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Lecture 3 from the Later Roman Empire module at the University of Liverpool, given on 15th October 2012.
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The Tetrarchy
Dr Jamie WoodLecture 3; 12th October 2012
Summary of last week’s lecture
Aims of this lecture
To provide an overview of the main historical actors and events of the Tetrarchy
To focus on the figure and role of Diocletian
To pick out key themes of the Tetrarchic period
To assess the extent to which the Tetrarchy was a key turning point in history of later Roman Empire
Structure
End of 3rd C crisis, rise of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
Themes (1) Administration/ bureaucracy Military
-------------------------------------------------- Groupwork: 3rd century historians Themes (2)
Economy Religion
Visual sources Breakdown of the Tetrarchy Conclusion
End of 3rd century crisis
Military Diocletian defeats his rivals Military reforms Invasions cease (or are defeated)
Government Development of new system: the
Tetrarchy Sharing of power Reorganisation of bureaucracy and
administration Economic reforms
Why is the Tetrarchy important?
Ends ‘crisis’ of 3rd century
End of the principate (princeps) and beginning of the dominate (dominus)
Last great ‘persecution’ of Christians
A new era: the start of ‘modern’ history?
Who was Diocletian (r. 284-305; d. 311)?
Originally Diocles From low-status family in
Dalmatia (modern Croatia) Rose from ranks Cavalry commander under
Carus (282-3) and his son Numerian (282-4)
Succeeds on Numerian’s death and kills Aper (praetorian prefect and his rival) in full view of army at Nicomedia
Historia Augusta, The Lives of Carus, Carinus and Numerian, 13.2-3
This man [= Diocletian] then, having ascended the tribunal was hailed as Augustus, and when someone asked how Numerian had been slain, he drew his sword and pointing to Aper, the prefect of the guard, he drove it through him, saying as he did so, “It is he who contrived Numerian's death”. So Aper, a man who lived an evil life and in accordance with vicious counsels, met with the end that his ways deserved. My grandfather used to relate that he was present at this assembly when Aper was slain by the hand of Diocletian; and he used to say that Diocletian, after slaying him, shouted, “Well may you boast, Aper, ‘Tis by the hand of the mighty Aeneas you perish.’ (Aeneid, x.830)”
Diocletian’s reign: the early days
284: death of Numerian; D acclaimed Augustus
285: defeat of Carinus (N’s brother); Maximian, fellow army officer appointed Caesar
286: Maximian appointed Augustus
293: Tetrarchy begins
The Tetrarchy
Established by Diocletian and Maximian in 293: Galerius and Constantius I Chlorus appointed
Caesares Rule of four
from Greek: four (tetra) and rule (arch) Division of empire into east and west, with
sub-division in each Lasted (with changes of personnel) until ca.
313 when civil war left Constantine I in west and Licinius in east
How it worked
Territorial division of the Tetrarchy
Two Augusti
Two Caesars
Common iconography = common purpose?
Diocletian
Galerius Constantius I Chlorus
Maximian
Diocletian’s administrative reforms: reform from what?
Small imperial administrative system of early empire
Change in the cities Civic system in earlier empire Tax raising and tax farming Euergetism
Bureaucracy and empire
Keith Hopkins (‘Conquest By Book’, in Beard et al. (eds.), Literacy in the Roman World, JRA Supplement 3; Ann Arbor, 1991) argued that writing, like money, was a medium of exchange – in information and knowledge – which helped to unify Empire Emergence of legal and
documentary culture as the Roman Empire expanded
Resultant process of professionalization and bureaucratization (as we have already seen)
Administrative reforms
Chain of command linked civil administrators directly to emperor (via councils/ departments)
Professionalised hierarchy with elaborate system of honours
Each province has separate civil and military administration (secret service developed)
Increases number of provinces (50 -> 100) Number of officials increased (15k -> 30k) System of taxation developed to meet costs
of increased administration
Lactantius, On the Death of the Persecutors 7(Christian, early 4th C)
‘In his greed and anxiety he [Diocletian] turned the whole world upside down. He appointed three men to share his rule, dividing the world into four parts and multiplying the armies, since each of the four strove to have a far larger number of troops than previous emperors had had when they were governing the state alone. The number of recipients began to exceed the number of contributors by so much that, with farmers’ resources exhausted by the enormous requisitions , fields became deserted and cultivated land was turned into forest. To ensure terror was universal, provinces too were cut into fragments; many governors and even more officials were imposed on individual regions, almost on individual cities, and to these were added numerous accountants, controllers, and prefects’ deputies. The activities of all these people were very rarely civil; they engaged only in repeated condemnations and confiscations, and in exacting endless resources – and the exactions were not just frequent, they were incessant, and involved insupportable injustices. And how could the arrangements for raising soldiers be endured?’
Military reforms
Increased size of army Renewed border defences Developed mobile field army
(comitatenses) Military commands made
smaller Military and administrative
offices separated Clear chain of command
developed (focussed on emperor)
Taxes raised to pay for increased military
Zosimus, New History, 2.34 (late 5th/ early 6th C)
“By the forethought of Diocletian, the frontiers of the empire everywhere were covered, as I have stated, with cities, garrisons and fortifications which housed the whole army. Consequently, it was impossible for the barbarians to cross the frontier because they were confronted at every point by forces capable of resisting their attacks.” Z goes on to criticise Constantine for
abandoning this system
Military problems (and solutions) in Britain Mid 280s: Carausius appointed
to clear pirates from English Channel; successful but then leads breakaway in Britain and northern Gaul with support of legions there
293: Constantius I Chlorus appointed Caesar to take back N. Gaul and Britain
293-296: gradual success; Carausius replaced by Allectus, who is restricted to Britain
296: reconquest of Britain
Carausius
Allectus
25
Group activity feeding back on 3rd century historians
1. Cassius Dio’s Roman History2. Historia Augusta3. HerodianIn your group prepare a short presentation that
provides the following information about your source Date of composition (esp. in relation to events described) Author(s) (who they are, where they are from) What it’s about (e.g. recurrent themes/ topics) Issues (e.g. viewpoint or biases of the author/ history of
the source’s transmission or survival)One member of the group needs to write this up into
a short (readable) summary which I will type up and add to the PowerPoint slides on VITAL.
Cassius Dio
ca. 164-229 AD (at least that is when he stops writing) Wrote 80 volumes of his Roman History covering 1400
years from Aeneas and the foundation of Rome to 229 AD. It is written in Attic Greek.
It survives mainly as extracts in later works by other people (i.e. is fragmentary)
Dio served as a senator under Commodus and was consul under Severus Alexander: so he has an elite viewpoint
Religion is a strong theme. He places a lot of importance on the supernatural. His first work, written before the History, was about dreams and portents. However there is no mention of Christianity. Did it not matter to him?
Dio spent 10 years researching and 12 years writing – he had a lot of sources to draw on
Historia Augusta
Herodian
Diocletian’s monetary reform (294)
New weights and denominations
Maintenance of bi-metallic system
Differential effect in east (more economically developed) and west
Seems to have provoked rise in cost of living; but rise in benefactions
Diocletian, Edict on Maximum Prices, preamble (date: 301)
‘If the excesses perpetrated by persons of unlimited and frenzied avarice could be checked by some self-restraint – this avarice which rushes for gain and profit with no thought for mankind … the situation could perhaps be faced with dissembling and silence, with the hope that human forbearance might alleviate the cruel and pitiable situation. But the only desire of these uncontrolled madmen is to have no thought for the common need.’‘ We hasten, therefore, to apply the remedies long demanded by the situation, satisfied that no-one can complain that our intervention with regulations is untimely or unnecessary, trivial or unimportant.’‘It is our pleasure, therefore, that the prices listed in the subjoined schedule be held in observance in the whole of our Empire …’‘It is our pleasure that anyone who resists the measures in this statute shall be subject to a capital penalty for daring to do so. And let no-one consider the statute harsh, since there is at hand a ready protection from danger in the observance of moderation…’
Religion and the Tetrarchy
Diocletian a religious conservative
Traditional pantheon persisted and imperial cult reinforced Part of increased
stress on centrality of emperor
Link between divine favour and military victory especially important
Diocletian and Jupiter, holding sceptres, sacrificing over altar
Punishing deviance Actions against:
Manichees (eastern dualist sect)▪ D = in charge of the East; conflict with Persia▪ Laws against Manichees in late 290s and 300s
Christians▪ 303-304: Great Persecution▪ Initial attempt to root out Christians from army, bureaucracy and
imperial household seems to have grown into general attempt to exterminate Christians
Objections to these religions: Novelty Alien origins (esp. Manichees) Exclusivist opposition to traditional Roman religions/
morals But is it ‘persecution’ or ‘prosecution’?
A new kind of emperor?
princeps => dominus Greater emphasis on
ceremony, which is stage-managed: E.g. adventus – entry into a city
Emperors wore diadems and clothes embroidered with precious stones
Only emperors allowed to wear purple cloth
Emperors separated from people by a curtain before audiences
Emperors lived in palaces Basilicas keep emperor as
centre of attention / authority
Audience hall, Diocletian’s palace, Split
Constantine’s basilica, Trier
Fall of Diocletian and Maximian
304: D suffers serious illness 304-5: Galerius persuades/ forces D
and M to abdicate (in 305); both retire Galerius becomes Augustusi in east
and Constantius I in west Severus and Maximin (both closely
associated with Galerius) declared Caesars Constantine (son of Constantius I Chlorus)
and Maxentius (son of Maximian) are ignored
= TROUBLE
Diocletian’s cabbages D and M remain in touch and
are consulted by Galerius M tries to return to power
twice; suffers damnatio memoriae
D urged to do the same: ‘If you could show the cabbage
that I planted with my own hands to your emperor, he definitely wouldn't dare suggest that I replace the peace and happiness of this place with the storms of a never-satisfied greed’ (Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus 39.6)
Diocletian’s palace, Split
Specially-built for D’s retirement in Dalmatia (modern Croatia)
A fortified site: compare to plans of Roman forts
A luxury residence: compare to villas
Conclusions and questions
To what extent is the Tetrarchic system (solely) the work of Diocletian (and Maximian)? It barely outlasted D’s abdication...
Is the Tetrarchy something radically new or simply an intensification of trends we have already witnessed, like the 3rd century crisis? Bureaucratisation Militarisation Exaltation of emperor Policing of deviance (move towards monotheism?)
Homework
Read: Christopher Kelly (1994), ‘Late Roman Bureaucracy: Going through the files’, in A. Bowman and G. Woolf, eds., Literacy and power in the ancient world (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pp. 161-176. [uploaded to VITAL]
In two week’s time we will look at the breakdown of the Tetrarchy, the short-lived ‘Second Tetrarchy’ and the success of Constantine and his Dynasty