Cognition: what is it? Some views and implications to linguistics

Cognition: what is it? Some Cognition: what is it? Some recent views and implications recent views and implications

to linguisticsto linguistics

ANA CRISTINA PELOSI DE MACEDOANA CRISTINA PELOSI DE MACEDO

(UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO (UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO CEARÁ-BRAZIL)CEARÁ-BRAZIL)

(CAPES/CNPq/FUNCAP)(CAPES/CNPq/FUNCAP)

Cognition: what is it? Some recent Cognition: what is it? Some recent views and implications to linguisticsviews and implications to linguistics

Presentation aims:Presentation aims:

- - to expose the evolution of the concept cognition;

- to report on some recent developments in Cognitive Science (esp.: neurophysiology) that invite us to rethink the concept of cognition;

- to discuss what is meant by the term embodied cognition and the implications this view brings to the notion of mental representation;

- to point to some repercursions that the new view brings to linguistic research.


Cognition – the traditional view:Cognition – the traditional view:

- The term has been generally applied to refer, among other things, to the forms by means of which we, humans, acquire, process, store up, and retrieve knowledge as we relate to the surrounding world (objectivist view; notion of a pre-given world).


Concept origins and development – the traditional Concept origins and development – the traditional view:view:

- Plato, in promoting the belief in a perfect ideal world, - Plato, in promoting the belief in a perfect ideal world, exposesexposesthe doctrine that “the intelect is able to aprehend ideas the doctrine that “the intelect is able to aprehend ideas because because it is, as the ideas, it is, as the ideas, disembodieddisembodied (Pensadores, p. 20). (Pensadores, p. 20).

- The separation of mind and body, with the mind being - The separation of mind and body, with the mind being autonomous and hierarchically superior in relation to the body autonomous and hierarchically superior in relation to the body has been the unquestionable position adopted by Western has been the unquestionable position adopted by Western philosophy from Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine through to philosophy from Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine through to Descartes and Kant.Descartes and Kant.


Concept origins and development – the traditional Concept origins and development – the traditional view:view:

- Mental phenomena, one of the ways cognition is expressed, - Mental phenomena, one of the ways cognition is expressed, had, in Descartes terms, no place in the world of physics but had, in Descartes terms, no place in the world of physics but should be viewed as having a complete autonomous status: should be viewed as having a complete autonomous status:

““I am a substance the whole nature or essence of which is to I am a substance the whole nature or essence of which is to think, and which for its existence does not need any place or think, and which for its existence does not need any place or depend on any material thing” (DESCARTES, DISCOURSE, PART depend on any material thing” (DESCARTES, DISCOURSE, PART IV, IV, apudapud GIBBS 2006, p. 4). GIBBS 2006, p. 4).

- a human possession, resulting from the so called higher - a human possession, resulting from the so called higher mental faculties (Vygotsky); capacity to transcend the body’s mental faculties (Vygotsky); capacity to transcend the body’s limitations. (Descartes).limitations. (Descartes).


Concept origins and development – the Concept origins and development – the traditional view:traditional view:

- The concept of mental representation has been - The concept of mental representation has been central to cognition’s traditional view. Although not directly central to cognition’s traditional view. Although not directly promoted by Plato, it can be said that it originates with his promoted by Plato, it can be said that it originates with his ideas, and is later instituted by Aristotle. Such a concept ideas, and is later instituted by Aristotle. Such a concept (i.e. that of mental representation) promotes the idea that (i.e. that of mental representation) promotes the idea that cognition allows for the engendering in the mind of images cognition allows for the engendering in the mind of images of an external world.of an external world.

- Knowledge – accessible by means of representations - Knowledge – accessible by means of representations engendered by the mind and understood as engendered by the mind and understood as (re)presentations of an external world which is strange in (re)presentations of an external world which is strange in relation to the mind that conceives it. (i.e. mind as relation to the mind that conceives it. (i.e. mind as something distinct and separate from the world).something distinct and separate from the world).


- Under this view, cognition is considered, in AI tradition, as the result of symbol manipulations by means of rigid rules (the so called algorithms); (Mind as a computer metaphor, divided in modules with information being processed linear and sequentially).

Concept origins and development – the Concept origins and development – the traditional traditional view:view:


Insuficiency of the traditional view:Insuficiency of the traditional view:

““The classical representation theory fails in solving the intencionality problem to the extent that the storing up of information in the form of symbols and its manipulation cannot contain what is extra-mental or the extra-representational which allows for the relationship between representation and its referent in the world”. (TEIXEIRA 2004, p.48).

- Although in a computer it is possible to know that the semantic level of computations is the work of a programmer, we have no idea how the symbolic expressions, codified in the brain get their meaning from. (Insuficiency of the symbolic hypothesis – cf. Varela 1997).


Insuficiency of the traditional view:Insuficiency of the traditional view:

- In a computational programme, the symbolic In a computational programme, the symbolic code syntax may codify or correspond to the code syntax may codify or correspond to the semantics inbuilt in the programme, but this is semantics inbuilt in the programme, but this is not so with natural languages; not so with natural languages;

- It is impossible to mirror syntatically all It is impossible to mirror syntatically all semantic distinctions relevant for the semantic distinctions relevant for the explaning of behaviour.explaning of behaviour.(Ex.: failure of the traditional chomskian (Ex.: failure of the traditional chomskian theory in explaining people’s behaviours in theory in explaining people’s behaviours in understanding and processing sentences).understanding and processing sentences).


The Connectionist view of cognition:The Connectionist view of cognition:

- Another view of cognition is put forward by Another view of cognition is put forward by the connectionist approach (parallel the connectionist approach (parallel distributed processing);distributed processing);

- It rejects the idea of a symbolic mind ruled It rejects the idea of a symbolic mind ruled by rules;by rules;

- Cognition is understood as the emmergence Cognition is understood as the emmergence of global states (output patterns) through the of global states (output patterns) through the dynamic interaction of simple components dynamic interaction of simple components (i.e. nodes, in the machine or neurons, in the (i.e. nodes, in the machine or neurons, in the brain).brain).


Connectionist view of cognition:Connectionist view of cognition:

- Mental processes result from “ad hoc” configurations Mental processes result from “ad hoc” configurations in neural networks;in neural networks;

- Input units (external and internal to the system) Input units (external and internal to the system) processed dynamically in several directions (not linear processed dynamically in several directions (not linear and sequentially;and sequentially;

- Meaning (including linguistic meaning) is understood Meaning (including linguistic meaning) is understood as a result of the cognitive system global states; (no as a result of the cognitive system global states; (no rigid mapping between the physical item (sign) and a rigid mapping between the physical item (sign) and a reference (representation stored in memory);reference (representation stored in memory);


Connectionist view of cognition:Connectionist view of cognition: ““ [...] symbols and their meanings would be [...] symbols and their meanings would be relative to global stes of mind. From this, it follows relative to global stes of mind. From this, it follows that meanings of symbols would be stabilized to the that meanings of symbols would be stabilized to the extent that they satisfy attractor states of neural nets, extent that they satisfy attractor states of neural nets, but, since biological neural networks undergo but, since biological neural networks undergo continual change, no two usages of a symbol would be continual change, no two usages of a symbol would be strictly identical” (PALMER, 1996, p. 31).strictly identical” (PALMER, 1996, p. 31).


Insuficiency of the connectionist view:Insuficiency of the connectionist view:

- Although the connectionist view does not support the - Although the connectionist view does not support the idea of a symbolic mind ruled by rigid rules nor the idea of a symbolic mind ruled by rigid rules nor the consequences that this view has brought to Cognitive consequences that this view has brought to Cognitive Science, it still does not break free totally from the Science, it still does not break free totally from the cartesian idea that promotes a distancing between the cartesian idea that promotes a distancing between the cognoscent being and the world.cognoscent being and the world.

- No deep insight about the role that, ecologically and - No deep insight about the role that, ecologically and socio-culturally situated dynamic interactions experienced socio-culturally situated dynamic interactions experienced by the individual in knowledge emmergence is given. by the individual in knowledge emmergence is given. (man as a dual being – body and brain/mind, but central (man as a dual being – body and brain/mind, but central focus is the brain).focus is the brain).


Is there evidence that the classical view should Is there evidence that the classical view should be abandonned?:be abandonned?:

‘‘the so-called motor functions’’ of the nervous system not only provide the means to control and execute action but also to represent it’’ (GALLESE, 2000, p. 23, (GALLESE, 2000, p. 23, apudapud GARBARINI; ADENZATO, 2004). GARBARINI; ADENZATO, 2004).



Rizzollati and colleagues (1988 a 1996, Rizzollati and colleagues (1988 a 1996, apudapud GARBARINI;ADENZATO, 2004) – describe two classes of GARBARINI;ADENZATO, 2004) – describe two classes of bimodal neurons (i.e. canonical neurons and mirror bimodal neurons (i.e. canonical neurons and mirror neurons) found in the premotor cortex of monkeys and neurons) found in the premotor cortex of monkeys and humans whose main characteristic is that they can fire humans whose main characteristic is that they can fire during tasks involving the execution of actions as well during tasks involving the execution of actions as well as as pure observation in which the participant simulates mentally the action that someone else is performing as if he, himself, was performing it. (e.g. nut experiment).



The fact that not only motor actions but their abstract The fact that not only motor actions but their abstract representations and meanings are apparently linked to the representations and meanings are apparently linked to the same class of neurons point to the non-existence, in neural same class of neurons point to the non-existence, in neural terms, of a dualism between action, perception and terms, of a dualism between action, perception and cognitive response. (Garbarini; Adenzato, 2004) cognitive response. (Garbarini; Adenzato, 2004)


Is there evidence that the classical view should be abandonned?:

There is a need to rethink the concepts of cognition There is a need to rethink the concepts of cognition and, especifically, of mental representation: instead of and, especifically, of mental representation: instead of abstract formal representations expressed in abstract formal representations expressed in propositional terms, representations seem to be propositional terms, representations seem to be intrinsincly linked to action. They do not constitute a intrinsincly linked to action. They do not constitute a duplication of reality but can be conceived as virtual duplication of reality but can be conceived as virtual activation of motor and perceptual procedures.activation of motor and perceptual procedures.


Embodiment: a new concept of cognitionEmbodiment: a new concept of cognition

- Evidence gathered by neurophysiology, partially and - Evidence gathered by neurophysiology, partially and briefly outlined here, together with symbolic AI’s briefly outlined here, together with symbolic AI’s failure in duplicating human intelligence and failure in duplicating human intelligence and behaviour sucessfully; has served to call into question behaviour sucessfully; has served to call into question the traditional cartesian view of cognition in favor of the traditional cartesian view of cognition in favor of and integrated concept which understands cognition and integrated concept which understands cognition as occuring “when the body engages the physical, as occuring “when the body engages the physical, cultural world and must be studied in terms of the cultural world and must be studied in terms of the dinamical interactions between people and the dinamical interactions between people and the environment” (GIBBS, 2006, p. 9) environment” (GIBBS, 2006, p. 9)



- Varela (1998, p. 109) understands this integrated view Varela (1998, p. 109) understands this integrated view of cognition as “efective action: the history of of cognition as “efective action: the history of structural couplings which cause a world to emmerge”structural couplings which cause a world to emmerge”

- - Embodied cognition is thus to be understood as being Embodied cognition is thus to be understood as being intrinsically linked to embodied action and therefore, a intrinsically linked to embodied action and therefore, a result of the types of experiences afforded organisms result of the types of experiences afforded organisms by their inbuilt sensory-motor capacities within the by their inbuilt sensory-motor capacities within the biological, psychological and socio-cultural contexts biological, psychological and socio-cultural contexts within which they interact. (VARELA; THOMPSON; within which they interact. (VARELA; THOMPSON; ROSCH, 2003)ROSCH, 2003)



- It is therefore, defined from two interrelated - It is therefore, defined from two interrelated perspectives: perspectives: “by using the term embodied we mean to highlight two points: first, that cognition depends upon the kinds of experience that come from having a body with various sensorimotor capacities, and second, that these individual sensorimotor capacities are themselves embedded in a more emcompassing biological, psychological, and cultural context” (VARELA; THOMPSON; ROSCH, 1993, p. 26).


Repercurssion to Linguistics:Repercurssion to Linguistics:

- Evidence gathered by neurophysiology equally points out to an integrated vision of the body/mind dichotomy in the constitution of language in social cultural situated contexts.

- Elman et al. (1996), note that in human brain anatomy and physiology, there is no evidence of the presence of cortical structures, especiallized solely to language or even unique to

humans.


Repercurssion to Linguistics:Repercurssion to Linguistics:

They argument that language is not a genetic but an epigenetic phenomenon [1].

[1] Epigenesis is to be understood as the proposal that behavior results from dynamic and complex gene development and from environmental forces during pre and post-natal development.

Cognition and Linguistics: Theory Cognition and Linguistics: Theory and Researchand Research

Preliminary conclusions:Preliminary conclusions:

- Cognitive behaviour in humans, including natural languages result from two integrated perspectives:

- The type of bodies with which we enter the world;

- the ecological and socio-cultural world in which we are immersed.

Any theory of language development and of linguistic structure, should take these aspects into consideration.


Preliminary conclusions:Preliminary conclusions:

Therefore, a more plausible approach to the study of language is put forward by cognitive linguistics since it is identified as an interdisciplinary linguistic theory which “actively searches the correpondencies between conceptual thought, embodied experience and linguistic structure...in the effort to discover the real contents of human cognition” (GIBBS, 1996, p.49).

- Theories put forward by Cognitive Linguistics such as Primary Metaphor Theory (GRADY, 1997; JOHNSON, 1999; NARAYANAN, 1997); ICMs Theory (LAKOFF, 1987); Blending Theory (FAUCONNIER; TURNER, 2002), appear to meet the goal highlighted above.


Referências:Referências:

GIBBS JR., R.W. (1994) The poetics of mind: figurative thought, language, and understanding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

GARBARINI, F. e ADENZATO, M. (2004). At the root of embodied cognition: Cognitive science meets neurophysiology, Brain and cognition. Vol. 56, 100-106.

PALMER, G. (1996). Toward a theory of cultural linguistics. Austin: U. T. Press.

VARELA, F. J. (1997). Conocer. Barcelona: Gedisa.

VARELA, F. J. & THOMPSON, E. & ROSCH, E. (1993). The embodied mind. Cognitive science and human experience. The MIT Press.

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Cognition: what is it? Some views and implications to linguistics