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AP Biology Rapid Learning Series - 20
© Rapid Learning Inc. All rights reserved. :: http://www.RapidLearningCenter.com 1
Rapid Learning CenterChemistry :: Biology :: Physics :: Math
Rapid Learning Center Presents …p g
Teach Yourself AP Biology in 24 Hours
*AP is a registered trademark of the College Board, which does not endorse, nor is affiliated in any way with the Rapid Learning courses.
A i l F tiAnimal Function
AP Biology Rapid Learning Series
Rapid Learning Centerwww.RapidLearningCenter.com/© Rapid Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
AP Biology Rapid Learning SeriesWayne Huang, PhD
Andrew Graham, PhDElizabeth James, PhD
Casandra Rauser, PhD Jessica Habashi, PhD
Sara Olson, PhDJessica Barnes, PhD
AP Biology Rapid Learning Series - 20
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Learning Objectives
Energy Source: Nutrition, Digestion and Respiration
By completing this tutorial, you will learn about:
Circulation and DefenseReproduction and DevelopmentSensor and Movement
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Animal Function Concept Map
DevelopmentAnimal
DigestionNervous System
ReproductionReproduction
Immune ResponseImmune
Response
Defense Sensory
InflammatoryInflammatoryResponse
Ingest Food
Respiration
Oxygen
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NutrientsCirculation
Response
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Energy Source
NutritionDi ti
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DigestionRespiration
Animal Nutrients
Major nutrients include carbohydrates and
proteins.Other essential nutrients
include nonessential amino acids: tryptophan,
Vitamins are required in smaller amounts than
amino acids: tryptophan, methionine, valine, histidine, theronine,
phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and lysine.
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smaller amounts than amino acids but are
essential. Minerals are chemical elements other
than C, H, O and N. Ca and P are the two types required
in large amounts.
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Animal Nutrition Uptake■ Macromolecules need to be broken down to small nutrition molecules for body to uptake.
■ Feeding Types:■ Feeding Types:
■ Omnivores: Animals feeding on multiple types of food, e.g. human
■ Herbivores: Animals only eat plants
■ Carnivores: Animals only eat other animals
Omnivores
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Herbivores Carnivores
Food Processing StagesFood processing stages:
• Ingestion: taking the food in.• Digestion: breaking the food down into small units.• Absorption: nutrient molecules are absorbed
Ingestion
• Absorption: nutrient molecules are absorbed.• Elimination: undigested waste is passed out.
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Digestions & Absorption
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Digestion in StomachFood enters the stomach and is broken apart by a process called heuristic churning and mixed with digestive fluid (having HCl and digestive enzymes).Small molecules like glucose or alcohol pass through the stomach directly into the blood streamthrough the stomach directly into the blood stream.
Gastric Glands:• Mucous Cells: secret mucous for lubrication• Chief Cells: secrets pepsinogen (inactive)• Parietal Cells: secrets HCl which
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HCl + Pepsinogen (inactive) Pepsin (active)
Parietal Cells: secrets HCl which breaks down food• Pepsin: digest proteins into smaller peptides.
Digestion in Small Intestine
LiverSmall Intestine: the major organ for chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
Pancreas
p
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Small intestine
Liver: Makes bile which makes fat more susceptible to enzyme attack.
Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and alkaline solutions which neutralize food mixtures from stomach.
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Small Intestine in Detail
The intestine goes from the stomach to the anus. The small intestine is divided into the
Nutrients are absorbed in the lumen. In the glandular epithelium are goblet cells that secrete mucus which lubricates food passage. Villi increase the surface area of the intestines. divided into the
duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
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Large surface area - facilitate absorption:• Plicae Circulares: Folds of submucosa which serve to increase surface area. • Villus (Villi): Finger-like projections on the small intestine wall.• Microvilli: Many tiny projections on epithelial cells which form villi.
Small Intestine Breakdown Products
The small intestine is responsible for carbohydrate breakdown to maltose and monosaccharide. Proteins are broken
down into amino acids.
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Nucleic acids are broken down into nucleotides, nitrogen bases, sugars and phosphates. Fats are broken down to
fat droplets and fatty acids and glycerols.
Only small molecules can be absorbed in the small intestine.
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Nutrition Question
Nutrients are needed for body
function what else d d?
Oxygen
do we need?
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Gas exchange happens in the lung. When rib
cage enlarges, air
Respiration: Inhale O2, Exhale CO2Trachea
Left Lung
comes in and shrinks air out. Bronchus
Right Lung
Bronchiole
Alveoli
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Breathing is automatically controlled by
centers in the brain.
Right Lung
The lung structure includes: trachea,
bronchus, bronchiole and alveoli. Most gas
exchange occurs at the alveoli.
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Oxygen and CO2 Transport
• Hemoglobin is a iron containing oxygen transport metalloprotein.• It is found in the red blood cell.• Hemoglobin transports oxygen
• Hemoglobin is a tetramer, made up of four protein subunits. Each heme group binds one oxygen molecule.• Gas exchange happens at the alveoli which is permeable to gas
• Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs or gills to the rest of the body.
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alveoli which is permeable to gas. • Oxygenated blood is bright red. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red.
Circulation and Defense
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Cardiovascular SystemHeart Structure
■ Left Ventricle■ Right Ventricle Pulmonary artery
Superior Vena Cava
Aorta
■ Left Atrium■ Right Atrium■ Pulmonary artery■ Pulmonary Veins■ Superior Vena Cava■ Inferior Vena Cava■ Atrioventricular Valve
Left AtriumRight Atrium
y y
Semilunar Valve
Pulmonary Veins
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Valve■ Semilunar Valve■ Aorta
Right Ventricle
Left ventricleInferior Vena CavaAtrioventricular Valve
Blood CirculationBlood circulation can be divided into two
circuits, the pulmonary circuit and th t i i it
Pulmonary CircuitA circuit of blood circulation between lung and heartFunction: 1) S d CO t l
Pulmonary Circuit
LungCO2
O2
O2
CO2
the systemic circuit. 1) Send CO2 to lung2) Get O2 from lung
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Systemic Circuit
Tissue O2
O2CO2
CO2
Systemic CircuitA circuit of blood circulation between heart and other part of bodyFunction: 1) Bring CO2 to heart2) Send O2 to tissues
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Cardiac CycleThe cardiac cycle consists of three stages of alternating relaxation and
contraction of the heart.
Atria systole: contraction of the atria and blood
DiastoleDiastole: heart is relaxed and blood flows in.
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of the atria and blood moves into the ventricles.
SystoleVentricular systole: ventricles contract and O2 rich blood moves into the aorta artery. CO2rich blood moves into the pulmonary artery.
Body Defense: Nonspecific
Nonspecific defense proteins and cells
Categorized into nonspecific defense and immune response.
Neutrophil
■ White Blood Cells: engulf bacteria and virus and infected tissues
Neutrophils Monocytes MacrophagesLymphocyteEosinophilBasophil
Monocyte
Lymphocyte
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■ Proteins:Interferons: produced by infected
tissues for fighting the virus.Complement: Circulate in blood
for making microbes more susceptible to macrophage. Basophil
Eosinophil
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Inflammatory Response
Inflammatory response is a major component of nonspecific immune response.
Tissue injury results in the release of chemical signals like histamine. This causes blood vessel dilation and an increase of local blood vessels, migration of phagocytes in the areas (s elling redness)response. areas (swelling, redness).
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Phagocytes consume bacteria and cell debris resulting in wound repair.
Immune Response
Resistance to specific invaderscontains two interactive immune response: B cell
Humoral
T cell
Cellular
response:
■ The humoral immune response:
-- Detects antigens in blood stream
-- Involves antibodies generated by B cells
Plasma Cell
Antibodies
T cell
T cell attacks infected cell
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■ The cellular immune response:
-- Detect antigens that reside within or on cells.
-- Involves T cells.
Binding toAntigen
Antigen Destroyed
x Infected cell lysis
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Antibody and B Cells
AntigenThere is an enormous amount of binding antigen diversity in antibodies. This is due to the process
Antibody reservoirAntigen binding stimulates cell division
One dominant cell type
of clonal selection.
•There is a variety of B cells in low numbers.• Antigens binding the B cell stimulates one type of B cell
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Plasma cell
to divide and differentiate into plasma cells. • Because of clonal selection these antigen specific cells will dominate.
Primary and Secondary ResponseAntibody reservoir Antigen
Mitosis
Primary response: Lymphocytes are first exposed to the antigen and form a clone of plasma cells which produce antibodies
Memory B cellPlasma cell
which produce antibodies.
Secondary response involves a subsequent exposure to the same antigen. This will trigger a stronger
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Memory B cell
Large clone of cells
trigger a stronger immune response.
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Cell Mediated Response
There are three types of T cells:• Cytotoxic T cells - attack body cells that are
infected with virus.• Suppressor T cell - inhibit other T and B cell• Suppressor T cell - inhibit other T and B cell
activity. It is responsible for terminating immune activity after the infection is eliminated.
• Helper T cells - activates other T and B cells for antibody production.
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Killer T cells directly attack other cells having foreign or abnormal antigens on their surfaces.
Immune System Summary
Monocytes Monocytes
AntibodiesMacrophagesB cells
Secondary
NeutrophilsNeutrophils
Interferon
Inflammatory
Eosinophil
Cytotoxic Cytotoxic T cell
Complement
Humoral Response
Primary responsePrimary responseSecondary Response
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Inflammatory response
Helper T cell
Suppressor T cell
Nonspecific Response Specific Immune Response
Cell-mediated ResponseBasophil
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What is Clonal Selection?
What is clonal selection? Clonal selection is a
process for antigen to stimulate cell divisionstimulate cell division of a corresponding B
cell, therefore this specific B cell number increase significantly
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Development and Reproduction
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Reproductive - Development
Sperm and Ova Formation: Meiosis
Mating to Form ZygotesMating to Form Zygotes
Embryo Development
Child Born Process
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Growth Stages
Adults
Sperm and Ova FormationSperm is developed in coiled
tubes called seminiferous tubules in the testes.
Ova are formed in the ovary. Both sperms and ova are produced during meiosis.
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Embryo Development
Zygote Three layered Three-layered embryo
CleavageBlastula
SpermsSperms
Ovum
Fertilization Gastrulation
Cleavage: Blastula
Mature embryo
Organ formationCleavage: Blastula
is formed, gastrulation cells divide into three
layers: ectoderm, endoderm and
mesoderm.
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Organ Formation: Endoderm leads to digestive tract, liver, pancreas, thyroid, parathyroids thymus, lining of bladder.
Ectoderm: skin and central nervous system, Mesoderm: internal organs,
skeletal/muscular system.
Blastulation
Morula Blastula
The blastula is an early stage of embryonic development in animals. It is formed by cleavage of a fertilized ovum. It is made up of a spherical layer of cells surrounding a fluid filled
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spherical layer of cells surrounding a fluid filled cavity called the blastocoel.
The blastula follows the morula and is before gastrula.
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Gastrulation is an invagination of cells during the blastula phase of development to form a digestive cavity – called archenteron and two separate germ layers called an ectoderm and (internal endoderm) often a mesoderm develops between them
Gastrulation
them.
There is only one opening to the digestive cavity which is known as the blastopore.
The germ layers differentiate to form tissues and organs.
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What is Gastrulation?
What is gastrulation
?
Gastrulation is a developmental stage for embryos, it generates three layers of cells which can further differentiate
into organs.
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Sense andSense and Nervous System
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Sensory Process
SoundSoundElectrical Electrical
SignalSensory ReceptorSensory Receptor
LightFood
Sensory Smell
Sensory Neuron
yTransduction
Smell
Nerve SystemCentral
Nerve System
Motor Neuron
3 Types of Neurons1. Sensory neurons send
impulses toward the CNS away from the peripheral system.
2. Interneurons are the neurons lie entirely
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Effector(Action)to
the
ywithin the CNS.
3. Motor neurons: these nerve cells carry signals from the CNS to the effector cells in the peripheral system.
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Sensory Receptors
Mechanical and chemical receptors detect temperature and pressure. They also detect muscle contraction and blood pressure. They are
Auditory receptors are responsible for detecting pressure waves in the air.
p yresponsible for sensing taste, smell and body position.
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Optic receptors detect light over a broad range of wavelengths.
Potential on Sensory NeuronA nerve signal originates as a change in the resting potential.
Resting Potential■ The voltage across the plasma membrane of a restingplasma membrane of a resting neuron
■ Inside of cell is negative and outside is positive
■ The resting potential is maintained by ions
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Inside of cell
outside
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Action Potential■ A nerve signal
Threshold Potential■ A change in the potential that is big enough to initiate a nerve signal
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Synapse and Neuron CommunicationAction potentialAction potential
Synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the receiving neuron.
The binding opens ion channels in the receiving neuron
and generates a new action potential y py p
NeurotransmitterReleasing
Neurotransmitter
Accepting and binding of Accepting and binding of the neurotransmitter
Transmitting Neuron
The potential arrives at the synaptic cleft and releases
neuro-transmitters.
N
action potential.
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the neurotransmitter
New Action Potential
Receiving neuron
Neurons communicate at the synapse. An action
potential can regenerate itself
along the neuron.
Spinal CordSpinal cord connects the central nerve system and peripheral nerve system.
Sensory Cell Body Dorsal Root
Ganglion
y yWhite Matter
Gray Matter
Central Canal
Sensory axon
Receptor
Effector Spinal N
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Motor Cell BodyInterneuronMotor axon
Nerve
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Central Nervous System
C b ll
ForebrainBrain and Spinal Cord
The brain is made up of three parts.
Th b i t iBrainstem
Cerebellum The brainstem is the most primitive in the evolutionary chain. Important in life support and basic functions such as movement.
The cerebellum consists of two
hemispheres and integrates the
sensory perception and motor output
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and motor output.Forebrain the
most advanced in evolutionary
terms. Important for learning ability and creativity.
What is the Signal in a Neuron?
What form does a stimulus signal take in a neuron?
A stimulus signal exists as a potential charge across the plasma membranemembrane.
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Animal NutrientsAnimal
Nutrients
Learning Summary
Animal Sensory System and
Signal
Animal Sensory System and
SignalDigestion and Respiration
Digestion and Respiration
Animal Animal
Signal Transmission in Nerve System
Signal Transmission in Nerve System
AnimalAnimal
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Reproduction and
Development
Reproduction and
Development
Animal Circulation and
Defense System
Animal Circulation and
Defense System
Question: Review
_____ are animals that feed on multiple types of food. ___________Omnivores
The major organ for chemical ___________
___________
Small intestine
Pulmonary and systemic circuit
The major organ for chemical digestion and nutrient absorption.
Spinal cord connects the
The two circulation divisions of blood.
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___________Central, peripheralp
____ and _____ nerve systems.
The blastula is formed by _____ of a fertilized ovum. ___________Cleavage
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Congratulations
You have successfully completed the core tutorial
Animal Function
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