Scientific writing

Scientific Writing

Institute of Botany, CASXingguo Han, Ph.DNovember 12, 2007

Outline What is scientific writing?

Who reads your writing?

What factors shape the style?

How can I make my writing more effective?

How I can make my writing more precise?

What is scientific writing?What is scientific writing? Research paper Research note Scientific article Review article Conference paper Meeting poster Thesis or dissertation Book chapter Annual report Newsletter Project proposal Magazine article

Why?Why?

Scientific writing is the culmination or end product of scientific research. Scientists pose questions and then perform experiments to answer their questions. The results that come from experimentation must finally be presented to the rest of the scientific community in the form of a published paper in a primary journal before the research is considered finished.

Main PointMain PointWriting an effective scientific paper is not easy. A

good rule of thumb is to write as if your paper will be read by a person who knows about the field in general but does not already know what you did.

Before you write a scientific paper it is a good idea to read some scientific papers in the format of the paper you will use. In addition to the science, pay attention to the writing style and format.

Example (1)Example (1)

An evaluation of the program by us will

encourage increase in efficiency in the

servicing of clients.

We will evaluate the program so that we can

serve our clients more efficiently.

Example (2) The design of the experiment, in terms of the

establishment of a clear control and the practicability of timing the reactions precisely, although compensations were included to address these factors, was not successful.

The design of the experiment was not entirely successful, because the failure to establish a clear control and time reactions precisely, although compensation were included to address these factors.

A step-by-step procedure (1)A step-by-step procedure (1)

The Preliminaries

1. Choose a topic

2. Begin preliminary reading

3. Restrict the subject

4. Develop a preliminary thesis statement

A step-by-step procedure (2)A step-by-step procedure (2)

Gathering Data

1. Compile the working bibliography

2. Prepare the bibliography on cards

3. Working in libraries or office

A step-by-step procedure (3)A step-by-step procedure (3)Taking Notes

1. Develop a preliminary outline

2. Prepare to write:Consider your real and imagined readers

3. Write the rough draft

4. Check your documentation carefully

5. Revise and rewrite

6. Check the format of the text, citations…

7. Proofread

The layout of a Scientific PaperThe layout of a Scientific Paper(IMRAD)(IMRAD)

Introduction

1. Presents clearly the background and scope of a problem

2. Review pertinent literature

3. Presents the investigation method

4. Lists principal findings

5. Summarizes main conclusions

Additional TipsAdditional Tips

1. Move from general to specific

2. Engage your reader

3. Make clear the links

4. Be selective

5. Ask your instructor


This study investigates the relationship between tree density and fruit size.

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of enzyme concentration on the reaction rate of ....


The hypothesis is the explanation you are proposing for certain observations. It is a tentative answer to the question you have posed above. It should be accompanied by a prediction of results expected under certain conditions if the hypothesis is correct.If competition lowers reproductive output, then fruit size should be smaller when tree density increases.

Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods

– Describes exactly materials, quantity, and sources

– Makes possible repetition of experiment

– Describes clearly the experimental design

– Uses past tense

– Gives references for methods used

– States the statistical analysis


1. Provide enough detail for replication

2. Order

3. Use past tense

4. Quantity

5. Don’t mix results with procedures


1. Provide enough detail for replication

2. Order

3. Use past tense

4. Quantity

5. Don’t mix results with procedures

Results Results

Big picture on results Impartial presentation Representative data Uses tables and figures

Results Results

1. Explain why each procedure was done, i.e., what variable were you measuring and why? Example:

Difficult to understand: First, I removed the frog muscle and then I poured Ringer’s solution on it.

Next, I attached it to the kymograph.

Improved: I removed the frog muscle and poured Ringer’s solution on it to prevent it from drying out. I then attached the muscle to the kymograph in order to determine the minimum voltage required for contraction.

2. Experimental procedures and results are narrated in the past tense (what you did, what you found, etc.) whereas conclusions from your results are given in the present tense.

3. Mathematical equations and statistical tests are considered mathematical methods and should be described in this

section along with the actual experimental work.

4. Use active rather than passive voice when possible. Always use the singular "I" rather than the plural "we" when

you are the only author of the paper. Throughout the paper, avoid contractions, e.g. did not vs. didn’t. 5. If any of your methods is fully described in a previous publication (yours or someone else’s), you can cite that

instead of describing the procedure again.

Right and WrongRight and Wrong

NO: Dissolved oxygen results are shown in Table 1. YES: Table 1 shows that dissolved oxygen

concentrations ranged from 14 ppm to 9 ppm. NO: Figure 1 shows the relationship between water

depth and dissolved oxygen concentration. YES: As shown in Figure 1, dissolved oxygen

concentration decreases with depth.

Right and WrongRight and Wrong

NO: The geologic cross section shows the makeup of the subsurface.

YES: The geologic cross section illustrates that the subsurface consists of sand and gravel with some clay lenses.

NO: The geologic cross-section shows that groundwater can travel quickly through the subsurface. (discussion).


1. Order: from most to least important, from

simple to complex, organ by organ

2. Use past tense

3. Don’t simply repeat table data

4. Don’t interpret results

5. Avoid extra words

DiscussionDiscussion1. Principles, patterns, relationships, generalizations2. Exceptions and unsettled points3. Results compared with previous work4. Implications, applications, beneficiaries5. Clear conclusions6. Evidence summarized for each conclusion7. Possible future research arising, if any


1. Move from specific to general

2. Don’t bury or ignore the major issue

3. Make explanations complete

• Don’t overgeneralize

• Don’t ignore deviations in your data

• Avoid speculation that can not be tested in the

foreseeable future

ExamplesExamples•NO: The groundwater is getting cleaner. YES: On February 12, 1990 the monitoring well contained 23,000 ppb of dissolved hydrocarbons; while on September 16, 1996 the same well contained only 87 ppb. This indicates the groundwater is getting cleaner.

•NO: The lake is not in danger of becoming acidified.YES: An alkalinity of 140 ppm helps to prevent the lake from becoming acidified.

TitlesTitles

1. Categorize titles

2. Identify mistakes in titles

TitlesTitles The title should contain three elements:

1. the name of the organism studied;

2. the particular aspect or system studied;

3. the variable(s) manipulated.

Types of TitlesTypes of Titles

1. Indicative1. Indicative2. Informative2. Informative3. Question type3. Question type4. Main/subtitle type4. Main/subtitle type

IndicativeIndicative

•Effects of differential irrigation on maize growth and yield on a clay soil

•Effect of Injected Sea Anemone toxin on Symbiotic Fish Species

InformativeInformative

Differential irrigation decreases maize growth

and yield on a clay soil

Enhanced reproduction of strawberry plants

under low light conditions

Question TypeQuestion Type

Does differential irrigation affect maize growth and yield on a clay soil?

Will reproduction of strawberry plants be enhanced under low light conditions

Differential irrigation: effects on maize growth and

yield on a clay soil

Main/Subtitle TypeMain/Subtitle Type

1. Never too long or too short

2. Avoid using waste words: A study of, investigations of, Observations on

3. Avoid using many abbreviations

NotesNotes

1. Generally not appeared in the title

2. Do not fabricate key words

3. Order: follow the instruction of the journal

Key WordsKey Words

1. Indicative

2. Informative

AbstractAbstract

This is a brief synopsis of the paper so that the reader can get the point This is a brief synopsis of the paper so that the reader can get the point

and decide whether to read the entire paper. Abstracts are typically and decide whether to read the entire paper. Abstracts are typically

included along with titles in bibliographic sources such as the ones included along with titles in bibliographic sources such as the ones

you use in on-line searches. In about 100 or 200 words, an abstract you use in on-line searches. In about 100 or 200 words, an abstract

summarizes the purpose of the study or question investigated, the summarizes the purpose of the study or question investigated, the

method used, the major results, and the conclusions drawn from the method used, the major results, and the conclusions drawn from the

study. It is good practice to write the abstract last, even though it study. It is good practice to write the abstract last, even though it

appears at the beginning.appears at the beginning.

IntroductionIntroduction

Opening statement Example of examples Literature review (exhaustive historical review) Citations Criticizing previous work Ending the introduction

The Method SectionThe Method Section

Lead the reader through the procedure Name all groups, variables and operations Reliability and validity of data Data deletions References

Results SectionResults Section

Setting the stage Statistical analysis Remind reader of the the hypothesis Remind reader of the operations performed Speak to the audience in numbers Smooth transition Figures and tables

The Discussion SectionThe Discussion Section

Beginning by telling us what you have learned Comparison with findings of others Do not dwell compulsively on every flaw Questions undressed End with a bang, not a whimper

ReferencesReferences

Citation style (following the guide of the journal) Relevance Accurate Availability Balance (geographical, academic schools)

RememberRemember Alphabetize literature citations by first author's last name.

Within a journal citation, give authors, year date, title of paper, title of journal, volume and pages. Do not use quotation marks around title of paper. Capitalize first word of title and any proper nouns. Do not underline or italicize title of journal.

Within a book citation, give authors, year date, title of book, publisher, city. Capitalize first word of book title and any proper nouns. Do not underline or italicize book title.

For exampleFor example

Greene, E., L. J. Orsak, and D. W. Whitman. 1987. A tephritid fly mimics the territorial displays of its jumping spider predators. Science 236:310 312.

Merritt, J. F. 1987. Guide to the mammals of Pennsylvania. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh.

AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments

Give credits to others (field work, lab analysis, comments on manuscripts, language editing)

Source of grants Other helps

NotesNotes

• Interest, inform, and persuade the reader • Write for your reader and write clearly • Eliminate unnecessary redundancy • Avoid digressions • Don't over explain and avoid overstatement • Avoid unnecessary qualifiers • Use consistent tenses • Use the precise word • Simpler words are preferred over complex words and use concrete words and examples • Simpler sentences are preferred over more complicated sentences • Use the active voice (except generally in methods) • Make sure the subject and verb agree • Use affirmative rather than negative constructions • Avoid use of the indefinite "this" • Use transitions • Cite sources as well as findings • Proofread your paper carefully; spell check does not catch everything; "there" is spelled correctly but not if you meant "their"













More to tell ……More to tell ……

Logic flow Context Accuracy Concise and clear (clarity) Tense Complete Honesty

How can we improve our writing?How can we improve our writing?

Read more papers. Learn basic English grammar, vocabulary,

sentence- making. Collocations Associations Synonyms Classifications

Get some good dictionariesGet some good dictionaries

Advanced Learner’s English Chinese Dictionary (Oxford, Sixth Edition)

孙谷陆编，英汉大字典（第二版）牛津英语搭配字典（英汉双解版）朗文英语联想活用词典（第二版）英汉联想搭配词典 ( 商务印书馆 )

Get some good dictionariesGet some good dictionaries

Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms 英语搭配大辞典 ( 外语教学版 , 市川繁荣治郎 ) 当代英语搭配大词典 ( 高教出版社 ) 朗文英语联想活用词典（第二版）英汉联想搭配词典 ( 商务印书馆 ) 英语词汇逻辑记忆法 ( 黎学智 ) 英语同义词词典 ( 商务 )

What is English Collocations?What is English Collocations?

Mr. Wang wrote a book. The book was about a story happened in the 1930’s in China. This story portrayed a family of five brothers who were struggling to resist the invasions of Japanese army. After I quickly read the book that had Mr. Wang’s name in it, I started to like the book very much. I would like to recommend it to you.

WriteWrite

副词 +Write ： Clearly, neatly, busily, beautifully, well, badly, extensively, anonymously, briskly, entertainingly, despairingly, gracefully, distinctly, expressly, forcibly

Write+ 介词： Down, on, away, back, about, for, of, on, upon

动词 +write” Commission somebody to, inspire somebody to, prompt somebody to

BookBook 形容词 +Book: Latest, new, recent, forthcoming,

hardback, paperback, printed, rare, second-hand, delightful, excellent, fascinating, remarkable, useful, influential, memorandum, voluminous

动词 +Book: Be engrossed in, be immersed in, inscribe, dedicate, translate, edit, bind, censor, borrow, take out, renew

Book+ 动词： Appear, come out, be out, go out Book+ 介词： About, on, for, from, of

StoryStory

形容词 +Story: True, plausible, false, made-up, apocryphal ( 假的 ), cock-and-bull, official, wild, convincing, compelling, delightful, dramatic, exciting, amazing, fascinating, exciting, fantastic, good, great, interesting, intriguing, nice, wonderful, bizarre, colorful, crazy, extraordinary, incredible, outrageous, remarkable, strange, inspiring, amusing, entertaining, epic, elaborate, complex, straightforward, awful, horrific, horrifying, nasty, shocking, depressing, poignant, coherent…

动词 +Story: Read, write, relate, rate, recount, embellish ( 装饰 ), embroider ( 润饰 ), believe, stick to, swap…

Story+ 动词 : Abound, circulate, get about, go around, be entitled with, revolve around sth.

Story+ 词组 : So the story goes, the story goes that, the story of my life, a version of a story

Happen 副词 +Happen: Actually, really, just, spontaneously, overnight,

often, frequently, easily, sometimes 动词 +Happen: Going to, be bound to, be likely, tend to, make sth.

To, want sth. To, let sth. To 介词 : To

Portray 副词 +Portray: Accurately, faithfully, clearly, dramatically,

graphically, vividly, 动词 +Portray: Attempt to, try to 介词： As

ArmyArmy

形容词 +Army: Great, huge, large, mighty, powerful, small, professional, conscript, disciplined, modern, allied, opposing, invading, occupying, victorious, retreating, invading, defeated…

动词 +Army: Have, go into, join, leave, bi in command of, lead, amass, build up, raise, recruit, equip, mobilize, deploy, crush, decimate, rout…

Story+ 动词 : Gather, flee, pulling back, retreat, withdraw, clash, camp, go into action, invade…

Read 副词 +Read: Aloud, silently, carefully, avidly, voraciously, 动词 +Read: Be able to, learn to, teach sb how to Read+ 介词 : About, from, of, through, to Story+ 词组 : Read and write

Start 副词 +Start: Suddenly, immediately, just, out, off 介词： By, from, on, with 词组： Get started, Let’s start

Recommend 副词 +Recommend: Highly, thoroughly, certainly, definitely, heartily, personally 介词： For, to 词组： Sth has a lot to recommend, sth has much to recommend

A forthcoming book…A forthcoming book…

A fascinating book written by Mr. Wang will be coming out soon. This epic book vividly portrays the life of a penniless family with five brothers to go into the army to combat with the fully armed inhuman Japanese invaders, taking place in the 1930’s in the northern China plains. After I skimmed through the sample copy in which Mr. Wang inscribed his name, I was immediately engrossed in it. This book should be a highly recommended must read for all Chinese people who want to recall that bloody war between the brave Shandong people and the brutal Japanese aggressors.

What is association?What is association?

包办 : Be the whole show, monopolize everything;

惩办 : Punish, chastise

承办 : Undertake, handle

筹办 : Make preparations

创办 : Set up, establish

催办 : Press for implementation

大办 : Go in for sth. in a big way

代办 : Act on sb.’s behalf, agent, charge d’affaires

公办 : State-run, state-owned

公事公办 : Do official business according to official principles

好办 : Easily arranged 举办 : Host, hold 申办 : Bid for 严办 : Punish with severity 置办 : Purchase 酌办 : Proceed at one’s discretion

联想联想 Birthwort: 马兜铃 Butterwort: 捕虫堇 Feverwort: 泽兰 ) Figwort: 玄参 Hornwort: 角苔 Liverwort: 地钱 Lungwort: 疗肺草 ) Masterwort: 星 Milkwort: 远志 Moneywort: 珍珠草 Motherwort: 益母草 Mugwort: 艾蒿 Quilwort: 水芹 Ribwort: 长叶车前 Sealwort : 添姑草 Soapwort: 皂草 Spleenwort: 疗脾草 Woundwort: 水苏

同义词同义词 Horror, Terror, Fear, Dread, Fright, Alarm, Dismay,

Consternation, Panic, Trepidation, Aversion, Antipathy, Repugnance, Abhorrence, Repellency, Repulsion, Distasteful, Recoil, Flinching, Blenching, Loathing, Hatred, abomination, detestation, Dislike, Disfavor, Hostility, Antagonism

Admiration, Enjoyment, Esteem, Regard, Respect, Liking, Relish, Affection, Attachment, Savor, Tang, Flavor, Taste, Smack, Predilection, Partiality, Prepossession,

分类分类 (( 行为行为 , , 态度态度 , , 气概气概 , , 气量气量 )) 行为 (Behavior, action) 作为 (Deed, conduct, accomplishment) 行动 (Action, act) 举措 (Move, behave, measures) 举止 (Bearing, manner) 表现 (Display, manifest, express) 言行 (Words and deeds) 暴行 (Atrocities, cruelties, brutality) 罪行 (Crime, guilt, offence) 态度 (Attitude) 神态 (Manner, expression) 姿态 (Pose, posture) 作风 (Style, style of work) 派头 (Manner, style) 风格 (Mode, style) 格调 (Moral quality) 气概 (Lofty quality) 威风 (Might, power and prestige) 气势 (Momentum) 锐气 (Dashing spirit, drive) 正气 (Righteousness) 气量 (Forbearance, broad-minded) 心胸 (Tolerance) 气度 (Laudably tolerant spirit: 气度不凡 )

分类分类 Amaranthine ( 紫红的 ) Beetfaced ( 鲜红的 ) Bloody ( 血红的 ) Cardinal ( 深红 ) Carmine ( 洋红 ) Cherry ( 樱桃红 ) Cochineal ( 胭脂红 ) Crimson ( 绯红 ) Florid ( 鲜红 ) Fuchsia ( 紫红 ) Garmet ( 暗红 ) Incarmadine ( 淡红的 ) Moroon ( 枣红 ) Mauve ( 紫红 ) Murrey ( 紫红 ) Peach ( 桃红 ) Pink ( 粉红 ) Reddish ( 微红 ) Ruby ( 红宝石红 ) Rufescent ( 带红色的 ) Saffron ( 藏红 ) Salmon ( 橙红 ) Sanguine ( 血红 ) Scarlet ( 猩红 ) Vermeil ( 朱红 ) Vermillion ( 橘红 ) Vinaceous ( 葡萄红 ) Vine ( 深红 )

逻辑记忆逻辑记忆 (Logical memory)(Logical memory)

-ibble: Dibble ( 点播器 ), Kibble ( 粗磨 ), Nibble ( 啃 ), Quibble ( 托辞 ), Cribble ( 筛子 ), Fribble ( 逐渐消散 )

-iddle: Diddle ( 闲荡 ), taradiddle ( 谎话 ), fiddle ( 小提琴 ), kiddle ( 拦河栅 ), middle ( 中间的 ), piddle ( 懒惰 ), riddle ( 谜语 ), griddle ( 大眼筛 ), tiddle ( 微不足道的 )

-iggle: Giggle ( 咯咯地笑 ), higgle ( 争论 ), jiggle ( 轻轻摇晃 ), niggle ( 琐碎的 ), sniggle ( 钓鳗鱼 ), wiggle ( 摇动 ), wriggle ( 蠕动 )

习惯用语习惯用语 (( 习语习语 ) (Idioms)) (Idioms)

It’s chucking it down: It is raining heavily. Charity begins at home: 近水楼台先得月 . He’s got no money to speak of. 他没钱了 . His complaints have a familiar ring. 他的抱怨听

上去耳熟 . I recognize his face but I can’t put a name to it.

( 面熟 , 但记不得他的名字 )

记忆外来词记忆外来词 (( 法法 ,, 意意 ,, 西西 ,, 德德 ))

Cameo: 硬石 , 贝壳上的浮雕 Campanile: 钟楼 Canto: 长诗或书中的一篇 Cupola: 圆顶房子 Intaglio: 雕刻 Mezzanine: 戏院里的包厢 Patina: 铜器上的绿锈 Portico: 门廊 Stucco: 灰泥 Terra cotta: 赤土制成的陶器

专业词专业词 Order: Succession: Chalk: Grass root: Radical: Reduce: Corpus:

Thank you!

Education

Scientific writing