Biochemistry- The science concerned with the chemical constituents of living cells and with the reactions and processes they undergo.

•The aim of biochemistry is to describe and explain in molecular terms all chemical process of cells.

•Major objectives of biochemistry is the complete understanding of all of the chemical processes associates with living cells.

•A knowledge of biochemistry is essential.

GENETICS- Biochemistry of the nucleic acid PHYSIOLOGY- The study of body function overlaps with biochemistry. NUTRITION- needs biochemistry.

IMMUNOLOGY- employs numerous biochemical techniques. PHARMACOLOGY- study of drugs, most drugs are metabolized by enzyme catalyze reactions.

•A reciprocal relationship between biochemistry and medicine/ nursing.

 • Biochemistry research has impact on nutrition &prevention medicine.

-major prerequisite for the maintenance of health is that there be optional dietary intake of a number of

chemicals.

VitaminsAmino acidsFatty acidsMinerals

Water

•Most & perhaps all the disease has a biochemical bases. •The major cause of disease all of the causes listed by influencing the various biochemical mechanisms in the al or in the body

 

A.Physical Agents: Mechanical trauma, extreme of temperature,sudden change in atmospheric pressure Radiation ,electric shock.

B.Chemical Agents: including drugs certain tuxic compound therapeutic drugs etc.

C.Biological Agent:viruses,bacteria,fungi,higher forms of parasites.

D.Oxygen Lack: lose of blood supply,depletionof oxygen carrying,capacity of the blood,poisoning of the oxidation enzymes.

E. Genetic disorder: congenital molecular

F. Immunologic Reactions: apaphyloxis, autoimmune disease.

G. Nutritional Imbalance: Hormonal deficiencies, excesses.

H. Endocrine Imbalance: Hormonal deficiencies, excesses

Some uses of biochemical investigations and laboratory test in relation to disease

USES

1. To reveal the fundamentals causes and mechanisms of disease

2. To suggest rational treatments of disease based on (1) above

EXAMPLE Demonstration of the nature

of genetic detection cystic fibrous.

A diet low in phenylalanine

for treatment of phenylketonuria- a genetic disease

USES

3. To assist the diagnoses of specific disease

4. To act as screening test for the early diagnosis of certain disease.

EXAMPLE

Use of the plasma enzyme creatine kinase MB (CK-MB) in the diagnosis of Myocardial Infarction – cell death in the heart.

Use of treatment of blood

Thyroxine or Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) in the neonatal diagnosis of congenital hypothyroidism.

USES

5. To assist monitoring the progress (i.e. recovery, worsening, remission or release) of certain diseases.

6. To assist in assessing the response of diseases to therapy sets.

EXAMPLE

• Use of the plasma enzyme alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in monitoring the progress of Infectious Hepatitis.

• • Use of measurement of

blood carceno embryonic antigen (CEA) in certain patients who have been treated for colon cancer.

Biochemistry is the science concerned with studying the various molecules that occur in living cells and organisms and with their chemical reactions.Biochemistry has become the basic language of all biologic science. It is concerned with the entire spectrum of life forms, from relatively simple viruses and bacteria to complex human beings.

SUMMARY

SUMMARY

Biochemistry and medicines are intimately related. Health depends on a harmonious balance of biochemical reaction occurring in the body and disease reflects abnormalities in biomolecules, biochemical reaction and biochemical processes.

An advanced biochemical knowledge has illuminated many areas of medicines and nursing. Conversely, the study of diseases have oft en related previously unsuspected aspects of biochemistry. The determinati on of the sequence of the human genome, nearly completes, will have a great impact on all areas of biology, including biochemistry, bioinformati cs and biotechnology.

SUMMARYBiochemical approaches are often fundamental in illuminating the causeof disease and in designing appropriate therapies.

The judicious use of various biochemical laboratory test is an integral component of diagnosis and monitoring of treatment.

A sound of knowledge of biochemistry and of other related basis discipline is essential for the national ,nursing and related health science.

AMINO ACIDS• They are molecules containing an amine group ,

a carboxyl acid group, and a side chain that is specific to each amino acid.

• The key element of amino acids are carbon, hydrogen ,oxygen and nitrogen.

• Amino acids are basic structural building units of protein and other biomolecules; they are also utilize as an energy source.

ALANINEMain Functions:

Important source of energy for muscle.The primary amino acid in sugar metabolism.immune system by producing antibodiesMajor part of connective tissue

ARGININEMain Functions:

Essential for normal immune system activity.Necessary for wound healing.Assists with regeneration of damaged liver.Necessary for production and release of growth hormoneIncreases release of insulin and glucagon. Arginine is the most potent amino acid in releasing insulin.Assists in healing through collagen synthesisPrecursor to GABA, an important inhibitory neurotransmitterAids in wound healingDecreases size of tumors.Necessary for spermatogenesis.

ASPARTIC ACID• Main Functions:

Aspartic Acid is interconvertible with Asparagine, and therefore the two amino acids have many functions in common.

Increases stamina. One of the two main excitatory amino acids, the other being

Glutamate (Glutamic Acid). Helps protect the liver by aiding the removal of ammonia. Involved in DNA and RNA metabolism. Involved in immune system function by enhancing immunoglobulin

production and anti- body formation.

ASPARAGINEMain Functions:

Asparagine is made from Aspartic Acid plus ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate).

One of the two main excitatory neurotransmitters. Glutamate, made from glutamic acid, is the other. Among their functions as neurotransmitters, of particular interest is the fact that

Aspartic Acid and Asparagine have high concentrations in the hippocampus and the hypothalamus. The hippocampus is a part of the brain that plays the main role in short-term memory, while the hypothalamus is involved in the biology of emotion, and serves as a neurological gate between the brain and the rest of the nervous system.

Aids in removing ammonia from the body. May increase indurance and decrease fatigue. Detoxifies harmful chemicals. Involved in DNA synthesis. Probably stimulates thymus gland.

CYSTEINE-CYSTINEMain Functions:

Cysteine and Cystine are interconvertible. Two molecules of Cysteine make Cystine.Antioxidant.Protective against radiation, pollution, ultra-violet light and other causes of increased free radical production.Natural detoxifier.Essential in growth, maintenance, and repair of skin.Key in hair.One of the 3 main sulfur-containing amino acids, along with Taurine and Methionine.Major constituent of Glutathione, an important tripeptide made up of Cystine, Glutamic Acid, and Glycine.Precursor to the amino acid Taurine.Precursor to Chondroitin Sulfate, the main component of cartilage.

GLUTAMIC ACID• Main Functions:

Glutamic Acid is a precursor to Glutamine and GABA (2 neurotransmitters).

One of two excitatory neurotransmitters, the other being aspartic acid/asparagine.

Excesses in brain tissue can call cell damage. This is thought to be one of the mechanisms by why strokes kill brain cells; that is through the release of large amounts of Glutamic Acid.

Helps stop alcohol and sugar cravings. Increases energy. Accelerates wound healing and ulcer healing. Detoxifies ammonia in the brain by forming glutamine, which can

cross the blood-brain barrier, which Glutamic Acid cannot do. Plays major role in DNA synthesis.

GLYCINE

• Main Functions: Part of the stucture of hemoglobin. One of the two main inhibitory neurotransmitters, the

other being GABA. Part of cytochromes, which are enzymes involved in energy

production. Inhibits sugar cravings. One of the 3 critical glycogenic amino acids, along with

serine and alanine. Involved in glucagon production, which assists in glycogen

metabolism.

GLUTAMINE• Main Functions:

Precursor to the neurotransmitter GABA. This is a vital function, as GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that produces serenity and relaxation.Important glycogenic amino acid, meaning that it is essential for helping to maintain normal and steady blood sugar levels.Involved with muscle strength and indurance.Essential to gastrointestinal function; provides energy to the small intestines. The intestines are the only organ in the body that uses Glutamine as its primary source of energy.Glutamine has the highest blood concentration of all the amino acids.Precursor to the neurotransmitter amino acid Glutamate (Glutamic Acid).Involved in DNA synthesis.

HISTIDINE• Main Functions:

Found in high concentrations in hemoglobin. Useful in treating anemia due to relationship

to hemoglobin. Has been used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Precursot to histamine. Associated with allergic response and has

been used to treat allergy. Assists in maintaining proper blood pH.

ISOLEUCINE

• Main Functions:• One of the 3 major Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAA), all of

which are involved with muscle strength, endurance, and muscle stamina.Muscle tissue uses Isoleucine as an energy source.Required in the formation of hemoglobin.BCAA levels are significantly decreased by insulin. Translation: High dietary sugar or glucose intake causes release of insulin, which, in turn, causes a drop in BCAA levels. Therefore, right before exercise, it is not wise to ingest foods high in glucose or other sugars, as the BCAA's, including Isoleucine will not be readily available to muscles.

LEUCINE

Main Functions:As one of the 3 branched-chain amino acids (the

other 2 being Isoleucine and Valine), Leucine has all of the properties discussed with Isoleucine, as it pertains specifically to the branched-chain amino acid functions.

Potent stimulator of insulin.Helps with bone healing.Helps promote skin healing.Modulates release of Enkephalins, which are natural

pain-reducer

LYSINE• Main Functions:

Inhibits viral growth and, as a result, is used in the treatment of Herpes Simplex, as well as the viruses associated with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, such as:

Epstein-Barr Virus, CytoMegalo Virus, and HHV6. L-Carnitine is formed from Lysine and Vitamin C. Helps form collagen, the connective tissue present in

bones, ligaments, tendons, and joints. Assists in the absorption of calcium. Essential for children, as it is critical for bone formation. Involved in hormone production. Lowers serum triglyceride levels.

PHENYLALANINE• Main Functions:

Precursor to Tyrosine, which, in turn, is the precursor to the neurotransmitters: Dopamine and the excitatory neurotransmitters

Norepinephrine and Epinephrine. Precursor to the hormone, Thyroxine. Enhances mood, clarity of thought, concentration, and memory. Suppresses appetite. Major part of collagen formation. While the L-form of all of the other amino acids is the one that is

beneficial to people, the D and DL forms of Phenylalanine have been useful in treating pain. DL-Phenylalanine is useful in reducing arthritic pain. Powerful anti-depressant. Used in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease.

PROLINE

Main Functions:Critical component of cartilage , and hence

health of joints, tendons and ligaments.Involved in keeping heart muscle strong.

The main precursor to Proline is Glutamate.Secondary precursor to Proline is Ornithine

(minor amino acid).Works in conjunction with Vitamin C in

keeping skin and joints healthy.

SERINE• Main Functions:

One of the 3 most important glycogenic amino acids, the others being alanine and glycine.

Critical in maintaining blood sugar levels. Boosts immune system by assisting in production of antibodies

and immunoglobulins. Myelin sheath (the fatty acid complex that surrounds the axons

of nerves is derived from serine. One variation of Serine namely Phosphotidyl Serine, a minor amino acid serves several

important functions within the central nervous system, including development of the myelin sheath. Multiple Sclerosis is one of the so-called "De-myelinating Diseases.“

Required for growth and maintenance of muscle.The amino acid Glycine is a precursor to Serine and the two are interconvertible.

THREONINE• Main Functions:

Required for formation of collagen. Helps prevent fatty deposits in the liver. Aids in production of antibodies. Can be converted to Glycine (a neurotransmitter) in the central

nervous system. Acts as detoxifier. Needed by the GI (gastrointensinal) tract for normal functioning. Provides symptomatic relife in ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Lou

Gehrig's Disease). In laboratory experiments with animals, Threonine increases thymus

weight. Threonine is often low in depressed patients. In that group of patients, Threonine is helpful in treating the depression.

TRYPTOPHAN• Main Functions:

Precursor to the key neurotransmitter, serotonin, which exerts a calming effect.

Effective sleep aid, due to conversion to serotonin. Reduces anxiety. Effective in some forms of depression. Treatment for migraine headaches. Stimulates growth hormone. Along with Lysine, Carnitine, and Taurine is effective in lowering

cholesterol levels. Can be converted into niacin (Vitamin B3). Lowers risk of arterial spasms. The only plasma amino acid that is bound to protein.

TYROSINE• Main Functions:

Precursor to neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine (adrenaline) and melanin.

Effective anti-depressant for norepinephrine-deficient depressions. Tyrosine is preferred over Phenylalanine, which is also a precursor to all of the above neurotransmitters.

Phenylalanine is one step removed from the metabolic process, and can aggravate high blood pressure.

Precursor to thyroxine and growth hormone. Increases energy, improves mental clarity and concentration. Requires pyridoxal-5-phosphate (P5P) a form of vitamin B6 to be

converted into norepinephrine. P5P deficiency will lower norepinephrine levels, even if Tyrosine levels are normal.

TAURINEMain Functions:

In the nervous system, stabilizes cell membranes, which raises the seizure threshhold, and helps treat epileptic seizures.

Acts as inhibitory neurotransmitter and is as potent as Glycine and GABA. Anti-convulsant effect is long-lasting and can be confirmed both clinically and by

repeat EEG's (electroencephalograms). Anti-oxidant. Slows down the aging process by neutralizing free radicals. Highest concentration of Taurine is in the heart. Reduces risk of gall stones by combining with bile acids to make them water

soluble. Involved in stabilization of heart rhythm. Loss of intracellular Taurine in the heart

leads to arrhythmias. Useful in treatment of Congestive Heart Failure (CHF). Strenghtens neutrophils (white blood cells/part of immune system) in their ability

to kill bacteria. Useful in brain injury Decreases cholesterol levels (along with Lysine, Carnitine, and Tryptophan). Highly concentrated in the eye.

PROTEINS

• Polymer L-amino acids• Functionally diverse

molecules . e.g. metabolism , transport, cell communication , movement, “scaffolding”.

SUMMARY

• Amino Acids, the building blocks of all type of proteins either structural or physiological , are not only important biologically but they have numerous industrial application as well. They are use in variety of ways in human food., animal feeds, medicine and chemical production. Increasing amounts of theses amino acids produced every year. According to the latest reports the current production of L-amino acids has raised to 2 million metric tons annually. It is important to point out here that L- amino acids are required to all biological systems for their growth and development. Large amount of L- amino acids are required to cope with the country’s industrial and biological needs.

Cell and Cell Organelles

Cell

• Is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organism

• It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing

• Is often called the building block of life

• Comes from a Latin word called “ cella “ meaning “ small room “

Types of Cells• Prokaryotic Cell• Organisms can be classified as

unicellular ( consisting of a single cell, including most of bacteria)

• Eukaryotes• Are multicellular ( including plants and animal )

• Humans contain about 100 trillion 1014 cell

• Most plant and animals are between 1 and 100 micrometers once therefore are visible only under the microscope

The Cell Theory

The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.

Matthias JakobSchleiden and Theodor Schwann

•Develop the first theory in 1839•States that all organisms are composed of one or more cells that all cells come from pre-existing cells that vital function of an organism occur within the cells and that all cells contain the heredity information necessary for regulating cell function and for transmitting information to the next generation of cell.

Prokaryotes

• Is simpler and therefore smaller than a eukaryotes cell

• Including a nucleus and most of the other organelles of eukaryotes

Three architectural regions of Prokaryotes

• On the outside flagella and pili

• Project from the cell surface. There are structures ( that are not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cell.

• Enclosing the cell is the cell envelops.

Three architectural regions of

Prokaryotes

• Generally consisting of a cell wall covering a plasma membrane through some bacteria also have a further covering layers called “ CAPSULE”

• The envelop gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior cell from its environment serving as a protective filter

• The cell wall consists of peptigolycan in bacteria and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and finally bursting( cytolysis ) from osmotic pressure against a hypertonic environment. Some eukaryotes cell ( plants and funga cells ) have cell wall

• Inside the cell is a cytoplasmic region that contains the ” CELL GENOME” ( DNA ) and “RIBOSOME” and various sorts of inclusions all cell also have a “CELL WALL MEMBRANE”

• Through not forming a nucleus the DAN is condensed in a “NUCLEOID”

• Which gives the cell its shape and attached it to another cell

• Is the gate way to and from the cell allowing only a certain thing to pass in either direction and even actively transporting some things in a selective fashion

• Also received many of the control signals from around the body and transmits there signal to the interior of the cell

• Prokaryotes can carry extra choromosomal elements called “PLASMID” which are usually PLASMIDS enable additional function such as antibiotic resistance

Eukaryotes

• These cell are about 15 times wider than a typical prokaryotes and can be as much as 1000 times greater to volume ( paramisium )

Nucleus Is a membrane enclosed organelles found in eukaryotic cells.It contains most of the cell genetic material organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of protein such as histones to form chromosomes located at the center of the cell.

Function

•Contains genetic material ( DNA ) and nucleolus site of rRNA and mRNA synthesis.•Serve as the control center because the DNA is concentrated within it.

Note:The structure coded within the nucleus DNA are actually executed within the cytoplasm the portion of the cell outside the nucleus.

Cytoplasm

•Is a watery medium containing many structure so small that they can be seen only with an electric microscope.

Note:These ultramicroscopic organs are called organelles.

Mitochondria

•The power generator of the cell.•Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various number, shapes and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cell.•Within them various food suffs are oxidized to produce the driving force for another activities.

Location•Cytoplasm

Function

Major cite of ATP synthesis and cite of aerobic respiration ( TCA cycle )Deveted to energy production within the cellThey are power plant of the cell.

Reminder

•It plays a critical role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell

•It generates the cell energy by oxidative phosphorylation using oxygen

•To release energy stored in cellular nutrients ( typically pertaining to glucose ) to generate ATP.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

•Constitute a source of manufuring processing and plumbing system within the cytoplasm

•Is a network of interconnecting tubules and cisterms

•Is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain modification and specific destination as compound to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm

•Protein synthesis is carried out by the organelles under the control of RNA in the ribosomes

The E.R has two forms

•Rough E.R•Which has ribosomes on its surface and secretes protein into the cytoplasm

•Smooth E.R•Which has no ribosomes smooth E.R plays a roles in calcium secretration and release.

Ribosomes

•Is a larges complex of RNA and protein molecules. They each consists of two subunlit and act as an assembly line where RNA form the nucleus is used to synthesis proteins from amino acids.

•RNA, a nucleic acid, is produced in the nucleus during transcription.

•Messenger RNA (mRNA) acts as a disposable copy of the information written in the DNA. It carries the information for the amino acid sequence of a protein.

•Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) combines with specific proteins to form the two pieces of a working ribosome. 

•The contents of the nucleus are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane.

Ribosomes help to make proteins

Ribosomes are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes can be found in different locations and forms:•Single ribosomes floating freely in the cytoplasm•Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Golgi Apparatus

•Is a closely related array of flattened cisterns and associated vesicles.

•Is to process and packages the macromoles such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell for export ( secretion ) or for storage with in the cell.

Lysosomes and peroxisomes

•Lysosomes

•Are membrane bound package of digestive enzymes prepared by the cell and held inactive until needed.

•Contain digestive enzymes ( acidhydrolesis ) they digest excess or worn out organelles food particles and engulfed viruses or bacteria

PeroxisomesHave enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides.

BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANE

• Is on enclosing or separating membrane that acts as a selective barrier, within or around a cell.

• CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEMBRANES

• -lipids (40% of dry weight)• -proteins (60% of dry weight)• -carbohydrates (1 to 10% of dry weight) • NOTE: All membrane carbohydrate is covalently attach

to protein or lipids.

Types of Membranes

• Plasma Membrane• Nuclear Membrane• Outer Mitochondrial Membrane• Inner Mitochondrial Membrane• Endoplasmic Reticulum• Myelin

• NOTE: It all contains lipid, protein, carbohydrates

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEMBRANES

(lipids,proteins,carbohydrates)

A.LIPIDS

Basic structural components of cell membrane.

Lipid molecules have a “polar” or ionic head hence hydrophilic and the other end is a “non polar” and hydrophobic tail. Hence they are amphipathic.

TYPES OF LIPIDS PRESENT IN BIO-MEMBRANES

1.Fatty Acids- they are major components of most membrane lipids. The non-polar tails of most membrane lipids are long chain fatty acids attached to polar head groups, such as glycerol.

• NOTE: About 50% of the fatty acid groups are saturated (they contain no double bond).

• The other half of fatty acid molecules are unsaturated or polysaturated fatty acids (contain one or more double bonds.)

• Oleic Acid is the most abundant unsaturated fatty acid

in animal membrane lipids.

Others are: Archidonic acid, Linocleic acid and Linolenic acid

• The degree of unsaturation determines the fluidity of the membrane.

2.Glycerophospholipids-they are another group of major component of Bio membranes

• Example are:

• Phosphatidyl ethanol amine (cephain)• Phosphatidyl choline (lecithin)• Phosphatidyl serine

3.Sphingolipids- they are found specially in the tissues of the nervous system

• Types of Sphingolipids:• Sphingomyelin• Cerebroside• Gangliosides

• NOTE: About 6% of the membrane lipids of grey mater cells in the brain are ‘CONGLIOSIDES’

4.Cholesterol- is another common component of

the biomembranes of animals but not of planes and prokaryotes

B.PROTEINS Types of Membrane Proteins

• Integral Membrane Proteins• Peripheral Membrane Proteins• Trans Membrane Proteins

INTEGRAL MEMBRANE PROTEIN

• Also called “INTRINSIC” membrane proteins

• This are deeply embedded in the membrane, Thus portions of these proteins are in ‘Van der walls contact’ with the hydrophobic region if the membrane.

INTEGRAL MEMBRANE PROTEIN

PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS

• Also called “EXTRINSIC” proteins• This may be weakly bound to the surface of

the membrane by ionic interactions or by hydrogen bonds that form between proteins and the polar heads of the membrane lipids.

• They may also interact with integral membrane proteins

PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS

TRANS MEMBRANE PROTEINS

• The hydrophilic side chains of amino acids are embedded in the hydrophobic central core of the membrane. These proteins can serve as “receptor” for hormones, neurotransmitters, tissue specific antigens, growth factors, etc.

TRANS MEMBRANE PROTEINS

TYPES OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS

C.CARBOHYDRATES Many membrane proteins are glycosylated, having one or more covalently attached polysaccharides chains. The carbohydrate coat is called “GLYCOCALYX” These chains may contain the mono-saccharides, D-galactose, D-monnose, L-fucos, and the derivatives like N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylneuraminic acid

Carbohydrates

-Major constituents of animal food and animal tissues and it is characterized by type or number of molecules.

GLUCOSE

-The most important Carbohydrates, source of energy.- Most metabolic fuel of mammals and s universal fuel

of the fetus.

-Is the precussor for synthesis of all other carbohydrates in the body including: A.Glycogen : found in liver B.Ribose and deoxyribose: in nucleic acidC.Galactose in lactose of milk, in glycolipids and in combination with protein in glycoproteins and proteglycons.

• DISEASES associated with Carbohydrates metabolism include:

A. Diabetes Mellitus B. GalactosemiaC. Glycogen storage diseaseD. Lactose Intolerance

CHO are ALDEHYDE OR KETONE DERIVATIVES OF POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOLS

Classification of CHO:

• Monosaccharides- CHO that cannot be hydrolyzed into simple CHO

TrisosesTetrosesPentosesHexosesHeptoses

PENTOSES OF PHYSIOLOGIC IMPORTANCE

Pentoses of Physiologic Importance

• D- Ribose- Source: Nucleic acid and metabolic intermediate

Biochemical Importance: Structural component of nucleic acid and co

enzymes including ATP, NAD (P) and flavin co enzymes

• D- ribulose

Source: Metabolic intermediate

Biochemical Importance: Intermediate in the pentose phosphate

pathway

• D- xylose

Source: Plant gums, proteoglycans,glycosamino,glycans

Biochemical Importance:Constituents of glycoproteins

• L- xylulose

Source: Metabolic Intermediate

Biochemical Importance: Excreted in urine pentosuria

• D- Glucose

Source: Fruit juices hydrolysis of starch, cane or beet sugar, maltose and lactose

• Clinical Importance: -The main metabolic fuel for tissues “ blood sugar” -Excreted in urine (glycosuria) in poorly controlled

diabetes mellitus as a result of hyperglycemia

• D- galactose

Source: Hydrolysis of lactose

• Clinical Importance: Readily metabolized to glucose synthesized in the mammary gland for synthesis of lactose in milk. A constituents of glycolipids and glycoproteins

• Hereditary galactosemia as a result of a failure to metabolized galactose leads to cataract.

• D- fructose

Source: Fruit juices, honey hydrolysis of cane beet sugar and insulin enzyme.

Clinical Importance: Readily either via glucose or directly hereditary fructose intolerance leads to fructose accumulation and hypoglycemia

Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols

1. Monosaccharides- simple sugar the physiologically important monosaccharides include:

a. glucose – the “blood sugar” andb. ribose- on important constituents of nucleotides and

nucleic acids 2. Disaccharides – two simple sugar (monosaccharide

unit) joined by dehydration system.

BSN- 1A

A.Y. 2013-1014Rozelle Mae Birador

Jasmin de LaraCrisford de GuzmanPaul Joseph Molina