Technology enhancing learning: analysing uses of information and communication technologies by primary and secondary school pupils with learning frameworks

Technology enhancing learning: analysing

uses of information and communication

technologies by primary and secondary

school pupils with learning frameworks

Don Passey*Department of Educational Research, University of Lancaster

Successive national policy in England has striven to develop uses of information and communication

technologies (ICT) to support teaching and learning, and has promoted the adoption of ICT in

schools over a period of some 25 years (since the ‘Microcomputer in schools initiative’ of 1981). The

current level of deployment of ICT in schools is high. Not only are current levels higher than ever

before, but the diversity of forms of ICT have also increased. These high levels and wide diversity

create challenges for teachers, in terms of understanding how to select appropriate uses of ICT to

support learning most effectively in specific situations. A clear need is for teachers to know how each

form of ICT supports precise aspects of learning, in each subject area, topic and activity. Teachers

need to consider the forms of technological resources that are accessible, how these specifically work

within learning environments in classroom (and other) settings, and how uses of resources match

social, behavioural, emotional and cognitive needs of pupils. This article offers a perspective of the

pedagogical needs of teachers, by considering a particular selection of learning technologies, how

these are used within learning environments, and how it is possible to view their impact on pupil

cognition. A set of starting frameworks, through which to analyse impact, is considered, and the

findings from example sets of case studies indicate how uses of ICT have been focused by teachers,

and where potential forms of impact have arisen. The findings indicate a need for more detailed data

gathering, both to provide evidence that will offer a greater insight into specific aspects of learning

that are supported when certain forms of ICT are used, and to give an indication of gaps in learning

focus that might arise. From the results of the analyses presented, implications for policy, practice,

evaluation and research are highlighted and discussed.

Keywords: Evaluation of learning uses and impacts; Implications for ICT uses; Learning

and ICT; Learning frameworks; Learning impact gap analysis

*Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YN, UK.

Email: [email protected]

The Curriculum Journal

Vol. 17, No. 2, June 2006, pp. 139 – 166

ISSN 0958-5176 (print)/ISSN 1469-3704 (online)/06/020139–28

ª 2006 British Curriculum Foundation

DOI: 10.1080/09585170600792761

Introduction

The greatest increase in levels of ICT resources and access to ICT in schools in

England has occurred since 1998. Stevenson (1997) suggested that the impact of

ICT in schools would only be recognized if there was a willingness to take ‘a leap of

faith’. That ‘leap of faith’ was implemented through two successive major national

policies: the National Grid for Learning (NGfL) initiative; and the ‘ICT in Schools’

initiative. A number of evaluation and research studies into impacts and effects of

ICT in schools had been undertaken prior to these initiatives (notably the ImpacT

study, reported by Watson, 1993), and the studies that looked at uses of integrated

learning systems (ILSs) (reported in NCET, 1994, 1996; Wood, 1998). The more

recent NGfL and ICT in schools initiatives have been accompanied by a series of

evaluation and research studies, exploring ongoing implementation and outcomes

(with reports from, for example, Somekh et al., 2001, 2002a, 2002b; Harrison et al.,

2002; Cox et al., 2003a, 2003b; Pittard et al., 2003; Passey & Rogers, 2004;

Underwood et al., 2005). This existing research literature provides a useful back-

ground, context and detail when considering the impact of ICT on learning

(summarized by Becta in their recent review, 2005). The body of research examining

the impact of ICT on learning, learners, teaching and education, undertaken over a

number of years (but particularly since 1998), offers a fundamental level of

understanding, providing wide and general indicators of outcomes and impacts

(especially when considered in the context of other national studies, notably Becta,

2001a, 2001b, 2003a, 2003b; Ofsted, 2001, 2002, 2004). Over the past seven years or

so the focus of national educational initiatives (including ICT) has driven research

activity in directions that have focused more on uses of ICT in primary and secondary

schools, and most frequently to consider:

. whether attainment has been enhanced, and to what extent it has been enhanced,

as judged by outcomes of national assessment tests and methods;

. which aspects of subject attainment or subject needs have been supported;

. whether particular individual technologies have been used in effective and worth-

while ways;

. whether particular approaches to uses of ICT have been effective or worthwhile.

Research and evaluation studies show that ICT can have an impact upon learning

when that learning is measured by subject attainment. For example, Harrison et al.

found that:

A statistically significant positive association between ICT and National Tests for English

was found at Key Stage 2. Positive associations were also found for mathematics at Key

Stage 2, although they were not as striking and not statistically significant. . . . A statisti-

cally significant positive association between ICT and National Tests for science was

found at Key Stage 3, but there were no other clear-cut associations at Key Stage 3. . . . At

Key Stage 4, there was a statistically significant positive association between ICT and

GCSE science and in GCSE design and technology. (Harrison et al., 2002, p. 2)

140 D. Passey

However, the extent to which ICT itself led to impact, and the extent to which other

factors contributed, has not been clearly identified, although the role of other factors

is recognized. Studies where pupils have used ICT on its own (that is, without teacher

intervention or support), have rarely identified an enhancement of attainment beyond

an initial period of time (teachers and observers have reported a matter of a few

months with some forms of ILS, for example). Becta found that:

Analysis of the Ofsted data on quality of ICT use reveals that attainment is even higher

when high levels of ICT resource are combined with ‘Good’ ICT teaching. On average

69% of pupils in schools with ‘Very good’ ICT resources attained at least five GCSEs.

When ‘Very good’ resources are combined with ‘Good’ ICT teaching, this proportion

rises to 72%. (Becta, 2001b, p. 8)

As Cox et al. stated:

There is a strong relationship between the ways in which ICT has been used and pupils’

attainment. This suggests that the crucial component in the appropriate selection and use

of ICT within education is the teacher and his or her pedagogical approaches. Specific

uses of ICT have a positive effect on pupils’ learning where the use is closely related to

learning objectives. (Cox et al., 2003a, p. 3)

They went on to say that:

Studies show that the most effective uses of ICT are those in which the teacher and the

software can challenge pupils’ understanding and thinking, either through whole-class

discussions using an interactive whiteboard or through individual or paired work on a

computer. If the teacher has the skills to organize and stimulate the ICT-based

activity, then both whole-class and individual work can be equally effective. (Cox et al.,

2003b, p. 3)

In cases where pupils experience appropriate ICT use, the critical actions of the

teacher in supporting learning have been identified in a range of studies. Ofsted

stated, for example, that:

Evidence also shows a clear place for pupils’ use of ICT across subjects where the learner

is using ICT purely as the medium for learning and where prior learning in ICT capability

is not utilized. The gains in such experiences include being able to control the pace and

order of learning and the clarity of exposition through animated graphics or video clips.

The role of the teacher in this activity paradoxically becomes more significant; the mix of

human and computer interactions is the telling factor. (Ofsted, 2004, p. 8)

The role of motivation in enhancing learning is often reported by teachers. A number

of studies have highlighted the enthusiasm that can be generated and stimulated when

ICT is used, and the forms of motivation arising have been shown in some specific

studies positively to enhance learning. Passey and Rogers (2004, p. 3), in a study that

looked at motivational impacts arising from uses of ICT, concluded that: ‘ICT use by

pupils and teachers in the case study schools led to positive motivational outcomes,

Technology enhancing learning 141

supporting a focus upon learning and the tackling of learning tasks’. Many studies do

not, however, clearly show ‘where’ ICT supports learning, that is, which specific

aspects of learning processes are supported; or ‘how’ learning is supported,

particularly in terms of how each form of ICT can enhance learning, and how

different forms of ICT can be used across subjects or topics, so that the total or

combined impacts enhance a range of key learning processes. Where studies have

looked at specific software or ICT applications, it is also not clear how these impacts

fit with ICT uses in other situations or at other times. It is clear, for example, that the

same form of ICT is not necessarily used throughout a number of learning activities.

In talking about forms of activity that use ICT to offer potential creative approaches

for pupils, for example, Loveless states that:

These activities are not always discrete or sequential and there can be synchronicity in

their expression and overlap of applications for different purposes. Examples of such

activities range from using simulations and adventure games to explore the question ‘what

would happen if . . . ?’, to publishing hypertext stories or constructing avatars to meet and

interact in three-dimensional, virtual worlds. (Loveless, 2002, p. 4)

Some studies have indicated that teachers focus on a few applications of ICT, to

support certain specific learning activities or processes. Passey and Rogers, for

example, reported that: ‘Positive motivational outcomes were most frequently found

when ICT was used to support engagement, research, writing and editing, and

presentation of work’ (2004, p. 3).

With regard to a selection of appropriate forms of ICT to meet the learning

objectives within specific learning environments, there are two key issues for teachers:

diversity of resources and inclusion of all pupils. When teachers consider resource

diversity, the two main elements upon which they focus are the forms of accessible

hardware and the forms of available software or resources. Often teachers are now in a

position of being able to select from a range of different forms of hardware and,

as a consequence, to select and establish a distinctive learning environment

from a possible range—for example, by selecting use of an interactive whiteboard

in a classroom, or use of a set of laptops with wireless access within a classroom, or

use of a computer suite outside the classroom, or use of a resource area with a

number of desktop computers. Although there is a range of studies that have looked

at the uses and impact of individual forms of hardware (for example, uses of laptops,

by Rockman et al., 1997 and Passey et al., 2000), teachers do not have access to

information about the criteria on which to base selection, across the range at their

disposal, to match specific learning objectives that they have set for particular

activities. Similarly, the range of software and resources available to teachers has

increased dramatically over the last eight years, and schools can select from a wide

choice—for example, commercial online or networked resources that cover a wide

subject range, such as those offered by Espresso or Learn Premium or Education

City; more specific commercial software such as Colour Magic; resources that are

freely available via the Internet, such as BBC jam resources; or those produced and

offered by regional broadband consortia. Again, a number of studies have focused on

142 D. Passey

uses of individual ranges or pieces of software, for example, the studies on integrated

learning systems, noted earlier, or on uses of the Internet (Scrimshaw, 1997), or on

uses of interactive resources in Latin and Japanese (Denning & Fisher, 2002).

The current hardware and resource diversity can pose a major challenge for

teachers, since selection of both hardware and software to meet specific pupil and

group needs demands an understanding of the potential specific impacts of each of

these different resources, and how they might be appropriately focused in terms of

social, behavioural, emotional and cognitive needs of pupils. Considering inclusion

offers an additional challenge beyond this: when pupils have specific learning needs,

teachers report, for example, that they sometimes produce their own resources, or

modify the uses of existing resources to suit particular circumstances. Some special

schools, for example, produce and offer resources on their own websites, such as

those on the Priory Woods School website, or they modify resources such as BBC

digital video clips, as indicated later in this article.

Without precise intelligence about the potential impacts of specific forms of ICT,

about the ‘where’ and ‘how’ these are impacting on learning processes, teachers are

not likely to be able to focus easily on those key aspects that will enable them to

replicate what others have done and, as a consequence, support particular learning

outcomes. In parallel with this lack of focus on how ICT might enhance specific

learning processes, the focus of evaluation activity for the major ICT in schools

initiatives, which has looked at impacts and outcomes of ICT in schools nationally

over the past few years, has not offered or led to:

. a precise definition of each significant educational domain, so that impact across

each domain, but also impacts within specific elements or aspects of each domain,

can be considered, identified and quantified;

. a view of which cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning have been

supported, and whether some have not been supported or engaged to the same

extents through the uses of ICT;

. an overview of uses and outcomes across the breadth of possible technologies, with

evidence about specific impacts of each technology on learning, and how an un-

derstanding of the impacts of each technology across the entire range of technologies

could be used to develop an integrated approach, so that the widest possible range of

cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning could be supported;

. the opportunity to set up ongoing studies that have offered schools ways to focus

on identified limitations, so that impacts could be measured when such gaps have

been addressed;

. a review of the relationship of impacts in specific aspects of each domain to the

assessment methods employed.

To inform at a more detailed level, an approach is needed that defines each significant

educational domain more precisely, in ways that can provide intelligence that is of

value to policy-makers and teachers, giving ideas about approaches and uses that

would be worthy of focus. Such intelligence should offer teachers and policy-makers


specific reasons for focus, and offer ideas about the pedagogy that teachers could

employ, and about those aspects that might have been missed or where there are

identified weaknesses. This article considers how the learning domain might be de-

fined more precisely, and uses a number of selected taxonomies and categorizations of

learning to analyse two sets of data. From the analysis, it is possible to start to explore

some of the issues arising when impacts are identified more specifically, and to con-

sider implications for future evaluation practices. As Bransford et al. say:

A scientific understanding of learning includes understanding about learning processes,

learning environments, teaching, sociocultural processes, and the many other factors that

contribute to learning. Research on all of these topics, both in the field and in labo-

ratories, provides the fundamental knowledge base for understanding and implementing

changes in education. (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 233)

For the purposes of this present article, a deliberate focus has been taken. While it is

recognized that social constructivism and sociocultural processes are important views

of learning, the scope has been narrowed, and the aspects considered within the

analyses presented are largely focused through a cognitivist perspective. This means,

for example, that many of the insights of these ‘social’ views of learning are neglected,

most notably those relating to collaboration (see, for example, McCormick, 2005).

The analyses look at a specific selection of learning technologies, how they are used

by teachers and pupils within learning environments, and how impact on pupil

cognition can be considered through a selected range of frameworks.

A simple learning framework to evaluate uses to support learning

For the purposes of evaluating impacts of ICT on learning, a simple learning frame-

work can be used, with a minimal range of features. To be of value, a framework of

this form needs to cover a sufficient width of features to provide a useful distinction

between a number of possible identifiable outcomes. A simple framework proposed

and used initially in a recent research study (Passey & Rogers, 2004), was based on

one particular categorization of learning and learning processes. Learning can be

defined as the act of acquiring knowledge, skills, ideas or understanding over and

above those which exist already. Learning can be thought of as a set of possible

actions—an addition of ideas or skills, a reordering of ideas, or an acquisition of

concepts, for example. The act of learning requires learners to be involved in three

distinctive sets of processes (according to, for example, Child, 1973):

. internalization: the processes which enable ideas or knowledge to enter the mind

from an external source;

. internal processes: those processes which enable the ideas or knowledge acquired to

be compared or contrasted or integrated in some way with those which already

exist;

. externalization: the processes which enable ideas or knowledge or skills to leave the

mind and to be recognized by others.

144 D. Passey

Based on this categorization, a simple learning framework (shown in Figure 1) was

used as part of a national study for the Department for Education and Skills (DfES)

in England (Passey & Rogers, 2004). Evidence gathered from the 17 schools

involved, 76 teachers interviewed and 33 lessons observed indicated that direct uses

of ICT by teachers tended in many cases to be concerned with internalization

processes to the greatest extent, and with internal cognitive processes to the least

extent.

These findings supported the notion that there is currently a bias in terms of the

specific aspects of learning where applications of ICT are focused by teachers. This

skewing, towards specific aspects of learning processes, appears to be due, at least in

part, to teachers responding to particular strands of research evidence (to the work of

Gardner, 1991, for example, which looks at implications of learning and multiple

intelligences, and is often cited by teachers as being a basis for their renewed focus of

attention on appropriate but different ways to stimulate learning). As a result of this

renewed focus, many teachers ensure that ICT is used to support a range of sensory

engagement routes or internalization processes; at the same time, teachers have not

necessarily been led to consider any more strongly the potential impact that ICT

might have on internal cognitive processes.

Essentially, the simple learning framework identified those categories where ICT

was being used, and where ICT was not being used to the same extent. It is

reasonable to expect that ICT might have an impact on that area where it was used

most (in this case, internalization). If ICT is not used to support certain processes

(internal cognitive processes, in this case), then it is more difficult to see how ICT

could have an impact in that area. The framework offers a way to consider ‘where’

and ‘how’ assessment of impact might be focused, and what outcomes might be more

specifically identified. If assessment focuses on those aspects where ICT is not being

used—the outcomes of internal cognitive processes, in this case—then it is much

more difficult to be clear that ICT can have a direct impact on outcomes.

Creating a more detailed learning framework

To create a more detailed framework (to identify impacts more specifically), the three

sets of learning processes identified in Figure 1 need to be detailed to greater

extents. In the frameworks shown in this article, the selection of taxonomies or

categories to define aspects more precisely is not based on a known or predetermined

Figure 1. A simple learning framework for evaluating uses of ICT (Passey & Rogers, 2004,

p. 26)


appropriateness to tasks undertaken; rather, likely or possible taxonomies have been

selected to serve the purpose of demonstrating how uses of ICT might be specifically

focused in certain ways. In particular, those ways of categorizing aspects of learning

that are most familiar to teachers have been used. Other taxonomies or categorizations

could be considered, and a wide range of others, with possible suggestions for

appropriateness, are reviewed in Moseley et al. (2005), for example. Their review of

forms of categorization considers a possible interplay of cognitive, social, emotional

and societal dimensions of learning. However, for the frameworks presented here, a

cognitive dimension is considered primarily, although social dimensions are

considered in terms of pupil and teacher interactions within a learning environment,

and an identification of instances where pupils actively participate (when chanting

together, for example).

Considering what greater detail within a learning framework might be included, in

terms of internalization, a width of sensory routes and forms of engagement are

considered increasingly by teachers, especially when they access multimedia

resources in classrooms. Many teachers now consider how different forms of

sensory engagement routes can be stimulated, and often consider this in terms of

the categories (or a sub-set of the categories) proposed by Gardner (1991):

linguistic; logical/mathematical; musical; kinaesthetic; spatial/visual; interpersonal;

and intrapersonal.

In terms of internal cognition, there is a range of possible ways to categorize forms

of knowledge handling, thinking and subject learning. A knowledge handling

framework, which is still regarded as being helpful by many teachers and researchers

in this respect, is the original categorization offered by Bloom (1952). (It should be

noted that the categorization was later updated and expanded to consider other

dimensions; see Anderson et al., 2001.) Bloom proposed a taxonomy of knowledge

handling skills in six categories: knowledge acquisition; comprehension; application;

analysis; synthesis; and evaluation. Within the overall arena of knowledge handling,

teachers are fundamentally concerned with subject knowledge—and the curriculum,

programmes of study, and guidance provided as schemes of work in England are all

defined in terms of subject knowledge—whether that knowledge be in the subject area

of mathematics or history, or in ICT itself. However, teachers in England are

encouraged to consider and integrate thinking skills into teaching and learning

activities, particularly those associated with creativity (as shown on the DfES

Thinking Skills web-pages, on the National Curriculum pages, for example).1 This

source lists, for example, a number of key thinking skills that should be considered in

any subject area: searching all topics; generating ideas; developing ideas; hypothesiz-

ing; applying imagination; and seeking innovative alternatives.

In terms of externalization—of making skills or knowledge or ideas external to the

individual—more precise categories that are often seen in this context in classrooms

include: writing; reporting (verbally); speaking (discussing points with the teacher);

presenting; drawing; completing items that the teacher or someone else has created

(using games or activities, for example); and moving or manipulating items in some

way (on-screen or on an interactive whiteboard, for example).

146 D. Passey

Taking into account the forms of categorization selected and described above, a

more detailed learning framework can be constructed as shown within Table 1. This

more detailed framework can be used to identify how particular applications of

ICT have been adopted, and how their uses have been focused by teachers within

classrooms.

Identified learning outcomes using the more detailed learning framework

The evidence that was summarized using Figure 1 covered a wide range of different

applications of ICT. To consider impact that arises from a narrower range of ICT

applications, a specific set of ICT resources will be used for analytical purposes. The

analysis will take an existing set of evaluation records, reported as an element of

an evaluation of Espresso networked resources,2 undertaken for Cumbria and

Lancashire Education Online (CLEO) (Passey, 2005a). This study explored how

multimedia networked ICT-based resources were used by teachers and pupils to

support learning. Evidence was gathered in 31 separate classrooms, where networked

resources were used with Key Stage 1 and 2 pupils (aged 4 to 11 years). The

multimedia networked resources were in the form of video clips, still imagery

with auditory tracks, text with auditory tracks, and interactive games and activities.

At each key stage, and in each subject area (literacy, numeracy, science and citizen-

ship, for example), a specific range of resources was provided, deemed appropriate to

the age group and their learning needs (as specified by National Curriculum

subject programmes of study and schemes of work). These resources were accessible

to teachers and pupils through their own school networks, on desktop computers

and, in most cases, through interactive whiteboards. In addition to lesson

observations, evidence was gathered through 36 key teacher interviews and 54 pupil

interviews.

Lesson observations gathered details about the objectives and structure of lessons;

the forms of ICT being used and how they were deployed; how and when Espresso

resources were used; the forms of teacher and pupil interactions; how resource access

and interventions were managed; observable impacts on learning and teaching as

indicated by pupil and teacher responses and outcomes; and suggested possible

reasons why the networked resources led to outcomes within specific contexts.

Teacher interviews gathered details about the range of resources that teachers used;

the frequency of use; those felt to offer most ‘value’ in terms of both teaching and

learning; and the reasons why they felt that specific identifiable learning outcomes

had arisen. Pupil interviews gathered details about the range of resources used; the

frequency of use; those felt to offer most ‘value’ in terms of both teaching and

learning; the reasons why they felt that resources had helped their learning; and

whether they felt there were any impacts on behaviour, attendance or interest.

In all cases, teachers integrated the use of the networked resources into learning

activities. Thus, the ICT resources were included as elements within every learning

activity observed—and each learning activity involved aspects of internalization,

internal cognitive processing and externalization. However, the resources were not


Tab

le1

.U

ses

of

net

wo

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reso

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less

on

sca

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am

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ect

Fre

quen

cy

wit

hin

class

room

sess

ions

obse

rved

Fre

quen

cy

wher

e

ICT

was

dir

ectly

invol

ved

Com

men

ts

Inte

rnalizati

on3

13

1IC

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dir

ectl

yto

sup

po

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tern

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atio

np

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ulu

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isu

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13

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he

net

wo

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reso

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ere

stro

ng

inte

rms

of

visu

alp

rese

nta

tio

n

Au

dit

ory

22

22

Mo

stre

sou

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had

aud

ito

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ts,

bu

tw

ere

no

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sed

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me

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(con

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148 D. Passey

Tab

le1

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this

was

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nin

go

fu

nd

erst

and

ing

ICT

kn

ow

led

ge

Skills

11

Th

ere

was

very

lim

ited

focu

so

nth

eu

seo

fth

ere

sou

rces

togai

nIC

T

skills

Un

der

stan

din

g0

0N

oo

bse

rved

use

sfo

cuse

do

na

gai

nin

go

fIC

Tu

nd

erst

and

ing

(con

tinued

)


Tab

le1

.(C

onti

nued

)

Lea

rnin

gasp

ect

Fre

quen

cy

wit

hin

class

room

sess

ions

obse

rved

Fre

quen

cy

wher

e

ICT

was

dir

ectly

invol

ved

Com

men

ts

Kn

ow

led

ge

han

dlin

g

(defi

ned

by

Blo

om

cate

go

ries

)

Acq

uis

itio

n3

13

1T

he

reso

urc

esw

ere

use

dto

sup

po

rtan

acq

uis

itio

no

fkn

ow

led

ge,

of

spec

ific

fact

s

Co

mp

reh

ensi

on

24

0T

each

erq

ues

tio

nin

gw

asu

sed

toch

eck

un

der

stan

din

g,

and

to

sup

po

rtco

mp

reh

ensi

on

Ap

plica

tio

n6

0T

each

erq

ues

tio

ns

form

aliz

edth

en

eed

for

pu

pils

toen

gag

ein

this

form

of

kn

ow

led

ge

tran

sact

ion

An

alys

is7

0T

each

erq

ues

tio

ns

form

aliz

edth

en

eed

for

pu

pils

toen

gag

ein

this

form

of

kn

ow

led

ge

tran

sact

ion

Syn

thes

is3

0T

each

erq

ues

tio

ns

form

aliz

edth

en

eed

for

pu

pils

toen

gag

ein

this

form

of

kn

ow

led

ge

tran

sact

ion

Eva

luat

ion

40

Tea

cher

qu

esti

on

sfo

rmal

ized

the

nee

dfo

rp

up

ils

toen

gag

ein

this

form

of

kn

ow

led

ge

tran

sact

ion

Exte

rnalizati

on3

18

Ino

nly

afe

wca

ses

was

ICT

use

dd

irec

tly

for

exte

rnal

izat

ion

pu

rpo

ses

Mo

tor

stim

ulu

sW

riti

ng

11

0IC

Tw

asn

ot

use

das

am

ediu

mfo

rw

riti

ng

Rep

ort

ing

00

No

inst

ance

so

fre

po

rtin

gw

ere

ob

serv

edin

any

less

on

s

Sp

eakin

g1

50

Sp

eakin

gw

asco

nce

rned

wit

hd

irec

td

iscu

ssio

nw

ith

the

teac

her

Pre

sen

tin

g0

0N

oin

stan

ces

of

pre

sen

tin

gw

ere

ob

serv

edin

any

less

on

s

Dra

win

g0

0N

oin

stan

ces

of

dra

win

gw

ere

ob

serv

edin

any

less

on

s

Co

mp

leti

ng

55

Inso

me

case

s,th

en

etw

ork

edre

sou

rces

off

ered

acti

viti

esth

atp

up

ils

nee

ded

toco

mp

lete

usi

ng

the

ICT

Mo

vin

g3

3In

afe

wca

ses,

teac

her

sen

cou

raged

pu

pils

tom

ove

item

so

no

rto

tou

chth

ein

tera

ctiv

ew

hit

ebo

ard

s

150 D. Passey

involved directly in all learning aspects (only indirectly in some cases), and resources

were used in different ways to support each specific learning aspect. The analysis of

the uses of the networked resources in the 31 separate classrooms, using the more

detailed learning framework, is shown in Table 1. It is clear from these records that

the networked resources were used to support some specific aspects of learning more

than others.

In Table 1, in the right-hand column, those aspects of learning where ICT

(networked resource) use was indirectly involved are shaded (that is, the activity as a

whole involved uses of the ICT but, for that particular aspect, the ICT resources were

not directly involved), while those not shaded show that the ICT use was direct.

A number of conclusions can be drawn:

. The resources were used to stimulate visually to a very large extent. In terms of the

forms of networked resources provided, i.e. the extensive use of video clips and

still imagery with auditory tracks, this would have been expected. Auditory forms

of internalization were also often used, but uses of resources to stimulate through

other sensory routes were much less frequently observed. There was a low level of

kinaesthetic use, even though most classrooms had interactive whiteboards.

Teacher discussion—an interpersonal form of sensory stimulus—was involved a

great deal. This might also have been expected, as the networked resources

covered certain subject topics in ways that engaged pupils largely as a whole-class

group, but observations indicated that teacher discussion was much more focused

on encouraging pupils to think about and discuss learning strategies, and upon

open discussion, rather than on closed questioning. However, the ICT was not

used directly when interpersonal routes were used—the focus was on the teacher,

with the teacher focusing discussion away from the networked resources.

. In terms of subject knowledge, gaining understanding was the aspect that was

focused on most, with some resources used to generate or develop ideas. It could

be argued that this outcome matches an expected focus, given the age range of

the pupils. No resources were used to support hypothesizing, and limited use was

made for searching, imagining, or gaining skills (although these uses were

possible). A limited focus on some aspects suggests that resources in this sample

were not necessarily being used to stretch pupils educationally in some ways.

. There was very limited use of resources to develop ICT knowledge. However, this

outcome indicates that there was not a great deal of focus on ICT skills and

knowledge to support an ICT curriculum, but that the focus was on a wider

subject- or topic-based curriculum.

. The knowledge handling skills involved were mainly at the levels of acquisition

and comprehension. This outcome suggests overall that teaching was focused on

more basic subject knowledge and skills (although this could be argued as an

expected outcome for this age group). The more limited focus on higher order

levels of knowledge handling skills suggests that these online resources were not

being used to extend learning as much as they might. On the occasions where this

did happen, teachers provided and defined these opportunities.


. Forms of externalization were mainly concerned with speaking and writing. Some

limited use of games and activities involved pupils in completion exercises,

limited use of on-screen or interactive whiteboard resources enabled pupils to

move objects, and there was no use of verbal reports, presentations or drawing

identified. This outcome suggests that certain forms of externalization methods

were selected or adopted, involving methods that perhaps offered a more

immediate outcome, by recording notes, or discussing points to establish levels of

understanding.

. This form of learning framework has identified a range of affordances offered by

the ICT resources, and could be used as a means to compare and assess appro-

priate uses of ICT in any lesson. However, if used in this way alone, there is a risk

that missed opportunities are not revealed (which might arise in instances where

teacher knowledge, skill or understanding are limited, for example). The out-

comes suggest that a balanced approach is likely to be most supportive; teachers

need to identify affordances and appropriate uses, as well as identifying possible

gaps and missed opportunities.

Overall, this analysis indicates that these networked resources were used in these

lessons to support certain forms of sensory engagement, and low levels of knowl-

edge handling skills in terms of internal cognitive processes. The analysis indicates

that the networked resources were used to only a limited extent to support

externalization. Involvement by pupils with other aspects of learning processes were

dependent upon the teacher. In looking at potential impacts of ICT in this context,

therefore, it could be argued that the assessment of impact should specifically be on

engagement and certain forms of internalization, and on low level knowledge

handling, since these were the areas where ICT was directly involved. It could be

argued further that, in these cases, ICT would not be expected to have a large

impact on higher level knowledge handling, or on supporting certain forms of

externalization.

Considering the depth of a detailed learning framework

If learning frameworks can provide a more detailed view of the potential impacts of

ICT on learning, then a key question to ask must be the extent of detail that could be

of ultimate value. The level of detail in which a learning framework could be

developed needs, for evaluative purposes, to match the potential for those who would

use the outcomes—to cover pedagogical needs of teachers, teacher trainers, policy

needs of policy-makers and support needs of advisors, for example. Certainly it would

be possible to detail a learning framework to a far greater extent than in the cases of

either of the examples shown above. For example, internalization covers three distinct

processes: attention (a focus by the learner on the ‘new’ knowledge or ideas); sensory

stimulus (the ways or forms in which the new skills or knowledge are recognized by the

learner); and acquisition or reception (the point at which these new skills or knowledge

impinge upon the consciousness). Each of these aspects could be covered in more

152 D. Passey

detail when evaluating the uses of ICT such as networked resources. However, the

data gathered and used for the example analysis undertaken above provides

insignificant detail to consider in any depth the aspects associated with attention

(although teachers reported that the networked resources actively maintained the

attention of pupils), or acquisition or reception. Considering the detail in other

evaluation studies, the evaluation of internalization is mainly limited currently to

the identification of outcomes that are concerned with sensory stimuli rather than

offering details about attention or acquisition.

The range of internal cognitive processes could also be detailed to a far greater

extent. The National Curriculum pages on the DfES website referred to earlier list a

range of thinking skills which should be encountered by pupils as a part of the

curriculum: information processing; reasoning; enquiry; creativity; and evaluation—

along with those identified by Moseley et al. (2005) noted earlier. These could be

incorporated into a detailed learning framework, and it is possible to consider the

role, for example, of learning by rote, or learning by accident, as well as learning as an

act of conscious thinking. Internal processes cover a range of cognitive activities:

retention (the point at which new ideas are held in the mind, and how forms of sensory

stimulus have been involved and support this process); rehearsal (the ways in which

‘new’ knowledge or skills are compared or contrasted with those which exist already,

and how forms of sensory stimulus have supported or enable this process); recall

(the ability to recognize, identify and refer to the new skills or knowledge in an

existing or new context, and the forms in which knowledge or skills are held); working

or short-term memory (where new ideas or skills are held in an existing context for a

limited time); and long-term memory (where ideas and skills are held for longer periods

of time and where they are often associated with other existing ideas or concepts). It is

clear that evaluation studies that explore uses of ICT do not provide details at this

level. Some evidence can be gathered from pupil and teacher reports about

self-perceptions of impacts upon memory, for example, but detailed methods have

not been applied specifically to measure or understand such impacts to any greater

extent. As a consequence, our knowledge and understanding of the processes

involved when forms of ICT are used to support learning are limited. How to use

forms of ICT to support memorization in the shorter or longer term, for example,

have not been explored in ways that will support teachers in their endeavours to help

pupils remember.

Using those forms of learning aspects categorized and considered above, a further

level of detail can be placed within a learning framework (shown in Figure 2, by

taking the first two columns of Table 1 and relating them to the aspects in the

previous paragraph). It is not clear how far further detail would be of value in iden-

tifying more exactly the uses and potential impacts of ICT on teaching and learning.

It is clear, however, that inadequate levels of detail within a learning framework can

limit understanding, and potentially devalue or undervalue certain forms of ICT.

Taking one element of this third framework, this point can be easily exemplified.

Using the 31 lesson observations from the evaluation study analysed previously,

further aspects of learning activity can be identified, which were positively supported


by the use of these networked resources. The observed frequency of uses of the

networked resources to support concept formation, and reconstruction of ideas (on

the right-hand side of Figure 2), is shown in Table 2.

The evaluation data indicated that the ICT resources were being used directly to

support both concept formation (particularly through the use of video resources), and

the reconstruction of ideas (where pupils needed to observe, take notes or reform

Figure 2. A more detailed learning framework to evaluate uses of ICT

154 D. Passey

ideas in particular ways). These results suggest that the ICT was being used in these

cases to focus on some aspects that teachers might well find difficult to handle in

other ways, and where the uses of imagery, especially moving imagery, were

particularly important. Concept formation and the reconstruction of ideas are

significant elements in terms of learning, and clearly the use of networked resources

to support these processes is of particular value.

Evaluating uses of digital video clips to support learning using

the detailed framework

The networked resources used for the analysis presented above comprised a mixture

of different forms of ICT—video clips, still imagery with auditory tracks, text with

auditory tracks, and interactive games and activities. Indeed, from the range of

resources selected by the teachers, the outcomes might well be indicative of the forms

of impacts that might arise in situations where interactive whiteboards are used.

However, it should be noted that the outcomes and impacts could be quite specific to

the resources (Espresso in this case), and the outcomes and impacts could well relate

to learning arising as a result of the design and the design principles adopted. If an

understanding is to be gained of how specific forms of networked resources are used

and impact on learning processes, then there is a need for quite specific data

gathering. For the second set of analyses, therefore, another set of resources has been

chosen, which could be based on different design principles, and therefore lead to

different outcomes.

Using the detailed framework shown in Figure 2, an analysis using data gathered

from two evaluation studies commissioned by the BBC (Passey, 2005b, 2005c), will

be used to explore uses and potential impacts of digital video clips (a more specific

networked resource). Both of the BBC studies looked at learning outcomes arising

from uses of pilot digital video clips, produced by the BBC, and used in a range of

schools in Hull and in Merseyside. The digital video clips were intended for use with

pupils at Key Stage 1 (in literacy), Key Stage 2 (in history, geography and French),

and Key Stage 3 (in science and geography). The digital video clips were designed to

cover specific topic areas within each subject, and were between one and four minutes

in length. Support was also provided in ways to enable teachers and pupils to create

their own digital video clips. The digital video clip resources were accessible to

teachers and pupils via the Internet, or through their own school networks, on

desktop computers and, in most cases, through interactive whiteboards. In total, the

evidence base comprised 91 teacher and head teacher interviews, 36 pupil interviews,

Table 2. Frequency of focus on specific learning aspects

Learning aspect Observed frequency

Concept formation 15

Reconstruction of ideas 10


five sets of pupil questionnaire responses and 43 lesson observations. For the analysis

presented in this article, 35 lesson observations have been included where digital

video clips created by the BBC were used, with supportive evidence from teacher and

pupil interviews and questionnaires.

The lesson observations gathered details about the objectives and structure of

lessons; the ICT used and how it was deployed; how and when video clip resources

were used; the forms of teacher and pupil interactions; how resource access and

interventions were managed; the observable impacts on learning and teaching as

shown by responses and outcomes; and possible reasons for outcomes arising in

specific contexts. The teacher interviews gathered details about extents of access and

use; how and why video clip resources were selected and used; perceptions of the

focus of the digital video clip resources; the nature of the resources; and the forms of

learning and teaching outcomes that were felt to arise. The pupil interviews and

questionnaires gathered details about extents of access and use; the range and extent

of video clip resources selected and used; perceptions of the focus of the resources;

the nature of the resources; and the forms of learning and teaching outcomes that

were felt to arise.

If the range of aspects identified in Figure 2 are used as a set of markers, then the

match of detailed evidence to elements of the framework are strong in some respects,

but weak in others. In terms of aspects of internalization: evidence on attention was

gathered during lesson observations, by identifying general observable behaviours

that illustrated positive attention, and pupils and teachers reported on their per-

ceptions of attention; evidence on sensory stimuli and routes was identified

specifically and in detail as an element of lesson observations, and pupils and

teachers commented on these aspects during interviews; evidence on acquisition or

reception was identified only in a general way, from pupil and teacher comments, but

not in any detail. In terms of internal cognitive processing: evidence on uses to

support subject knowledge and ICT knowledge were identified during lesson

observations; evidence about knowledge handling was identified during lesson

observations in terms of learning demands, and was clarified to some extent by

general responses in pupil interviews; evidence on areas of thinking was not

specifically gathered, but some lesson observation details indicated that certain

aspects of thinking were included in some teaching plans; evidence on concept

formation and reconstruction of ideas was gathered from teacher and pupil responses;

evidence about retention and rehearsal was not gathered; evidence about recall was

gathered only in a general way from pupil or sometimes teacher responses, but not at

a detailed level; evidence about short-term and long-term memory was not gathered.

In terms of externalization, evidence about forms of motor response was gathered in

detail during lesson observations. The analysis of the uses of the digital video

resources in the 35 separate classrooms, using the more detailed learning framework,

is shown in Table 3. It is clear from the analysis that the digital video resources were

used by teachers to support certain specific aspects of learning more than others.

The evaluation data indicated that the ICT resources were being used directly to

support both concept formation (particularly through the use of video resources),

156 D. Passey

Tab

le3

.U

ses

of

dig

ital

vid

eore

sou

rces

in3

5le

sso

ns

cate

go

rize

dth

rou

gh

ad

etai

led

lear

nin

gfr

amew

ork

Lea

rnin

gasp

ect

Fre

quen

cyw

her

e

dig

ital

vid

eocl

ips

wer

edir

ectly

invol

ved

Com

men

ts

Inte

rnalizati

on

Att

enti

on

No

tre

cord

edA

tten

tio

nw

asgen

eral

lyh

igh

inle

sso

ns

ob

serv

ed,

bu

tp

up

ils

wer

e

dis

trac

ted

less

wh

end

igit

alvi

deo

clip

sw

ere

use

dth

anw

hen

oth

er

acti

viti

esw

ere

bei

ng

un

der

taken

Sen

sory

stim

ulu

sV

isu

al3

5T

he

imp

ort

ance

of

mo

vin

gim

ager

yw

asco

mm

ente

do

nb

ya

nu

mb

er

of

teac

her

san

dp

up

ils

Au

dit

ory

35

Th

esi

gn

ifica

nce

of

the

aud

ito

ryel

emen

tsw

asco

mm

ente

do

nb

y3

1

teac

her

s,an

dth

eim

po

rtan

ceo

f‘a

no

ther

voic

e’w

asco

mm

ente

d

on

by

an

um

ber

of

teac

her

s

Kin

aest

het

ic1

Pu

pils

tou

ched

the

inte

ract

ive

wh

iteb

oar

dw

hen

the

vid

eocl

ipw

as

sto

pp

edin

on

lyo

ne

less

on

ob

serv

ed

Em

oti

on

al4

Th

isfo

rmo

fse

nso

ryro

ute

was

evid

ent

wh

end

igit

alvi

deo

clip

sth

at

pu

pils

had

pro

du

ced

them

selv

esw

ere

pla

yed

So

cial

1T

his

form

of

sen

sory

rou

tew

asin

volv

edw

hen

pu

pils

wit

hse

vere

or

pro

fou

nd

lear

nin

gd

iffi

cult

ies

wer

ein

volv

edco

llec

tive

lyin

an

‘im

mer

sive

’en

viro

nm

ent

Tex

tual

0N

ou

ses

of

textu

alre

sou

rces

wer

eo

bse

rved

Mu

sica

l1

Alt

ho

ugh

som

ein

tro

du

cto

ryb

ackgro

un

dm

usi

cw

asp

laye

din

som

e

dig

ital

vid

eocl

ips,

the

use

of

mu

sic

asa

sen

sory

rou

tew

aso

nly

no

ted

ino

ne

less

on

Inte

rper

son

al8

Inth

ese

case

ste

ach

ers

sto

pp

edth

ed

igit

alvi

deo

clip

s,an

das

ked

qu

esti

on

so

ren

gag

edp

up

ils

ind

iscu

ssio

n

(con

tinued

)


Tab

le3

.(C

onti

nued

)

Lea

rnin

gasp

ect

Fre

quen

cyw

her

e

dig

ital

vid

eocl

ips

wer

edir

ectly

invol

ved

Com

men

ts

Inte

rnal

cogn

itiv

epro

cess

ing

Su

bje

ctkn

ow

led

ge

Sea

rch

ing

0T

his

form

of

reso

urc

ew

asn

ot

use

das

am

ean

sfo

rse

arch

ing

(th

e

Inte

rnet

was

com

mo

nly

use

dfo

rth

isp

urp

ose

)

Gen

erat

ing

or

dev

elo

pin

gid

eas

16

Th

isas

pec

tw

asin

volv

edin

man

yle

sso

ns

Hyp

oth

esiz

ing

1T

each

erap

pro

ach

was

resp

on

sib

lefo

rth

isem

ph

asis

Imag

inin

g2

Tea

cher

app

roac

hw

asre

spo

nsi

ble

for

this

emp

has

is

Gai

nin

gsk

ills

0S

ub

ject

skills

wer

en

ot

ano

bse

rved

focu

s

Gai

nin

gu

nd

erst

and

ing

16

Su

bje

ctu

nd

erst

and

ing

was

aco

mm

on

focu

sin

less

on

s

ICT

kn

ow

led

ge

Skills

2T

his

emp

has

isw

asd

ue

top

up

ils

nee

din

gto

un

cou

ple

aud

ioan

d

vid

eotr

acks,

and

toin

corp

ora

ted

igit

alvi

deo

clip

sin

to

pre

sen

tati

on

s

Un

der

stan

din

g2

Th

isem

ph

asis

was

du

eto

pu

pils

nee

din

gto

un

cou

ple

aud

ioan

d

vid

eotr

acks,

and

toin

corp

ora

ted

igit

alvi

deo

clip

sin

to

pre

sen

tati

on

s

Kn

ow

led

ge

han

dlin

gA

cqu

isit

ion

19

Tea

cher

sco

mm

on

lyas

ked

pu

pils

tofo

cus

on

acq

uis

itio

n

Co

mp

reh

ensi

on

18

Th

isem

ph

asis

was

aco

mm

on

focu

s

Ap

plica

tio

n5

Tea

cher

app

roac

hw

asre

spo

nsi

ble

for

this

emp

has

is

An

alys

is0

No

use

sw

ere

ob

serv

ed

Syn

thes

is2

Tea

cher

app

roac

hw

asre

spo

nsi

ble

for

this

emp

has

is

Eva

luat

ion

0N

ou

ses

wer

eo

bse

rved

(con

tinued

)

158 D. Passey

Tab

le3

.(C

onti

nued

)

Lea

rnin

gasp

ect

Fre

quen

cyw

her

e

dig

ital

vid

eocl

ips

wer

edir

ectly

invol

ved

Com

men

ts

Th

inkin

gsk

ills

Cre

ativ

ity

1T

each

erap

pro

ach

was

resp

on

sib

lefo

rth

isem

ph

asis

En

qu

irin

g5

Key

qu

esti

on

sw

ere

hig

hligh

ted

pri

or

toth

evi

deo

clip

bei

ng

seen

Qu

esti

on

ing

1K

eyq

ues

tio

ns

wer

eh

igh

ligh

ted

pri

or

toth

evi

deo

clip

bei

ng

seen

Co

nce

ptu

aliz

ing

10

Th

isw

asa

com

mo

nu

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and the reconstruction of ideas (where pupils needed to observe, take notes or reform

ideas in particular ways). These results suggest that the ICT was being used in these

cases to focus on some aspects that teachers might well find difficult to handle in

other ways, and where the uses of imagery, especially moving imagery, were

particularly important. Concept formation and the reconstruction of ideas are

significant elements in terms of learning, and clearly the use of networked resources

to support these processes is of particular value.

From the width of evidence gathered across the studies, in terms of internalization,

it was clear that teachers used the short digital video clips in most instances because

they felt that attention would be enhanced, particularly as the video clips were only

between one and four minutes long. In lessons observed, attention was generally high

when digital video clips were played, and there was a higher level of attention than

when other activities were being undertaken in some classrooms. Some teachers

referred to the use of digital video clips as ‘adding to the drama of lessons’ and

offering views of situations that pupils were ‘able to feel’—a vivid portrayal of hospital

practice in the 1800s, for example. In terms of the forms of sensory stimuli involved,

in all cases visual routes were involved and the importance of moving imagery was

highlighted by many teachers. The importance of the auditory route, often stated by

teachers as offering another voice, was highlighted in 31 cases, an interpersonal route

was involved in eight cases (when teachers stopped the digital video clips and talked

about points or asked questions), a musical route was noted in only one case, a

kinaesthetic route in one case, an emotional route in four cases (where pupils had

been involved in producing video clips that were then shown to a class), and a social

route in one case (where pupils with severe or profound learning difficulties as a

group experienced an ‘immersive’ environment, with a digital video clip being played

to provide a visual background). No instances of a sensory route involving text were

noted.

In terms of internal cognitive processes, subject knowledge was focused mainly on

generating or developing ideas (in 16 cases, and often because teachers felt that

subject knowledge was put over in a ‘different way’), on gaining understanding (in 16

cases), on imagining (in two cases), and on hypothesizing (in one case)—although

these latter cases were dependent on the approach taken by the teachers. ICT

knowledge and skills were only involved when teachers asked pupils to uncouple

audio and video tracks, or incorporate digital video clips into wider presentations (in

two cases). In terms of knowledge handling, the main focus was on acquisition (in 19

cases), comprehension (in 18 cases), application (in five cases), and synthesis (in two

cases); furthermore, the focus on application and synthesis was due to the ways in

which teachers used the resources. The focus in terms of thinking skills was mainly on

conceptualizing (in 10 cases), enquiring (in five cases), creativity (in one case), and

questioning (in one case) (again, dependent upon teacher approaches). Concept

formation was involved in 13 cases, and reconstruction of ideas in two cases, where

pupils needed to build presentations including digital video clips. In terms of

retention, teachers in two cases mentioned that they felt that the visual nature of the

resources supported retention, and in three cases pupils mentioned that the visual

160 D. Passey

nature helped them to rehearse information when it was reviewed. In two cases,

pupils mentioned that the visual nature of the resource was helping memorization. In

terms of recall, features concerned with visual recall were mentioned in five cases by

pupils, and recall was stimulated by teacher discussion in one case (although it should

be mentioned that forms of externalization were used by teachers in many instances

to support recall).

In terms of externalization, the width of methods covered writing (in 10 cases),

speaking (in eight cases), presenting with MS PowerPoint or digital video (in three

cases), drawing (in two cases), and responding at a motor level for pupils with severe

or profound learning difficulties (in two cases). It should also be noted that, in a

number of instances, teachers were using digital video clips to cover topics at an

earlier stage than they would have done otherwise: science topics using Key Stage 3

resources were being covered in Key Stage 2 classes, for example, because teachers

believed that the moving imagery offered ways for pupils to conceptualize these ideas.

From this analysis a number of conclusions can be drawn:

. Visual forms of sensory stimuli were used to a very large extent. Auditory forms of

sensory stimuli were also used often, but use of other forms of sensory stimuli

were much less frequently observed. Kinaesthetic use was not involved a great

deal with digital video clips, and if this sample is indicative of any wider pattern,

then this form of sensory stimulus is not likely to be used by teachers with these

resources unless the need for this is promoted more. Teacher discussion—an

interpersonal form of sensory stimulus—was involved, but more commonly this

occurred before or after the digital video clips were played.

. In terms of subject knowledge, gaining understanding and generating or develo-

ping ideas were the aspects that were focused on most. Where a focus was on

hypothesizing or imagining, the teaching approach was crucial.

. There was limited use of resources for developing ICT knowledge or skills.

. Knowledge handling was mainly limited to acquisition, and comprehension.

Where there was a focus on application and synthesis, the teacher approach was

critical, in terms of suggesting ways that pupils should think, or through the

questions asked about the topics that were presented through the digital video

clips.

. Conceptualizing was the major thinking skill involved when digital video clips

were used, but this focus was dependent on teacher emphasis also. Creativity,

enquiry and questioning, when involved, were all dependent on teacher emphasis.

. Some evidence of potential impact of digital video clips on retention, memory and

recall was identified, but no detailed data gathering was undertaken to further

substantiate teacher and pupil perceptions, although pupils clearly identified what

they remembered when they made positive statements.

. Forms of externalization were mainly concerned with speaking and writing. The

externalization methods selected and adopted were those that offered more

immediate outcomes, through recording of notes, or discussing points to establish

levels of understanding.


. Affordances of ICT were identified, and this approach might provide opportu-

nities to assess appropriate use of ICT in lessons. However, a balanced approach

when assessing effectiveness of uses and outcomes, in terms of how observers or

advisors guide teacher approaches, is likely to be most supportive, since reviews

need to take account of gaps and missed opportunities (which are largely

pedagogical concerns) as well as affordances and appropriate uses (which are

provided by the resources more directly).

Overall, this analysis indicates that these digital video clips were used to support

certain forms of sensory engagement, and low levels of knowledge handling in terms

of internal cognitive processes (except where teachers placed particular emphasis on

higher order knowledge handling or thinking skills). The analysis indicates that the

digital video clips were used to only a limited extent to support externalization (they

were often used to introduce ideas, or to review ideas). In terms of potential impacts

of ICT in this context, therefore, it could be argued that the assessment of impact

should specifically be on engagement and certain forms of internalization (through

visual and auditory sensory stimuli particularly); low level knowledge handling

(acquisition and comprehension, since these were the areas where the digital video

clips were mostly directly involved); and concept formation (which was a focus in a

number of cases). As in the case of the networked resources, it could be argued

further that, in these observed cases, ICT would be expected to have a limited

impact on higher level knowledge handling, or on supporting certain forms of

externalization.

What is not shown by this analysis, and is therefore not identified for policy-makers

or teachers, are the approaches that might be used with digital video clips or other

resources to focus on sensory stimuli that would potentially support certain pupils or

groups of pupils (through social or kinaesthetic stimuli), or the use of questions or

other pedagogical techniques to focus on specific subject knowledge aspects, thinking

aspects or higher order knowledge handling skills. Whether the nature of the

resources supports retention, rehearsal and recall, and how, is hinted at, but not

clearly identified by the level and form of evidence available, and the impacts upon

working (or short-term) and long-term memory, and how these might be brought

about, were not identified. Focusing on aspects of externalization to support

memorization, recall and other learning processes beyond the lessons observed were

not explored, and the link to assessment approaches and needs was not explored in

any depth.

Implications

What are the implications identified so far for policy-makers and practitioners?

Although ICT has been shown by a variety of studies to enhance attainment

measured in particular ways, classroom observations indicate that, in at least a range

of situations, direct uses of ICT might well be focused more on lower level knowledge

handling than on higher level knowledge handling. This being the case, some current

162 D. Passey

uses might well limit the assessed enhancement of attainment. Where there is a focus

in learning activities on higher order knowledge handling and on thinking skills, this is

largely due to the forms of teacher interventions used when networked resources and

video clips are employed within lessons. However, networked ICT resources and

digital video clips that are rich in imagery appear to be supporting both concept

formation and the reconstruction of ideas. A limited range of evidence from pupils

suggests that retention, rehearsal and recall might be supported, but the extent and

nature of the processes involved are not known from these studies.

Although ICT has been shown in a range of studies positively to enhance learning

behaviour and motivation, observations in the lessons analysed here indicate that

direct uses of networked ICT and digital video clip resources might well be focused

on specific forms of engagement and, as a consequence, some pupils might not

engage to the same extent as others. Visual and auditory forms of sensory stimuli are

involved in engagement far more often than are other forms of sensory stimuli so that,

for example, pupils who might engage through the use of kinaesthetic stimuli are not

supported to the same extent.

In considering assessment, current national assessment methods that identify

attainment in terms of subject knowledge and recall might not readily identify the

ways in which ICT is being seen to support learning in the cases examined here. The

focus of use within these observations has often been on immediate acquisition,

comprehension or concept formation, rather than there being a focus on retention,

rehearsal and recall, and it is the latter processes that would match current assessment

methods far more.

Aspects of subject attainment, a range of subject needs and topics have been

supported by uses of networked and digital video clip resources in the cases analysed

here. However, uses have tended to focus on lower level knowledge handling. How

teachers can focus on higher level knowledge handling and thinking has not been fully

captured, but this form of focus has occurred in a number of cases. The differences in

terms of impacts on attainment, when teachers focus on lower order or higher order

skills, has not been identified through these studies. However, other studies

(discussed in Bransford et al., 2000, for example) would suggest that a focus on

higher order thinking and knowledge handling skills would be supportive of enhanced

attainment and outcomes. From the point of view of both teacher education and

teacher development, these results indicate that it is important that there is a deeper

understanding of the pedagogy of ICT. If ICT is to be used effectively, then there

needs to be both a focus on the affordances that ICT can provide, as well as adequate

consideration given to how gaps in affordances to support higher order or other

learning aspects could be addressed.

What are the implications identified so far for future approaches to, and needs for,

evaluation and research? National research and evaluation studies of ICT uses in

England support the notion that ICT can enhance attainment, but details of how this

is specifically achieved will require a more detailed examination of impacts on specific

aspects of learning—and this will need to encompass not just an enhanced under-

standing through a cognitive focus, but also through social, emotional, behavioural


and societal aspects. Aspects of learning where ICT has not been directly involved

have been shown through these observations and analyses (and in a wider range of

studies, such as those discussed in Cox et al., 2003b) to be dependent on decisions

and choices taken by teachers. Uses of ICT resources currently may well be skewed

towards supporting certain forms of engagement and lower levels of knowledge

handling and, in some cases, concept formation and reconstruction of ideas. A range

of school subjects has been influenced by uses of new digital and multimedia

resources, but teachers have not had access to evaluation and research outcomes to

show them how to integrate ICT effectively to support specific learning aspects in

subjects where impacts have been identified. This is particularly true in terms of

whether and how ICT supports retention, rehearsal, recall and memorization.

Robust research questions need to be asked concerning the roles of ICT and

learning, and a much more detailed and precise focus needs to be taken on the nature

and processes of learning on which impacts arise when discrete forms of ICT are

involved. Defining the wider learning and cognitive domains, in more precise terms,

needs to be explored further, if the impacts across the domain, but also on specific

aspects of the domain, are to be identified.

Assessment methods currently identify outcomes as a result of recall to a large

extent. For evaluative purposes, assessment needs to be considered in terms of

matching more precisely the learning processes involved when ICT is used at the

point of learning, so that learning at the point of doing is considered as strongly as

learning identified by assessed recall.

Identifying outcomes and impacts in terms of each form of technology (at both a

hardware and software or resource level), across the breadth of technologies that are

possible, and how these might be used in integrated ways to support certain or

specific cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning, need to be considered

further. If ICT is to be used effectively by teachers, there needs to be a focus on the

affordances that each specific form of ICT provides. Teachers need to know how to

support the entirety of learning processes across the range of technologies available,

or to know those aspects where support needs to be addressed through other methods

and approaches. Considering how to set up studies that offer schools ways to focus on

addressing learning limitations that have been identified would potentially enable

impacts to be measured when such gaps are addressed.

Learning frameworks offer possible structures through which to consider impacts

in more specific ways. It would be possible to construct appropriate frameworks to

enable the social, emotional, behavioural and societal aspects of learning, as well as

the impacts of different domains, such as the teaching–learning environment and

management domains, to be explored in terms of impacts of ICT in much more

detail. However, if this is the case, then it will be vital that sufficient detail is

considered, otherwise important elements of learning or educational enhancement

could be omitted. The level of detail to inform at a research level, a policy and a

practice level will need to be considered in the light of future directions and decisions

on ways to explore this arena further. It is possible, for example, that the forms of

frameworks and research instruments that would be needed to offer details at

164 D. Passey

a research level might not necessarily also inform at a teacher level, but it is clear that

the level of detail that teachers have at their disposal currently is not adequate to

support their pedagogical needs, or to support their necessary perspectives with

regard to using ICT effectively to enhance learning.

Notes

1. See http://www.nc.uk.net/LACcs_thinkskill.htlm

2. See http://www.espresso.co.uk/

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