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Chapter 12 Study Guide
The Worlds of the 15th Century
KeyThis - people This - key terms/vocabularyThis - places
I. The Shapes of Human Communities
IA. Paleolithic Persistence: Australia and North America● Hunter-gatherer (h/g) societies cont’d to exist into the era 600-1450
○ Australia, Siberia, arctic coastlands, parts of Africa and Americas○ Split into some 250 separate groups, around until late 18th century○ Assimilated various innovations from outsiders, were never agricultural
■ Ex: canoes, fishhooks, netting techniques, rituals
● Despite absence of agri, they mastered and manipulated their envi○ Firestick farming: delib. set fires to “clean up country” - made hunting easier b/c cleared
brush, encouraged growth of plants○ Exchanged goods over long distances, created elaborate mythologies, ritual practices,
and developed sophisticated sculpture and rock painting
1A cont’d● Along NW coast of Americas (peoples - Chinookan,
Tulalip, Skagit, etc)○ Bounteous envi → complex h/g strategies○ Distinguished from Australia b/c had permanent
village settlements w/stable houses, economic specialization, ranked societies, chiefdoms and storage of food
● Societies persisted through 15th century, but numbers and area contracted greatly during Agricultural Revolution
1B. Agricultural Village Societies: the Igbo and the Iroquois● Fully agricultural, avoided incorporation into larger civilizations, didn’t develop own
city/state-based society● Usually small village-based communities (comm’s) organized in terms of kinship relations● Predominated during 15th (century) in: N. Am., S. Am. and Caribbean, Amazon River Basin, SE
Asia, and Africa s. of equator, throughout Pacific Oceania○ Marginal to other civilizations, but each had own histories ○ Created societies largely w/o political authority, class inequalities and seclusion of
women like in common civilization (civ)
1B cont’d - Igbo★ E of Niger River in heavily forested W. Africa - Igbo people
○ Neighbors Yoruba and Bini began to develop states and urban centers○ Igbo rejected kingship and state building
■ Relied on other things to maintain social cohesion: balances of power, title societies, women’s associations
■ Was a “stateless society”
● Traded actively among selves and w/distant neighbors (ex: Sognhay)○ Ex: cotton, cloth, fish, copper and iron goods○ Artistic traditions reflected cultural unity
● Were eventually caught up in transatlantic slave trade
1B cont’d - Iroquois ★ Iroquois-speaking peoples (lived in now NY)
○ Fully agricultural, adopted maize and bean farming○ Agri took hold by 1300 → population increased (^), distinct peoples emerged○ Frequent warfare erupted among 5 peoples: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca
■ Made agreement known as Great Law of Peace - 5 Nations agreed to settle differences through peaceful confederation of 50 clan leaders
● Could adjudicate disputes and set reparation payments● Suppressed blood feuds and tribal conflicts● Coordinated relationships w/ outsiders
● Became increasingly encompassed in expanding economic networks and conquest empires based in W. Eu., Russia, China, or India
○ Replicated experience of other village-based farming communities
1C. Pastoral Peoples: Central Asia and W. Africa● As Mongol rule ended, an attempt to restore it occurred (late 14th-early
15th) under leadership of a Turkic warrior named Timur (born in Uzbekistan, known as Tamerlane)
○ w/ ferocity, army brought devastation again to Russia, Persia, India○ Died in 1405 preparing for an invasion of China○ Conflicts among successors prevented lasting empire
★ State hosted sophisticated elite culture, combining Turkic and Persian elements
○ Capital: Samarkand ○ Last great military success of nomadic peoples in C. Asia → homelands later swallowed by
Russian and Chinese empires
1C cont’d - West Africa★ West Africa - people stayed independent of established empires, not until
late 19th were they incorporated into European colonial states○ Ex: Fulbe (WA’s largest pastoral society) - herding people w/highly signif. role in 15th c.
■ Migrated from W. Sahara along upper Senegal River eastward■ Small comm’s inside agricultural settlements, paid grazing fees and taxes to and
hated them■ Adopted Islam, some settled in towns where they could become religious leaders
● In 18th and 19th centuries, became center of a wave of jihads (religiously-based uprisings) → expanded Islam + rise of new Fulbe states
II. Civilizations of the 15th Century: Comparing China and Europe
IIA. Ming Dynasty China● Traditions had been disrupted by Mongol rule, pop. decreased by plague● Recovered during Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
○ Early decades - rebuilding, wiping out traces of foreign rule, promoting Confucian rule and orthodox gender rules
● Emperor Yongle (r. 1402-1422) - sponsored 11K volume encyclopedia w/contributions of 2K+ scholars
○ Relocated capital of China to Beijing○ ordered building of imperial residence known as Forbidden City○ constructed Temple of Heaven
● Culturally speaking, China was looking to its past
IIA cont’d - Ming’s political system● Reestablished civil service exam system and created a highly centralized
government○ Power to emperor himself and cadre of eunuchs exercised great authority○ Acted to repair damage by restoring land to cultivation, rebuilding irrigation works,
planting 1B trees○ Economy rebounded, trade and population ^
● Undertook impressive maritime expeditions: fleet launched in 1405, followed by 6 more over 28 years
○ Captained by Muslim eunuch Zheng He○ Visited ports in SE Asia, Indonesia, India, Arabia, E. Africa○ 1st voyage: 300 ships, 27K men (soldiers, physicians, officials)
● Expeditions established power and prestige, exerted control over trade● Ended abruptly - after 1433, authorities let it deteriorate after death of Yongle
○ Believed China was a self-sufficient “middle kingdom”, viewed voyages as a waste of resources and money
IIB. European Comparisons: State Building + Cultural Renewal● Europe had similar processes of demographic recovery, political
consolidation and cultural flowering○ After Mongol demise, started regrowing pop. in late 1400s○ Infrastructure - durable foundation
● Readopted fragmented system of indep. and competitive states○ Learned to tax effectively, more effective admin structures, raised standing armies○ Russian state centered on Moscow emerged○ War was a frequent occurrence
■ Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): England vs. France over rival claims to territory in France
IIB cont’d★ Renewed cultural blossoming: Renaissance (1300-1600)- parallel renewal
of Confucianism in China○ Reclaimed Greco-Roman tradition○ Began in commercial cities of Italy
■ Inspo in art and lit of ancient Greece and Rome■ Purpose: use works as a cultural standard to imitate and then surpass
● Patronized great artists (ex: da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael) - paintings more naturalistic w/portraits and human body
○ Majority of writers and artists were men, few exceptions such as Christine de Pizan (1363-1430)
■ Works pushed against misogyny■ Book City of Ladies, written w/help of Lady of Reason
○ Interested in capturing qualities of the individual and describing the world
IIB cont’d● Reflected urban bustle and
commercial preoccupations of Italian cities
○ Secular elements challenged Christian culture
○ Individualism signaled dawning of a more capitalist economy of private entrepreneurs
● New Europe in the making, more different from their recent past than Ming China from their pre-Mongol glory
IIC. European Comparisons: Maritime Voyaging● Like Chinese, Euro’s were also launching oceanic expeditions● Initiated 1415 by Portugal - sailed down W. coast of Africa● As century ended, 2 expeditions marked major breakthroughs
○ 1492: Columbus made way across Atlantic and hit Americas■ Funded by Spain, Portugal’s neighbor and rival
○ 1497: Vasco de Gama went around tip of S. Africa, along E. African coast and across Indian Ocean to Calicut in S. India
● Differences between Chinese and Euro ventures
Europeans Chinese
Size Columbus - 3 ships, 90 mende Gama - 4 ships, 170 men
Zheng He - 100’s of ships, K’s of sailors
Motivation Sought wealth of Africa and Asia, Christian converts and allies
Didn’t need any of these
Duration Continuing, escalating effort Decisive ending of voyages
IIC cont’d★ Why did Europeans continue a process that the Chinese deliberately
abandoned?○ Had no unified political authority w/ power to order an end to expeditions○ Elite had an interest in overseas expansion○ China: when ZH died, those who opposed him prevailed in court
■ Also believed that if they needed something abroad, others would bring it to them
★ Chinese withdrawal facilitated Euro entry○ Portuguese could penetrate region, faced only Ottomans
★ To deal w. population ^ and land shortage,○ China: more extensive use of land, expansion inland → C. Asia○ Europe: agriculture → new lands overseas, commitment to oceanic expansion
III. Civilizations of the 15th Century: The Islamic World
● 15th and early 16th’s experiences remarkable changes and continuation of earlier patterns
● Split into 4 empires○ Ottoman (16th) - Mid. E, coastal N. Africa, around Black Sea, E. Europe○ Safavid - Iran○ Mughal - India○ Songhay - Africa
IIIA. In the Islamic Heartland: Ottoman and Safavid Empires★ Ottoman - most impressive and enduring, lasted 14th → early 20th c.
○ Created by a Turkic warrior group that migrated into Anatolia○ By mid-15th, spread to Anat. peninsula, SE Europe (Balkan habitat)○ Substantial Christian population
★ Represented emergence of Turks as dominant people of Islamic world, ruled over many Arabs○ Claimed legacy of Abbasid empire○ Sought to bring unity to Islamic world and protect religion
★ New phase in encounters btwn Christian and Islamic worlds - rise of Ottomans reversed roles (orig: Christians dom, Islamics sub)○ Seizure of Constantinople in 1453 - demise of Byzantium, opened way to
expansion in heartland Europe○ 1529: Ottomans lay siege to Vienna○ Europeans called this the “terror of the Turk”
IIIA cont’d★ Safavid Empire - Persian lands, E of Ottomans (late 15th, early 16th)
○ Leadership Turkic but emerged from a Sufi religious order founded by Safi al-Din (1252-1334)
○ Established circa 1510○ Long-term significance: imposed Shia Islam as official religion of state
■ Introduced divide into political and religious life of Islam■ Years (1534-1639) - periodic military conflict between Ottoman and
Safavid empires
IIIB. On the Frontiers of Islam: Songhay + Mughal Empires★ Songhay - W. African savannas, rose late 15th century
○ Derived revenue from commerce of trans-Saharan trade routes○ Islam a growing faith, limited to urban elites○ Divide accounts for behavior of 15th century monarch Sonni Ali
■ Gave alms and fasted during Ramadan, but took pride in being a magician - had invisibility charm that helped his military
○ Became major center of Islamic learning and commerce by early 16th century○ Successor made hajj, asked to be given title “Caliph of the Land of the Blacks”
IIIB cont’d★ Mughal - invaded India in 1526
○ Bore similarities to Songhay - governed mainly non-Islamics
○ Initiated new phase btwn Islamics and Hindus■ Gave India a rare period of political unity■ During first 150 years, tried to blend Muslims and
Hindus into a partnership● Exception: Vijayanagara (distinctly Hindu) -
flourished in southernmost India
IIIB cont’d★ Together, 4 empires brought political coherence, military power,
economic prosperity, and cultural brilliance○ New energy (“new flowering of Islam”) → faith spread to other regions
■ Most prominent of these - oceanic SE Asia○ In SE Asia and Africa, Islam was intro’ed by traveling merchants and solidified through
activities of Sufi holy men
★ Rise of Mala (a major Muslim port city) on waterway btwn Sumatra and Malaya
○ Facilitated commerce throughout all of Islamic world○ Became springboard for spread of Islam, which demonstrated much blending w/local and
Hindu/Buddhist traditions○ Became center for Islamic learning - scholars came from all over to study
IV. Civilizations of the 15th Century:The Americas
IVA. The Aztec Empire● Largely work of Mexica people - semi-nomadic, orig. From N. Mexico and
migrated southward, (core population 5-6 mil)○ By 1325, had est’ed selves on small island on Lake Texcoco○ Over next century, developed military capacity○ Built own capital city - Tenochtitlan
■ Metropolis of 150-200K■ Canals, dikes, causeways, bridges■ Chinampas - “floating gardens” that surrounded city
● 1428 - Triple Alliance between Mexica and 2 other city-states → launched an aggressive military conquest that was successful
● Was a loosely structured and unstable conquest state - had frequent rebellions
IVA cont’d● Collected tribute: conquered’s required to deliver textiles, milit. Supplies,
jewelry, and animal products → local collectors → capital● Extent of empire and pop. growth stimulated development of markets
and production of craft goods○ Tlatelco: largest market, near capital city, had every kind of merchandise○ Pochteca: professional merchants - legally commoners but wealth was above that of
nobles■ Rose in society, became magnates of the land■ Also obtained slaves for sacrifice in Aztec rituals
● Tlacael (1398-1480) - prominent official, credited w/ ideology that gave human sacrifice importance
IVA cont’d - Religious Life and Understanding of the World● Cyclical understanding: sun is central to all life and identified w/ Aztec patron deity
Huitzilopochtli○ Constant battle w/darkness and Aztec world viewed as being on edge of catastrophe and
required life-giving force found in human blood○ High calling of state - supply blood thorough wars and POWs
● Growth of empire became means for maintaining cosmic order and avoiding catastrophe○ Ideology shaped techniques of warfare - priority in capturing rather than
killing enemy○ Priests and rulers became codependent - sacrifice started being carried out
for politics and rituals served to impress guests● Rituals also included poetic tradition of great beauty, mused on fragility of human
life○ Outlook characterized work of Nezahualcoyotl - poet and king of city-state
Texcoco
IVB. The Inca Empire● Relatively small community of Quechua-speaking peoples built an imp. State along
Andes Mtns○ Incorporated lands and cultures of earlier Andean civ’s○ Much larger than Aztec: 2,500 miles, 10 mil people○ Resembled Mongols in speed of creation and extent of territory
● Erected a bureaucratic empire w/strict social structure○ Emperor: thought of as divine - descendant of creator god Viracocha and son of sun god
Inti○ Governors for each of 80 provinces
■ State owned all lands and resources○ Local officials - headed hierarchal units made of grouped subjects○ Inspectors provided center w/checks on provincial officials
■ Population data recorded on quipus● Efforts in cultural integration - conquered’s had to learn Quechua, which is still
spoken today
IVB cont’d● Human diversity required flexibility, had to delegate control and construct effective
admin. systems ○ Required peoples to know major Inca deities, but were largely free to carry on own
religious traditions○ State depended as much on posture of peoples as on demands of Inca authorities
● Rep’ed a dense and extended network of econ. relationships ○ Mita system: demands expressed through labor service, required periodically of each
household■ Some on large state farms (“sun farms”)■ Some herded, mined, served in military, construction projects■ Those w/skills manufactured textiles, metal, ceramics, stone■ “Chosen women” - most well-known specialists, trained young → given as wives to
men of distinction or became priestesses in various temples (called “wives of the Sun”)
● In return, state was required to have feasts and supply resources when disaster struck
IVB cont’d - Gender Parallelism in both Inca and Andes● Women and men operated in separate but equal environments
○ Andes: men patrilineal, women matrilineal○ Mesoam: children belonged equally to both parents○ Both had parallel religious cults for both sexes
■ (Inca) matching officials, men worshipped son and women worshipped moon■ Parallel hierarchies of male and female political officials
● Social roles clearly defined, but domestic activities were not thought of as inferior to men’s
■ Childbirth considered women’s war■ Taking care of home thought to raise better children
● Gender complementarity, not inequality○ Men only still in military, in higher court positions○ Incas imposed rigid patriarchal system
■ Exception: sapay Inca (ruler) and coya (female consort) governed jointly
V. Webs of Connection
● Almost all 15th century civ’s were in various and overlapping webs of influence, communication and exchange
○ Most obvious: empire and large-scale political systems
● Religion also linked and divided far-flung people○ Christianity
■ Common culture from England to Russia■ Divided btwn Roman Cath. and E. Orth. endured
● 16th century Protestant Reformation shattered Christian unity of Latin West○ Buddhism
■ Largely vanished from C. Asia■ Remained link btwn China, Korea, Tibet, etc.
○ Islam■ Brought together many (ex: Africans, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Indians, etc.)■ Conflicts persisted: Sunni Ottoman vs. Shia Safavid
● Long-established patterns of trade○ Ex’s: hunting societies of Siberia - Silk Roads; N. African horses → agricultural Nigeria
using trans-Saharan trade; Mississippi River and Orinoco and Amazon Rivers facilitated canoe-borne commerce
■ Pacific Polynesia - great voyaging networks were in decline by 1500 (cause: ecological devastation and Little Ice Age - cooling and fluctuating climate change)
○ Afro-Eurasian networks cont’d, but w/changing balance■ Silk Roads contracted w/Mongol collapse, plague and rise of Ottomans■ Oceanic trade from Japan, Korea and China through SE Asian islands and Indian
Ocean picked up considerably● Large ships could accommodate bulk goods (ex: grain) and luxury products● More sophisticated partnerships and credit mechanisms
● Common Islamic culture smoothed passage of goods among different peoples
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