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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY – DATA
COLLECTION METHODS
Unit 5
CONTENTS
Meaning
Importance and Types of Data
Methods of Data Collection
Steps of Data Processing and Presentation
Various Methods of Data Collection
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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
Primary data are those which are collected afresh for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
Secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have been already collected by someone else and which have been passed through the statistical process.
Researcher decides the type of data he/she needs to collect and accordingly select one or the other method of data collection.
Methods of primary and secondary data collection differ. 3
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COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
We collect the primary data during the course of
doing experiments in an experimental research.
In research of the descriptive type and surveys,
whether sample or census surveys, primary data is
performed either through observation or through
direct communication with respondents in one form
or another or through personal interviews.
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COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
Some of the important methods for collecting primary data in descriptive research and surveys are:
Observation method
Interview method
Through questionnaires
Through schedules
Other methods:
Warranty cards
Distributor audits
Pantry audits
Consumer panels
Using mechanical devices
Through projective techniques
Depth interviews
Content analysis 5
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DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN EXPERIMENT AND
SURVEY
An experiment refers to an investigation in which a factor or variable under test is isolated and its effect(s) measured.
In an experiment, the investigator measures the effects of an experiment which he/she conducts intentionally.
Survey, on the other hand, refers to the method of securing information concerning a phenomenon under study from all or a selected number of respondents of the concerned universe.
In a survey, the investigator examines those phenomena which exist in the universe independent of his action. 6
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DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN EXPERIMENT AND
SURVEY
The difference between an experiment and a
survey can be depicted as under:
can be studied through determine
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Possible relationships between the data and the
unknown in the universe
Economic Psychological Others
Surveys Experiments
OBSERVATION METHOD
The observational method is the most commonly used
method specially in studies related to behavioral
sciences.
In a way, we all observe things around us, but this sort
of observation is not scientific observation.
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of
data collection for the researcher, when it is
systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to
checks and controls on validity and reliability.
Under the observation method, the information is sought
by the way of investigator’s own direct observation
without asking from the respondent.8
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OBSERVATION METHOD
Advantages Limitations
1. Subjective bias is eliminated, if
observation is done accurately.
1. It is an expensive method.
2. The information obtained under
this method relates to what is
currently happening: it is not
complicated by either the past
behavior or future intentions or
attitudes.
2. The information provided by this
method is very limited.
3. This method is independent of
respondents’ willingness to
respond, i.e., does not require the
active participation of the
respondents.
3. Sometimes, unforeseen factors
may interfere with the
observational task.
4. This method is particularly
suitable in studies which deal with
subjects (i.e., respondents) who
are not capable of giving verbal
reports of their feelings for one
reason or the other.
4. At times, the fact that some
people are rarely accessible to
direct observation creates obstacle
for this method to collect data
effectively.9
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OBSERVATIONAL METHOD - DETAILS
While using this method, the researcher should keep in
mind things like:
What should be observed?
How the observations should be recorded?
Or how the accuracy of the observation can be ensured?
Two types of observation:
Structured – in case the observation is characterized by a
careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of
recording the information, standardized conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation.
Unstructured – observation taking place without the above
characteristics, to be thought of in advance.
Structured observation appropriate in descriptive
studies, whereas in an exploratory study, the
observational procedure is most likely to be relatively
unstructured. 10
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OBSERVATIONAL METHOD - DETAILS
Participant observation – if the observer observes
by making himself, more or less, a member of the
group he is observing so that he can experience
what the members of the group do.
Non-participant observation – when the observer
observes as a detached emissary without an
attempt on his part to experience through
participation what others feel. When the observer is
observing in such a manner that his presence may
be unknown to the people he is observing, such an
observation is described as disguised
observation.
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MERITS AND DEMERITS OF PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
Merits Demerits
1. The researcher can record the
natural behavior of the group.
1. The observer may lose the
objectivity to the extent he
participates emotionally.
2. The researcher can even gather
information which could not have
been easily obtained in other
artificial settings.
2. The problem of observation-
control is not solved.
3. The researcher can even verify
the truth of statements made by
informants in the context of a
questionnaire or a schedule.
3. It may narrow-down the
researcher’s range of experience.
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OBSERVATIONAL METHOD - DETAILS
Uncontrolled observation
If the observation takes place in the natural setting.
No attempt is made to use precision instruments.
The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture or life and persons.
It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behavior, allowing sufficient time for observing it.
Controlled observation
When observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure.
We use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and standardization.
Such observation has a tendency to supply formalized data upon which generalizations can be built with some degree of assurance.
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INTERVIEW METHOD
The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms
of oral-verbal responses.
This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.
Personal interviews
Telephone interviews
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INTERVIEW METHOD
Personal interviews Personal interview method requires a person known as the
interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.
At times, the interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.
Can be of two types – direct personal investigation and indirect oral examination.
The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a structured way (structured interview) –adopted by descriptive studies.
Unstructured interviews, on the other hand, are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning adopted by exploratory or formulative studies.
Other types of interviews – focused interviews, clinical interview
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INTERVIEW METHOD
Personal interviews
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Merits Demerits
1. More information and that too in great
depth.
1. Very expensive method, especially
when large and widely spread
geographical sample is chosen.
2. The resistance on part of the
respondents can be overcome.
2. Possibility of biasness prevails.
3. Greater flexibility, in case of
unstructured interviews.
3. High profile interviewees may not be
accessible.
4. Observation method can also be
applied.
4. More time consuming.
5. Personal information can be
obtained.
5. Non-realistic answers might be
provided just to impress the interviewer.
6. Non-response is addressed.
7. Spontaneous and more real
information can be collected.
6. Effective interview presupposes
proper rapport with respondents which
may not always be true.
8. Ambiguities in questions can be
resolved.
INTERVIEW METHOD
Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing
For successful implementation of the interview method,
interviewers would need to be carefully selected, trained
and briefed.
They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and
must possess the technical competence and necessary
practical experience.
The interviewer must ask questions properly and
intelligently and must record the responses accurately and
completely.
The interviewers approach should be friendly, courteous,
conversational and unbiased.
If the conversation goes off the track, it is the responsibility
of the interviewer to bring it back to track.
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INTERVIEW METHOD
Telephone interviews
This method collects information by contacting respondents
on telephone itself. Not a very widely used method.
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COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
QUESTIONNAIRES
This method of data collection is quite popular
particularly in case of big enquiries.
In this method, a questionnaire is sent to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set
of forms.
The respondents have to answer the questions on
their own.
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COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
QUESTIONNAIRES
Merits Demerits
1. Low cost even when the universe
is large and is widely spread
geographically.
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled
in questionnaires; bias due to non
response is often indeterminate.
2. Is free from the bias of the
interviewer. The answers are in
respondents’ own words.
2. Can be used only when
respondents are educated and co-
operative.
3. Respondents have adequate time
to give well thought out answers.
3. Control over questionnaire may be
lost once it is sent.
4. Respondents, who are not easily
approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or
omission of replies altogether to
certain questions.
5. Large samples can be made use
of and thus the results can be made
more dependable and reliable.
5. It is difficult to know whether
willing respondents are truly
representative. 20
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COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
QUESTIONNAIRES
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Before using this method, it is always advisable to
conduct ‘pilot study’ for testing the questionnaires.
This study is the replica or rehearsal of the main
survey. It brings to the light the weaknesses (if any)
of the questionnaires and also of the survey
techniques.
COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
QUESTIONNAIRES
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Main aspects of the questionnaire
General form
Either structured or unstructured.
Question sequence
Must be clear and smoothly-moving meaning that the relation
between questions should be readily apparent to the respondent, with
answers that are easiest to answer placed in the beginning.
The opening questions must be such that they arouse interest to
answer further. Questions that put too much strain on the memory or
intellect of the respondent, personal questions etc. should generally
be avoided. Relatively difficult questions can be put towards the end
so that if there is not a response, considerable information would
have already obtained.
Question formulation and wording
Should be easily understood, should be simple, should be concrete
and should conform to the way the respondent thinks.
ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple, i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept a minimum.
2. Questions should proceed in a logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.
3. Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
4. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire..
5. Questions may be dichotomous (Yes or No answer), multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
6. Open-ended questions, being difficult to analyze should be avoided in the questionnaire to the extent possible.
7. Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided.
8. Adequate space should be provided in the questionnaire to help editing and tabulation.
9. There should always be provisions for indications of uncertainty, e.g., “do not know”, “no preference” and so on.
10. Brief directions with regards to filling the questionnaire should be given in the questionnaire itself.
11. Finally, the physical appearance of the questionnaire also should be attractive.23
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COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES
Similar to collection of data through questionnaire.
In case of schedules (pro forma containing a set of
questions) being filled in by enumerators who are
specially appointed for the purpose.
Population census all over the world is conducted
through this method.
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SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION
Warranty cards
Distributor or store audits
Pantry audits
Consumer panels
Use of mechanical devices
Projective techniques
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DEPTH INTERVIEWS
Depth interviews are those interviews that are
designed to cover underlying motives and desires
and are often used for motivational research.
Such interviews are held to explore the needs,
desires and feelings of the respondents.
Depth interviews require great skill on the part of
the interviewer and at the same time involve
considerable time.
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CONTENT ANALYSIS
Analyzing the contents of documentary materials
such as books, magazines, newspapers and the
contents of all verbal materials which can be either
spoken or printed.
Can be both quantitative or qualitative.
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CASE STUDY METHOD
The case study method is a very popular form of
qualitative analysis and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a
person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or
even the entire community.
It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.
The case study places more emphasis on the full
analysis of a limited number of events or conditions
and their interrelations.
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CASE STUDY METHOD
Advantages Limitations
1. Enables us to understand fully
the behavior pattern of the
concerned unit.
1. Case situations are seldom
comparable and as such the
information gathered in case
studies is often not comparable.
2. Enables to trace out the natural
history of the social unit and its
relationship with social factors and
the forces involved in its
surrounding environment.
2. Time consuming and expensive.
3. It helps in formulating relevant
hypotheses along with the data
which may be helpful in testing
them.
3. Case study method is based on
several assumptions which may
not be very realistic at times, and
as such the usefulness of case
data is always subject to doubt.
4. The researcher can use one or
more of the several research
methods depending upon the
circumstances.
4. This method can be used only in
a limited sphere. Sampling is not
possible under a case study. 29
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COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data means data that are already
available, those data already collected and
analyzed by someone else.
May be either published data or unpublished data.
Researchers must be very careful in using
secondary data. They must ensure that the
secondary data possesses the following
characteristics:
Reliability of data
Suitability of data
Adequacy of data30
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SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR
DATA COLLECTION
A researcher must judiciously select the
method/methods for his/her own study, keeping in
view the following factors:
Nature, scope and object of enquiry
Availability of funds
Time factor
Precision required
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End of Unit 5
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