Chemistry Unit 3 PPT

Unit 3 – Exploring Change

Chemistry

chemistry

In many coastal countries that have warm, relatively dry climates, salt is produced by the evaporation of seawater. You will learn how cations and anions combine to form stable compounds such as sodium chloride.

Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds7.2

Formation of Ionic Compounds◦ What is the electrical charge of an ionic

compound?

Formation of Ionic Compounds

7.2

Compounds composed of cations and anions are called ionic compounds. Although they are composed of ions,

ionic compounds are electrically neutral.


7.2

Aluminum metal and the nonmetal bromine react to form an ionic solid, aluminum bromide.


7.2

◦ Ionic Bonds The electrostatic forces that hold ions together in

ionic compounds are called ionic bonds.


7.2

◦Formula Units A chemical formula shows the kinds and numbers of atoms in the smallest representative unit of a substance.

A formula unit is the lowest whole-number ratio of ions in an ionic compound.


7.2

NaCl is the chemical formula for sodium chloride.


7.2

Conceptual Problem 7.2




for Conceptual Problem 7.2

Properties of Ionic Compounds◦What are three properties of ionic compounds?

Properties of Ionic Compounds

7.2

Most ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature.

Ionic compounds generally have high melting points.


7.2

The orderly arrangement of component ions produces the beauty of crystalline solids.


7.2

The coordination number of an ion is the number of ions of opposite charge that surround the ion in a crystal.

In NaCl, each ion has a coordination number of 6.


7.2

In CsCl, each ion has a coordination number of 8. In TiO2, each Ti4+ ion has a coordination number of 6,

while each O2- ion has a coordination number of 3.


7.2

Ionic compounds can conduct an electric current when melted or dissolved in water.


7.2

chemistry

◦ A rose is rosa in Spanish, warda in Arabic, and julab in Hindi. To truly understand another culture, you must first learn the language used in that culture. Similarly, to understand chemistry, you must learn its language. For this you need to know how to name ions.

Naming Ions9.1

Monatomic Ions◦How are the charges of Group A metal and nonmetal ions related to their positions in the periodic table?

Monatomic Ions9.1

Monatomic ions consist of a single atom with a positive or negative charge resulting from the loss or gain of one or more valence electrons, respectively.

Monatomic Ions9.1

◦Cations When the metals in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose electrons, they form cations with positive charges equal to their group number.

Monatomic Ions9.1

The names of the cations of the Group 1A, Group 2A, and Group 3A metals are the same as the name of the metal, followed by the word ion or cation.

Monatomic Ions9.1

These elements have ionic charges that can be obtained from their group numbers.

Monatomic Ions9.1

◦Anions The charge of any ion of a Group A

nonmetal is determined by subtracting 8 from the group number.

Anion names start with the stem of the element name and end in -ide.

Monatomic Ions9.1

These Group A elements form anions.

Monatomic Ions9.1

Monatomic Ions9.1

◦Ions of Transition Metals How are the charges of some transition metal ions determined?

Monatomic Ions9.1

◦The charges of the cations of many transition metal ions must be determined from the number of electrons lost.

Monatomic Ions9.1

These colorful solutions contain the transition metal ions Co3+, Cr3+, Fe3+, Ni2+, and Mn2+.

Monatomic Ions9.1

Many transition metal compounds are colored and can be used as pigments.

Monatomic Ions9.1

Two methods are used to name the ions of transition metals.The Stock systemThe classical method

Monatomic Ions9.1

In the Stock system, a Roman numeral in parentheses is placed after the name of the element to indicate the numerical value of the charge.

Monatomic Ions9.1

In an older less, useful method, the classical name of the element is used to form the root name for the element.

Monatomic Ions9.1

Monatomic Ions9.1

Conceptual Problem 9.11.1



Practice Problems For Conceptual Problem 9.1


Polyatomic Ions◦What are the two endings of the names of most polyatomic ions?

Polyatomic Ions9.1

These models show the structures of four common polyatomic ions.

Polyatomic Ions9.1

Some ions, called polyatomic ions, are composed of more than one atom. The names of most polyatomic anions end in -ite or -ate.

Polyatomic Ions9.1

Names and Formulas of Some Common Polyatomic Ions

Polyatomic Ions9.1

Sodium hydrogen carbonate can relieve an upset stomach.

Polyatomic Ions9.1

HCO3–, HPO4

2–, and H2PO4– ions in your blood are

critical for your health.

Polyatomic Ions9.1

Fertilizers contain HPO42– and H2PO4– ions.

Polyatomic Ions9.1

chemistry

A recipe is a formula for the sauce—a complete list of ingredients and their proportions. Chemistry also uses formulas. Once you know the rules, you can write the formula for any chemical compound.

Naming and Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds9.2

Binary Ionic Compounds How are the names of binary ionic

compounds determined? How do you write the formulas for binary

ionic compounds?

Binary Ionic Compounds9.2

◦ These masks are made of an ionic compound with the common name gypsum. This name does not tell you anything about the chemical composition of the compound, though.


◦Naming Binary Ionic Compounds A binary compound is composed of two elements and can be either ionic or molecular. To name any binary ionic compound,

place the cation name first, followed by the anion name.


Tin(II) sulfide, or SnF2, is added to toothpastes to prevent cavities.


Tin(IV) sulfide, or SnS2, is used in glazes for porcelain fixtures and dishes.


Hematite, a common ore of iron, contains iron (III) oxide. The balanced formula is Fe2O3.


◦Writing Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds Write the symbol of the cation and then the anion. Add whatever subscripts are needed to balance the charges.


9.2



Sample Problems For Conceptual Problem 9.2


Compounds with Polyatomic Ions◦How do you write the formulas and names of compounds containing polyatomic ions?

Compounds With Polyatomic Ions

9.2

◦Write the symbol for the cation followed by the formula for the polyatomic ion and balance the charges.


9.2

For example, calcium nitrate is composed of a calcium cation (Ca2+) and a polyatomic nitrate anion (NO3–).

In calcium nitrate, two nitrate anions, each with a 1– charge, are needed to balance the 2+ charge of each calcium cation. The formula for calcium nitrate is Ca(NO3)2.


9.2

Oysters produce calcium carbonate to form their shells and sometimes pearls.


9.2

Lead(II)sulfate is an important component of an automobile battery.


9.2




Practice Problems For Conceptual Problem 9.3


◦Naming Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

To name a compound containing a polyatomic ion, state the cation first and then the anion, just as you did in naming binary ionic compounds.


9.2

Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) is used as a disinfectant for swimming pools. The metallic cation in this compound is sodium (Na+) so the polyatomic ion must be ClO–.


9.2

Chemistry 8.1

◦These toy models are made from circular pieces joined together in units by sticks. Atoms can also be arranged in different ways to make a variety of products.

Molecular Compounds8.1

8.1

Molecules and Molecular Compounds◦How are the melting points and boiling

points of molecular compounds different from those of ionic compounds?

Molecules and Molecular Compounds

In nature, matter takes many forms. The noble gases, including helium and neon, are monatomic. That means they exist as single atoms.


8.1

Some compounds are so different from ionic compounds that attractions between ions fail to explain their bonding.

The atoms held together by sharing electrons are joined by a covalent bond.


8.1

A molecule is a neutral group of atoms joined together by covalent bonds. Air contains oxygen molecules.

A diatomic molecule is a molecule consisting of two atoms. An oxygen molecule is a diatomic molecule.


8.1

A compound composed of molecules is called a molecular compound. Water and carbon monoxide are molecular compounds.


8.1

◦Molecular compounds tend to have relatively lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds.

Molecules and Molecular Changes

8.1


8.1

Ethane, a component of natural gas, is also a molecular compound.

Molecules and Molecular Changes

8.1

Molecular Formulas◦What information does a molecular formula provide?

Molecular Formulas8.1

A molecular formula is the chemical formula of a molecular compound.

A molecular formula shows how many atoms of each element a molecule contains.



Formulas of Some Molecular CompoundsMolecular Formulas

8.1

Chemistry 8.2

◦ The colors in this map indicate the concentrations of ozone in various parts of Earth’s atmosphere. Oxygen atoms can join in pairs to form the oxygen you breathe and can also join in groups of three oxygen atoms to form ozone.

The Nature of Covalent Bonding

8.2

8.2

The Octet Rule in Covalent Bonding◦ What is the result of electron sharing in covalent bonds?

The Octet Rule in Covalent Bonding

8.2

◦In covalent bonds, electron sharing usually occurs so that atoms attain the electron configurations of noble gases.

The Octet Rule in Covalent Bonding

8.2

Single Covalent Bonds◦ How do electron dot structures represent shared electrons?

Single Covalent Bonds

Two atoms held together by sharing a pair of electrons are joined by a single covalent bond.

Single Covalent Bonds8.2

8.2

An electron dot structure such as H:H represents the shared pair of electrons of the covalent bond by two dots.

A structural formula represents the covalent bonds by dashes and shows the arrangement of covalently bonded atoms.


The halogens form single covalent bonds in their diatomic molecules. Fluorine is one example.


8.2

A pair of valence electrons that is not shared between atoms is called an unshared pair, also known as a lone pair or a nonbonding pair.


The hydrogen and oxygen atoms attain noble-gas configurations by sharing electrons.


The ammonia molecule has one unshared pair of electrons.


Methane has no unshared pairs of electrons.


8.1

Section Assessment

Section Assessment

8.1

Section Assessmentfor Conceptual Problem 8.1

8.2

Double and Triple Covalent Bonds◦ How do atoms form double or triple covalent bonds?

Double and Triple Covalent Bonds

8.2

◦Atoms form double or triple covalent bonds if they can attain a noble gas structure by sharing two pairs or three pairs of electrons.


8.2

A bond that involves two shared pairs of electrons is a double covalent bond.

A bond formed by sharing three pairs of electrons is a triple covalent bond.


Each nitrogen atom has one unshared pair of electrons.


8.2


8.2

8.2

Carbon dioxide gas is soluble in water and is used to carbonate many beverages. A carbon dioxide molecule has two carbon-oxygen double bonds.


Carbon dioxide is an example of a triatomic molecule.


8.2

8.2

Coordinate Covalent Bonds◦ How are coordinate covalent bonds

different from other covalent bonds?

Coordinate Covalent Bonds

In carbon monoxide, oxygen has a stable configuration but the carbon does not.

Coordinate Covalent Bonds8.2

8.2

As shown below, the dilemma is solved if the oxygen donates one of its unshared pairs of electrons for bonding.


8.2 A coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons.

In a structural formula, you can show coordinate covalent bonds as arrows that point from the atom donating the pair of electrons to the atom receiving them.


8.2

◦In a coordinate covalent bond, the shared electron pair comes from one of the bonding atoms.


A polyatomic ion, such as NH4

+, is a tightly bound group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge and behaves as a unit.

Most plants need nitrogen that is already combined in a compound to grow.



8.2

Section Assessment8.2

Section Assessment8.2

Section Assessmentfor Conceptual Problem 8.2

Bond Dissociation Energies◦How is the strength of a covalent bond related to its bond dissociation energy?

Bond Dissociation Energies8.2

The energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms is known as the bond dissociation energy.

A large bond dissociation energy corresponds to a strong covalent bond.

Bond Dissociation Energies8.2

Resonance◦How are oxygen atoms bonded in ozone?

Resonance8.2

Ozone in the upper atmosphere blocks harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. At lower elevations, it contributes to smog.

Resonance8.2

◦The actual bonding of oxygen atoms in ozone is a hybrid, or mixture, of the extremes represented by the resonance forms.

Resonance8.2

A resonance structure is a structure that occurs when it is possible to draw two or more valid electron dot structures that have the same number of electron pairs for a molecule or ion.

Resonance8.2

Exceptions to the Octet Rule◦What are some exceptions to the rule?

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

8.2

◦The octet rule cannot be satisfied in molecules whose total number of valence electrons is an odd number. There are also molecules in which an atom has fewer, or more, than a complete octet of valence electrons.


8.2

Two electron dot structures can be drawn for the NO2 molecule.


8.2

NO2 is produced naturally by lightning strikes.


8.2

The electron dot structure for PCl5 can be written so that phosphorus has ten valence electrons.


8.2

chemistry

One milligram of gold is worth only about one cent, but one kilogram of gold is worth approximately $12,500. The correct prefix ( milli- or kilo-) makes quite a difference! Prefixes are important in chemistry, too. The prefixes in the name of a binary molecular compound tell you its composition.

Naming and Writing Formulas for Molecular Compounds

9.3

Naming Binary Molecular Compounds◦What does a prefix in the name of a

binary molecular compound tell you about the compound’s composition?

Naming Binary Molecular Compounds

9.3

Carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), but these two invisible gases are very different.


9.3

Sitting in a room with small amounts of CO2 in the air would not present any problems. If the same amount of CO were in the room, you could die of asphyxiation. A naming system that distinguishes between these two compounds is needed.


9.3

A prefix in the name of a binary molecular compound tells how many atoms of an element are present in each molecule of the compound.


9.3

Some guidelines for naming binary molecular compounds:Name the elements in the order listed in the formula.

Use prefixes to indicate the number of each kind of atom.


9.3

Omit the prefix mono- when the formula contains only one atom of the first element in the name.

The suffix of the name of the second element is -ide.


9.3

Writing Formulas for Binary Molecular Compounds

How do you write the formula for a binary molecular compound?

Writing Formulas for BinaryMolecular Compounds

9.3

Use the prefixes in the name to tell you the subscript of each element in the formula. Then write the correct symbols for the two elements with the appropriate subscripts.


9.3

Silicon carbide is a hard material like diamond. The name silicon carbide has no prefixes, so the subscripts of silicon and carbon must be one. Thus, the formula for silicon carbide is SiC.


9.3

Chemistry 8.38.3

This car is being painted by a process called electrostatic spray painting. The negatively charged droplets are attracted to the auto body. You will learn how attractive and repulsive forces influence the shapes of molecules.

Bonding Theories8.3

8.3

Molecular Orbitals◦ How are atomic and molecular orbitals related?

Molecular Orbitals

8.3

When two atoms combine, the molecular orbital model assumes that their atomic orbitals overlap to produce molecular orbitals, or orbitals that apply to the entire molecule.

Molecular Orbitals

8.3

Just as an atomic orbital belongs to a particular atom, a molecular orbital belongs to a molecule as a whole.

A molecular orbital that can be occupied by two electrons of a covalent bond is called a bonding orbital.

Molecular Orbitals

8.3

◦Sigma Bonds When two atomic orbitals combine to

form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical around the axis connecting two atomic nuclei, a sigma bond is formed.

Molecular Orbitals

8.3

A Sigma Bond

Molecular Orbitals

8.3

When two fluorine atoms combine, the p orbitals overlap to produce a bonding molecular orbital. The F—F bond is a sigma bond.

Molecular Orbitals

8.3

◦Pi Bonds In a pi bond (symbolized by the Greek letter ), the bonding electrons are most likely to be found in sausage-shaped regions above and below the bond axis of the bonded atoms.

Molecular Orbitals

8.3

Pi-bonding Molecular Orbital

Molecular Orbitals

8.3

VSEPR Theory◦How does VSEPR theory help predict the shapes of molecules?

VSEPR Theory

8.3

The valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory, or VSEPR theory, explains the three-dimensional shape of methane.

VSEPR Theory

8.3

◦According to VSEPR theory, the repulsion between electron pairs causes molecular shapes to adjust so that the valence-electron pairs stay as far apart as possible.

VSEPR Theory

8.3 The hydrogens in a methane molecule are at the

four corners of a geometric solid. All of the H—C—H angles are 109.5°, the tetrahedral angle.

VSEPR Theory

8.3

The measured H—N—H bond angle is only 107°.

VSEPR Theory

8.3

The measured bond angle in water is about 105°.

VSEPR Theory

8.3

The carbon dioxide molecule is linear.

VSEPR Theory

8.3

Nine Possible Molecular Shapes

VSEPR Theory

8.3

Hybrid Orbitals◦In what ways is orbital hybridization useful in describing molecules?

Hybrid Orbitals

Orbital hybridization provides information about both molecular bonding and molecular shape. In hybridization, several atomic

orbitals mix to form the same total number of equivalent hybrid orbitals.

Hybrid Orbitals8.3

8.3◦ Hybridization Involving Single Bonds

Hybrid Orbitals

8.3

◦ Hybridization Involving Double Bonds

Hybrid Orbitals

8.3

◦ Hybridization Involving Triple Bonds

Hybrid Orbitals

chemistry

Some ants can give painful stings when threatened or disturbed. Certain ant species called formicines have poison glands that produce venom containing formic acid. You will learn the names and formulas of some important acids such as formic acid.

Naming and Writing Formulas for Acids and Bases

9.4

Naming Acids◦What are the three rules for naming

acids?

Naming Acids9.4

An acid is a compound that contains one or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Acids have various uses.

Naming Acids9.4

Three rules can help you name an acid with the general formula HnX. When the name of the anion (X) ends

in -ide, the acid name begins with the prefix hydro-. The stem of the anion has the suffix -ic and is followed by the word acid.

Naming Acids9.4

◦When the anion name ends in -ite, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix -ous, followed by the word acid.

Naming Acids9.4

◦When the anion name ends in -ate, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix -ic followed by the word acid.

Naming Acids9.4

A Summary of the Three Rules for Naming Acids.

Naming Acids9.4

Writing Formulas for Acids◦How are the formulas of acids

determined?

Writing Formulas for Acids9.4

Use the rules for writing the names of acids in reverse to write the formulas for acids. What is the formula for hydrobromic acid?

Following Rule 1, hydrobromic acid (hydro- prefix and -ic suffix) must be a combination of hydrogen ion (H+) and bromide ion (Br–). The formula of hydrobromic acid is HBr.

Writing Formulas for Acids9.4

9.4

Writing Formulas for Acids

Names and Formulas for Bases◦How are bases named?

Names and Formulas for Bases

9.4

Bases are named in the same way as other ionic compounds—the name of the cation is followed by the name of the anion. For example, aluminum hydroxide consists

of the aluminum cation (Al3+) and the hydroxide anion (OH–). The formula for aluminum hydroxide is Al(OH)3.


9.4

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a base that is used to make paper.


9.4

Cleaners and soap contain sodium hydroxide.


9.4

Chemistry 8.4

Snow covers approximately 23 percent of Earth’s surface. Each individual snowflake is formed from as many as 100 snow crystals. The polar bonds in water molecules influence the distinctive geometry of snowflakes.

Polar Bonds and Molecules8.4

8.4

Bond Polarity◦ How do electronegativity values determine the charge distribution in a polar bond?

Bond Polarity

8.4

When the atoms in a bond pull equally (as occurs when identical atoms are bonded), the bonding electrons are shared equally, and the bond is a nonpolar covalent bond.

Bond Polarity

8.4

The bonding pairs of electrons in covalent bonds are pulled by the nuclei.

Bond Polarity

8.4

The chlorine atom attracts the electron cloud more than the hydrogen atom does.

Bond Polarity

8.4

A polar covalent bond, known also as a polar bond, is a covalent bond between atoms in which the electrons are shared unequally. The more electronegative atom

attracts electrons more strongly and gains a slightly negative charge. The less electronegative atom has a slightly positive charge.

Bond Polarity

Bond Polarity8.4

Polar Molecules◦What happens to polar molecules between a pair of oppositely charged metal plates?

Polar Molecules8.4

In a polar molecule, one end of the molecule is slightly negative and the other end is slightly positive.

A molecule that has two poles is called a dipolar molecule, or dipole.

Polar Molecules8.4

◦When polar molecules are placed between oppositely charged plates, they tend to become oriented with respect to the positive and negative plates.

Polar Molecules8.4

A hydrogen chloride molecule is a dipole.

Polar Molecules8.4

8.4

Attractions Between Molecules◦How do intermolecular attractions compare with ionic and covalent bonds?

Attractions Between Molecules

8.4

Intermolecular attractions are weaker than either ionic or covalent bonds. These attractions are responsible for

determining whether a molecular compound is a gas, a liquid, or a solid at a given temperature.


◦Van der Waals Forces The two weakest attractions between molecules are collectively called van der Waals forces, named after the Dutch chemist Johannes van der Waals (1837–1923).


8.4

Dipole interactions occur when polar molecules are attracted to one another.


8.4

8.4

Dispersion forces, the weakest of all molecular interactions, are caused by the motion of electrons.

The strength of dispersion forces generally increases as the number of electrons in a molecule increases.


◦Hydrogen Bonds Hydrogen bonds are attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom is also weakly bonded to an unshared electron pair of another electronegative atom.


8.4

8.4

Hydrogen Bonding in Water


The relatively strong attractive forces between water molecules cause the water to form small drops on a waxy surface.


8.4

Intermolecular Attractions and Molecular Properties◦Why do network solids have high melting points?

Intermolecular Attractions and Molecular Properties

8.4

8.4

Network solids (or network crystals) are solids in which all of the atoms are covalently bonded to each other.

Network solids consist of molecules that do not melt until the temperature reaches 1000°C or higher, or they decompose without melting at all.


◦Melting a network solid would require breaking covalent bonds throughout the solid.

Intermolecular Properties and Molecular Properties

8.4

8.4

Diamond is an example of a network solid. Diamond does not melt. It vaporizes to a gas at 3500°C or above.


8.4

Silicon Carbide is a network solid. It has a melting point of about 2700°C.


chemistry

A birthday cake for a four-year-old has four candles. The ratio of candles to birthday cake is 4:1. In chemistry, similar relationships exist among the masses of elements as they combine in compounds.

The Laws Governing Formulas and Names9.5

The Laws of Definite and Multiple Proportions

What are the two laws that describe how compounds form?


9.5

The rules for naming and writing formulas for compounds are possible only because compounds form from the elements in predictable ways. These ways are summed up in two

laws: the law of definite proportions and the law of multiple proportions.

The Laws of Definite and Multiple Proportions9.5

◦The Law of Definite ProportionsThe law of definite proportions states that in samples of any chemical compound, the masses of the elements are always in the same proportions.


9.5

Water obeys the law of definite proportions. In every sample of water, the mass ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is always 8:1.


9.5

Hydrogen peroxide obeys the law of definite proportions. The mass ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is always 16:1.


◦The Law of Multiple ProportionsThe law of multiple proportions: Whenever the same two elements form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that combine with the same mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.


A Diagram of the Law of Multiple Proportions


9.5

9.1

9.1

9.1

9.1

Practice Problems for Sample Problem 9.1

Practicing Skills: Naming Chemical Compounds

How do you use a flowchart to write the name of a chemical compound?


9.5

◦Follow the arrows and answer the questions on the flowchart to write the correct name for a compound.


9.5


9.5

CuSO4 is an example from the flowchart. The compound will end in -ite or -ate. Cu is not part of Group A, so you must name the ions and use a Roman numeral to identify the charge of the transition metal. The name is copper(II) sulfate.


9.5

Practicing Skills: Writing Chemical Formulas What four guidelines should you follow to write the

formula of a chemical compound?

Practicing Skills: Naming Chemical Compounds9.4

In writing a chemical formula from a chemical name, it is helpful to remember the following guidelines. An -ide ending generally indicates a

binary compound. An -ite or -ate ending means a

polyatomic ion that includes oxygen is in the formula.


9.5

Prefixes in a name generally indicate that the compound is molecular.

A Roman numeral after the name of a cation shows the ionic charge of the cation.

Practicing Skills: Naming Chemical Compounds9.5


9.5


8.4

chemistry

It helps to know the percents of the components in a shirt because they affect how warm it is, whether it will need to be ironed, and how it should be cleaned. You will learn how the percents of the elements in a compound are important in chemistry.

Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas10.3

The Percent Composition of a Compound◦How do you calculate the percent by mass of an element in a compound?

The Percent Composition of a Compound

10.3

The percent by mass of an element in a compound is the number of grams of the element divided by the mass in grams of the compound, multiplied by 100%.


10.3

◦Percent Composition from Mass Data The relative amounts of the elements in

a compound are expressed as the percent composition or the percent by mass of each element in the compound.


10.3

10.9

10.9

10.9

10.9

for Sample Problem 10.9

Problem Solving 10.33 Solve Problem 33 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.

◦ Percent Composition from the Chemical Formula


10.3

10.10

10.10

10.10

10.10


Problem Solving 10.34 Solve Problem 34 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.

◦Percent Composition as a Conversion FactorYou can use percent composition to calculate the number of grams of any element in a specific mass of a compound.


10.3

Propane (C3H8) is 81.8% carbon and 18% hydrogen. You can calculate the mass of carbon and the mass of hydrogen in an 82.0 g sample of C3H8.


10.3

Empirical Formulas◦What does the empirical formula of a compound show?

Empirical Formulas10.3

The empirical formula gives the lowest whole-number ratio of the atoms of the elements in a compound. The empirical formula of a compound

shows the smallest whole-number ratio of the atoms in the compound.


Ethyne (C2H2) is a gas used in welder’s torches. Styrene (C8H8) is used in making polystyrene.

These two compounds of carbon have the same empirical formula (CH) but different molecular formulas.


10.11

10.11

10.11

10.11


Problem-Solving 10.37 Solve Problem 37 with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.

Molecular Formulas◦How does the molecular formula of a

compound compare with the empirical formula?


◦The molecular formula of a compound is either the same as its experimentally determined empirical formula, or it is a simple whole-number multiple of its empirical formula.



Methanal, ethanoic acid, and glucose all have the same empirical formula—CH2O.


10.12

10.12

10.12

10.12


EXTRA on Metallic Bonding

◦You have probably seen decorative fences, railings, or weathervanes made of a metal called wrought iron. In this section, you will learn how metallic properties derive from the way that metal ions form bonds with one another.

Bonding in Metals7.3

Metallic Bonds and Metallic Properties◦How can you model the valence

electrons of metal atoms?

Metallic Bonds and Metallic Properties

7.3

The valence electrons of metal atoms can be modeled as a sea of electrons. The valence electrons are mobile and can drift freely from one part of the metal to another.

Metallic bonds consist of the attraction of the free-floating valence electrons for the positively charged metal ions.


7.3

Metals are ductile—that is, they can be drawn into wires.


7.3

A force can change the shape of a metal. A force can shatter an ionic crystal.


7.3

Crystalline Structure of Metals◦How are metal atoms arranged?

Crystalline Structure of Metals

7.3

These tomatoes have a closed-packed arrangement. Similar arrangements can be found in the crystalline structure of metals.


7.3

Metal atoms are arranged in very compact and orderly patterns.


7.3

Alloys◦Why are alloys important?

Alloys7.3

Alloys are mixtures composed of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. Alloys are important because their

properties are often superior to those of their component elements.

Alloys7.3

Bicycle frames are often made of titanium alloys that contain aluminum and vanadium.

Alloys7.3

The most important alloys today are steels. Steels have a wide range of useful properties, such as corrosion resistance, ductility, hardness, and toughness.

Alloys7.3

Education

Chemistry Unit 3 PPT