Research Methodology: Part 1 - Introduction to Research & Research Methodology

Research Methodology

PART 1

Introduction to Research & Research Methodology

M S SridharFormer Head, Library & Documentation

ISRO Satellite CentreBangalore 560017

E-mail: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

OVERALL SYNOPSIS

M S Sridhar Research Methodology 1 2

1. Introduction to Research & Research methodology2. Selection and formulation of research problem3. Research design and plan4. Experimental designs5. Sampling and sampling strategy or plan6. Measurement and scaling techniques7. Data collection methods and techniques8. Testing of hypotheses9. Statistical techniques for processing & analysis of

data10. Analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences11. Report writing

M S Sridhar Introduction to Research Methodology 3

Synopsis1. Introduction to research and research

methodology• What is research ?• Why research ?• Terms used

Research Methodology Research Method Research Technique

• Research methodology• Scientific method• Benefits of research methodology• Qualities of good research & researcher• Research process• Ethics of research• Types of research


PreambleMan coming to grips with his environment and to understand the nature through experience, reasoning and research

1. EXPERIENCE (Subsume a number of sources of information) Personal experience, i.e., body of knowledge and skills derived

from encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in his environment

Experience of others Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative sources

EXPERIENCE & AUTHORITY are richly fertile sources of hypotheses, but they are common sense knowing, often based on haphazard events and use loose & uncritical manner and hence not scientific

Contd...


Preamble Contd.

2. REASONING Deductive (Aristotle) – From whole to part Inductive (Francis Bacon) – From number of observations Combined

3. RESEARCHSystematic, controlled, empirical & critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena, I.e.,

Systematic & controlled Empirical Self-correcting

Research is a combination of both experience & reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (particularly in natural sciences)


What is Research ?1. A voyage of discovery or a journey/ movement from the

known to unknown; An attitude; An experience; A method of critical thinking; A careful critical enquiry in seeking facts for principles

2. An art of scientific investigation • Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a

specific topic• Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through

the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data

3. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge• Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through objective, systematic

and scientific method of finding solution to a problem• Implicit question + Explicit answer + data to support the answer • Not synonymous with commonsense, but systematic, objective

(purposeful), reproducible, relevant activity having control over some factors


What is Research ? Contd.4. An activity caused by instinct of inquisitiveness to gain

fresh insight / find answers to question / acquire knowledge In a broad sense, everyone does research, but don’t write it up;

Without trustworthy and tested published research available we are dangerously lost in the experience, opinions and hearsay

Why research ?1. To get a degree2. To get respectability3. To face a challenge4. To solve a problem5. To get intellectual joy

6. To serve society– by increasing standard of

living in case of S&T, and – by showing right path to

society in case of Social and Behavioural Sciences


Terms1. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE - Behaviour and instruments used in

research operationsExamples: Scales, recording techniques, content analysis, moving average, longitudinal / cross sectional collection of data, etc.

2. RESEARCH METHOD - Behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing technique (a range of approaches used to gather data)Examples: Observation, questionnaire, interview, analysis of records, case study, etc.Methods are more general than techniques. Methods & Techniques are used in performing research operations, i.e..,

Collection of data Statistical processing & analysis (tests) To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained NOTE: Research techniques and research methods are almost

interchangeably used


Terms contd.

3. Research Methodology• A science of studying how research is done scientifically• A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically

adopting various steps• Methodology helps to understand not only the products of

scientific inquiry but the process itself• Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their

limitations and resources, clarify their presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the ‘frontiers of knowledge’


Benefits of Research Methodology1. Advancement of wealth of human knowledge2. ‘Tools of the trade’ to carry out research; Provides tools to look

at things in life objectively3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or

a ‘bent of mind’ to observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term particularly in the ‘age of information’ (or too often of misinformation)

4. Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides opportunity to study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of work can match

5. As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions

6. Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think critically

Contd...


PreambleMan coming to grips with his environment and to understand the nature through experience, reasoning and research

1. EXPERIENCE (Subsume a number of sources of information) Personal experience, i.e., body of knowledge and skills derived

from encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in his environment

Experience of others Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e., authoritative sources

EXPERIENCE & AUTHORITY are richly fertile sources of hypotheses, but they are common sense knowing, often based on haphazard events and use loose & uncritical manner and hence not scientific

Contd...


Preamble Contd.

2. REASONING Deductive (Aristotle) – From whole to part Inductive (Francis Bacon) – From number of observations Combined

3. RESEARCHSystematic, controlled, empirical & critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena, I.e.,

Systematic & controlled Empirical Self-correcting

Research is a combination of both experience & reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (particularly in natural sciences)


What is Research ?1. A voyage of discovery or a journey/ movement from the

known to unknown; An attitude; An experience; A method of critical thinking; A careful critical inquiry in seeking facts for principles

2. An art of scientific investigation • Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a

specific topic• Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through

the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data

3. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge• Search for (new) knowledge/ facts through objective, systematic

and scientific method of finding solution to a problem• Implicit question + Explicit answer + data to support the answer • Not synonymous with commonsense, but systematic, objective

(purposeful), reproducible, relevant activity having control over some factors


What is Research ? Contd.4. An activity caused by instinct of inquisitiveness to gain

fresh insight / find answers to question / acquire knowledge In a broad sense, everyone does research, but don’t write it up;

Without trustworthy and tested published research available we are dangerously lost in the experience, opinions and hearsay

Why research ?1. To get a degree2. To get respectability3. To face a challenge4. To solve a problem5. To get intellectual joy

6. To serve society– by increasing standard of

living in case of S&T, and – by showing right path to

society in case of Social and Behavioural Sciences


Terms1. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE - Behaviour and instruments used in

research operationsExamples: Scales, recording techniques, content analysis, moving average, longitudinal / cross sectional collection of data, etc.

2. RESEARCH METHOD - Behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing technique (a range of approaches used to gather data)Examples: Observation, questionnaire, interview, analysis of records, case study, etc.Methods are more general than techniques. Methods & Techniques are used in performing research operations, i.e..,

Collection of data Statistical processing & analysis (tests) To evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained NOTE: Research techniques and research methods are almost

interchangeably used


Terms contd.

3. Research Methodology• A science of studying how research is done scientifically• A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically

adopting various steps• Methodology helps to understand not only the products of

scientific inquiry but the process itself• Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their

limitations and resources, clarify their presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the twilight zone at the ‘frontiers of knowledge’


Benefits of Research Methodology1. Advancement of wealth of human knowledge2. ‘Tools of the trade’ to carry out research; Provides tools to look

at things in life objectively3. Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or

a ‘bent of mind’ to observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-off in long term particularly in the ‘age of information’ (or too often of misinformation)

4. Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides opportunity to study a subject in depth; Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of work can match

5. As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions

6. Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think critically

Contd...

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 18

Benefits of Research Methodology Contd...

Additional benefits in case of librarianship: i. Helps to understand the ‘researcher’ as a user of

libraryii. Helps to learn how to use libraries & other

information resourcesiii. Enables critical evaluation of literatureiv. Develops special interests & skillsv. Helps to understand attitude of othersvi. Creates awareness of special needs of research

processvii. Facilitates reference and information service

M S Sridhar, ISRO Research Methodology 1 19

Benefits of Research Assignments to Students

1. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a product to be evaluated

2. Good assignments help students to learn about their audience

3. Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in contextual information

4. Good assignments provide interim readers5. As with any real project, good assignments give

students time and a schedule of interim deadlines


Scientific Method• The method of all logically trained minds• The pursuit of truth as determined by logical

considerations• Classifies facts, sees their mutual relation through

experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates

Tenets of scientific faith1. DETERMINISM: Events have causes, I.e., events are determined

by other circumstances (causal links can eventually be uncovered and understood)

2. EMPIRICISM: Verifiable by observation and ‘evidence’ (data)3. PRINCIPLES OF PARSIMONY: Phenomenon should be explained

in the most economical way possible4. GENERALIZABILITY: More problematic in social & behavioral

science than natural science


Basic Postulates of Scientific Method

1. Relies on empirical evidence (empiricism)2. Utilizes relevant concepts3. Committed to only objective considerations 4. Presupposes ethical neutrality5. Results into probabilistic predictions6. Methodology is made known to all for critical

scrutiny and testing through replication7. Aims at formulating most general axioms or

scientific theories8. Encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of

procedure dictated by the demands of logic and objective procedure


Qualities of Good ResearchTHE SCIENTIFIC METHOD EMPLOYED ENSURES:

1. Purpose/ objectives clearly defined in common concepts2. Procedure enumerated to keep continuity3. Carefully planned design leading to objective results4. Complete frankness; flaws reported and their effect estimated5. Adequate analysis of data with appropriate methods of analysis 6. Carefully checked data for validity & reliability7. Conclusions confined to those justified by the data8. Confidence, competence/ reputation, experience, honesty &

integrity of researcherNote: 38% of papers in Nature and 25% of papers in BMJ contain one or

more statistical errors; 4% of errors caused non-significant findings to be misrepresented as significant (The Economist, 5 June ’04, p 70-71)


Qualities of Good Research contd..

1. SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing & intuition, but does not rule out creative thinking

2. CONTROLLED – Variables are identified & controlled, wherever possible

3. LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning & logical process of induction & deduction

4. EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to results (validation)

5. REPLICABLE - Verified by replicating the study6. SELF CORRECTING - Built in mechanism & open to

public scrutiny by fellow professionals


Research Process 1. Selection & formulation of Research Problem 2. Literature survey 3. Development of working hypotheses 4. Research design 5. Sampling strategy or sample design 6. Pilot (quick & dirty) study 7. Data collection 8. Processing & analysis of data 9. Testing hypotheses10. Interpretation & generalisation 11. Preparation of the report NOTE: 1. Above steps are not exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive, but a

series of closely related, continuously overlapping and interdependent nonlinear steps/ actions

2. What lies ahead is hard work as well as pleasure of the hunt; some frustration, but more of satisfaction; periods of confusion, but confidence that, at the end, it will all come together


Ethics of Research• As a profound social activity research connects us to those who

will use it, to those whose research we used, through them, to the research that our sources used; Hence beyond technique, we need to think about ethics of civil communication

• In addition to construction of bonds within any community, ethics deal with a range of moral and immoral choices; Research challenges us to define individual moral principles; Academic researchers are less tempted to sacrifice principle for a gain than commercial researchers

Plagiarism, claiming credit for results of others, misreport sources or invent results, data with questionable accuracy, concealing objections that cannot be rebutted, caricaturing or distorting opposing views, destroy or conceal sources and data important for those who follow

• Beyond simple moral Do not, to what we should affirmatively do, i.e., concern for the integrity of the work of the community combined with moral standards with the larger ethical dimension

• Research done in the best interests of others is also in your own


Types of Research1. DESCRIPTIVE/ SURVEY (EX-

POST FACTO)• Surveys & fact-finding

enquiries • State of affairs as it exists• No control over variables• Try to discover causes (I.e.,

ex- post facto)

2. APPLIED• Finding a solution for an

immediate problem & not rigorous / flexible in application of the conditions

ANALYTICAL• Uses facts or information

already available and analyze to make a critical evaluation

FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC OR PURE)

• Concerned with generalizations & formulation of theory

• Knowledge for knowledge’s sake (I.e., pure or basic research) contd….


Types of Research contd…

3. QUANTITATIVE• Measured & expressed in

terms of quantity• Expression of a property or

quantity in numerical terms • Quantitative research helps:i. Precise measurementsii. Knowing trends or changes

overtimeiii. Comparing trends or individual

units

4 CONCEPTUAL• Related to some abstract idea

or theory (for thinkers & philosophers)

• Relies on literature

QUALITATIVE• Involves quality or kind• Helps in having insight

into problems or cases

EMPIRICAL• Relies on experience or

observation alone, i.e.,data based research

• Capable of being verified by observation or experiment

• Experimenter has control over variables contd…


Types of Research contd…

5. OTHER TYPESi. One time/ Cross sectional vs Longitudinal/ Developmental &

Trend or Prediction studies (the time domain)ii. Field setting vs Lab / Simulation research iii. Clinical vs diagnostic studiesiv. Exploratory vs Formulated (the degree of formulation of the

problem) studiesv. Historical studies (Greater part of it is quantitative)vi. Content Analysis is one such quantitative method – a

multipurpose method developed specifically for investigating a broad spectrum of problems in which the contents of communication serve as a basis of inference. Example: word usage rates, word counts, etc.

vii. Co relational researchviii. Conclusion oriented or decision oriented research


APPENDIX IBenefits of Research Methodology Contd...

Additional benefits in case of librarianship: i. Helps to understand the ‘researcher’ as a user of

libraryii. Helps to learn how to use libraries & other

information resourcesiii. Enables critical evaluation of literatureiv. Develops special interests & skillsv. Helps to understand attitude of othersvi. Creates awareness of special needs of research

processvii. Facilitates reference and information services


APPENDIX IIBenefits of Research Assignments to Students1. Good assignments establish outcomes beyond a

product to be evaluated2. Good assignments help students to learn about their

audience3. Good assignments create scenarios that are rich in

contextual information4. Good assignments provide interim readings5. As with any real project, good assignments give

students time and a schedule of interim deadlines

Documents

Research Methodology: Part 1 - Introduction to Research & Research Methodology