:

• 1. Is Male compatible with female? Yes / No

• 2. Does John is married to Mary entail Mary is married to John? Yes / No

• 3. Does the bench is joined to the table entail the table is joined to the bench? Yes / No

• 4. Is man a hyponym of Animal? Yes / No

Knowledge of meaning

knowledge of a word’s meaning (dictionary knowledge), which would be conceived of as something fairly concise, perhaps like a dictionary definition. knowledge of meaning is knowledge of the essential meaning of a word that all speakers must possess, and which dictionaries must accurately represent in order to allow the meaning to be acquired for the first time.

factual (‘Encyclopedic’) knowledge

a book, often in many volumes, containing articles on various topics, often arranged in alphabetical order, dealing either with the whole range of human knowledge or with one particular subject a medical encyclopedia

ExampleA teacher:or schoolteacher is a person who provides education for pupils (children) and students

(adults). The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional qualifications or credentials from a university or college. These professional qualifications may include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching. Teachers, like other professionals, may have to continue their education after they qualify, a process known as continuing professional development. Teachers may use a lesson plan to facilitate student learning, providing a course of study which is called the curriculum.

A teacher's role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills.

A teacher who facilitates education for an individual may also be described as a personal tutor, or, largely historically, a governess.

In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling. Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing role, such as a family member, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider community setting.

Problems with the distinction between Dictionary and encyclopedia

Although they both cover different things, the things they do cover are listed alphabetically

explained in detail, (generally) cross referenced with other entries.

As any comparison of dictionaries will reveal, it is very hard to determine where information stops being part of a word’s dictionary meaning and becomes part of the encyclopedic knowledge we have of its denotation.

. Which of the following pieces of information, for example, should be considered dictionary information about the meaning of the word cow, and which as facts about cows which form part of the encyclopaedic knowledge we have about them?

Example

•they are mammals•they moo•they eat grass•they are four-legged•they have large eyes•they live in fields and dairies•they sometimes wear cow-bells•they are often farmed for their milk•they have several stomachs•their young are called calvesin English•they incubate Mad Cow Disease for three to

five years if infected.•they chew their food slowly

Dictionary vs. encyclopedia

criterion Dictionary encyclopedia

object linguistic properties of linguistic units represented by lemmas

properties of objects designated by lemmas

describes use of linguistic units world knowledge

lemmas any word class only nouns

Clues to differentiate between Dictionaries and Encyclopedia

Dictionaries only define words while encyclopedias give facts and history on people, places, and things. Sometimes the articles in encyclopedias can be very long, the definitions of words in the dictionary are usually brief. Dictionaries have verbs, adjectives, pronouns etc... while encyclopedias only have nouns in them.

Encyclopedic dictionary

a type of reference work arranged A-to-Z with in depth articles, esp. about proper nouns; a reference work

which shares features of a general dictionary and encyclopedia.

Example: The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (1889-

91) is a good example of an encyclopedic dictionary.

References

• Hurford, J.R and Heasly, B and Smith, M.B. (2007). Semantics A Coursebook. UK: Cambridge University Press.

• Riemer, N. (2010). Introducing Semantics. UK: Cambridge University Press.

• Site retirieved on 14 May 2013: http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/ling001/semantics.html

http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/ling001/semantics.html

http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/ling001/semantics.html

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Word meaning