Topic 1Foundations of Environmental Systems and

Societies

1.1 Environmental Value Systems

http://edroness.blogspot.mx/2016/01/why-environmentalism-is-duty.html

http://edroness.blogspot.mx/2013/10/putting-value-on-nature.html

Environmental Value Systems• A set of paradigms which shapes the way individuals or societies

perceive and evaluate environmental issues

• This is affected by:– Cultural concerns– Religious concerns– Economic issues– Whether a society belongs to an MEDC or an LEDC

• As with any system, they have – INPUTS (e.g. education, media, religious doctrines)– OUTPUTS (e.g. environmental mediation)– PROCESSING (e.g. political decisions)– FEEDBACK LOOPS (e.g. scientific advice)

Rather than being based on energy and/or matter, environmental value systems are based on the flow and processing of information

Environmental Value Systems• Since EVSs vary, different cultures, societies, and special-

interest groups often come into conflict over them

• e.g. The U.N. moratorium on whaling is seen very differently in Japanese society compared to European nations

• e.g. The oil lobby in the U.S. sees attempts to switch to a greener economy differently to environmental groups

Environmental Value Systems• There are 3 general categories:– Ecocentric (centred on the environment) – Technocentic (centred on technology)– Anthropocentric (centred on humans)

ecocentrism anthropocentrism technocentrism

Ecocentrism• Ecocentrists are likely to distrust technology• They would stand against large-scale production and corporations• They would view nature as having control over human society

rather than the other way round• They would view the world as having very finite natural capital

which should be protected rather than exploited• They believe that ecology is too complex for humans to fully

understand and therefore be able to manage it• Some believe that nature has more value than humanity (an

extreme view referred to as “deep-ecology”)

Technocentrism• Technocentrists trust in technological advances to

solve environmental problems• They trust in the resourcefulness of humans• They believe that humans are able to control nature• They believe that scientific thinking and scientific

research is important in making public policy• Extreme technocentrists are referred to as

‘cornucopians’. They believe that the world has infinite resources to support a growing population and that this is achievable through a free-market and reliance on technology

Anthropocentrism• Anthropocentrists would include aspects of both

ecocentrism and technocentrism and in their worldview

• They would view humans as managers rather than controllers of nature

• They believe that population control is as important as use of natural capital

• They believe that government has an important role to play in regulating human action in relation to the environment

Silent Running, 1972

Religion• The Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Islam and Judaism) set out a

concept of ‘dominion’ and ‘stewardship’ of nature in the Book of Genesis

• This is an extreme version of anthropocentrism in which nature has value in terms of its usefulness to humans and the pleasure and profit it can provide

• However, a belief in creationism also endows the responsibility on humans to look after God’s creation

• It could be argued that this is a religious responsibility rather than a moral one

Deep-Ecology

• A school of philosophy (ethics) founded by Norwegian intellectual Arne Næss(1912-2009)

• He believed humans should do nothing unless they are fully aware of the outcomes of an action and can take responsibly for it

• He was profoundly influenced by Gandhi and the book ‘Silent Spring’ by Rachel Carson

Deep-Ecology• The tenets of deep-ecology are:

– The well being of human and non-human life has no value in itself which is independent of the usefulness of the non-human world to humans

– The richness and diversity of life contributes to these values– Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to

satisfy vital needs– For human (and non-human) life to flourish a substantial reduction in

human population is required– Human interference with the non-human world is excessive– A substantial change in world policy is needed in terms of economics,

technology and ideology– Humans should appreciate the quality of life rather than aspire towards

higher standards of living– People with ecocentric views need to constantly work to make these

changes to improve the well-being of the Earth

Environmental philosophy and decision-making

• Many of the issues covered in the course require public policy decision-making

• The decisions made by politicians may depend on their own philosophies and those of others that influence them

• We can discuss a few case-studies here:– Water demand and exploitation– Climate change– Fossil fuel use– Ecological footprint

Water demand and exploitation • Ecocentric view

– Water should be conserved and recycled so that it can be used sustainably

– Meters, monitoring and quotas should be imposed on individuals and businesses

• Technocentric view– Water should be freely available now and in the future– Innovative methods need to be explored to ensure this (including

recycling, desalination, development of crops which require less water)– All sources of water should be tapped (including seawater and

groundwater)– If problems arise from exploitation, technologies can be developed to

overcome them

Climate change• Ecocentric view

– Limits should be imposed on the consumption of fossil fuels

– Farming methods need to be modified to reduce our dependence on meat

– Reforestation is necessary– We need to switch to greener sources of energy. (There

is some cross-over here with technocentrism)

• Technocentric view– Technologies can be employed such as ‘artificial trees’

to sequester carbon or fleets of unmanned ships spraying salt water into the atmosphere to increase the Earth’s albedo

Fossil Fuels• Ecocentric view

– Carbon dioxide emissions need to be reduced – There is a need for alternative energy sources but there is also a

role for initiatives such as carbon credits and carbon trading

• Technocentric view– We can continue to develop a high standard of living – Greener technologies can be developed so that there is no effect

on industrial production – These technologies will include ways to sequester existing carbon

from the atmosphere and the exploitation of low carbon alternatives

– Fossil fuels may continue to play a role

Ecological Footprint• Ecocentric view– Humans need to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels and

reduce actions which cause pollution or other harm to the biosphere

– To achieve this a change in lifestyle (certainly in MEDCs) is required

• Technocentric view– There is no need to change our lifestyle– We can all aspire to better standards of living– Economic growth, prosperity and scientific advances will

achieve this

Questions

1. What is an environmental value system. How is it similar to other systems we have looked at earlier in the course

2. Define technocentrism, ecocentrism and anthropocentrism.

3. Discuss how environmental philosophies may affect decision-making by politicians.