HUMAN ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY FINAL REVIEW

Anatomy: The study of the shape and structure of body parts.

Physiology: The branch of biological science that studies and describes how body parts work or function.

Levels of Structural Organization

Chemicals Cell Tissue

Organ Organ SystemOrganism

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL ORGANISMS

Made of Cells- All living things are made of one or more cells.

Growth and Development- Growth requires all living things to take in material from the environment and organize the material into its own structures. To accomplish growth, an organism expends some of the energy it acquires during metabolism.

Obtain and use energy (metabolism)- All Living things exhibit a

rapid turnover of chemical materials. Metabolism involves exchanges of chemical matter with the external environment and extensive transformations of organic matter within the cells of a living organism.

Respond to environment-All living things are able to respond to stimuli in the external environment. For example, living things respond to changes in light, heat, sound, and chemical and mechanical contact.

Reproduce-All living things have the ability to produce copies of themselves

*The four elements that make up the bulk of living matter:

Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen

Coronal/frontal: Separates the body into Anterior and Posterior parts

Median: Separates body into right and left parts

Transverse/horizontal: Separates the body into superior and inferior parts

Saggital: Any plane parallel to the median plane

Medial: Toward the midline of the body

Lateral: Pertaining to the side

Superior: Above

Inferior: Below

Superficial: Near the surface

Deep: Further from the surface

Palmar: Interior Surface of the hand

Plantar: Sole of the foot

Proximal: Toward the attached base of an organ or structure.

Distal: Away from the point of attachment

The Cell

Nucleus: Stores genetic information and controls the cell.Nucleolus: Makes Ribosomes

Mitochondria: Controls release of energy and forms ATP.

Lysosome: Digests bacteria in the cell

Peroxisomes: Detoxify toxins

Golgi apparatus: Packages proteins

Centriole: “Spin” the mitotic spindle

Smooth E.R.: Steroid synthesis

Rough E.R.: Attachment site for ribosomes and transports proteins

Microvilli: Increases the cell membrane surface area

Cell Membrane: Confines cell contents and regulates entry and exit of materials

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

Isotonic Solution: Water is continuously moving in and out of the cell

Hypertonic Solution: Water is moving out of the cell, causing the cell to deflate.

Hypotonic Solution: Water is moving into the cell, causing the cell to expand and rupture.

MITOSIS

1. Prophase: •Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers.•Chromosomes first appear to be duplex structures.•Chromatin coils and condenses to form deeply staining bodies•The nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear •The spindle forms through the migration of the centrioles

2. Metaphase:•Chromosomes align on the equator of the spindle

MITOSIS

3. Anaphase:•Centromeres break•Chromosomes begin to migrate toward opposite poles of the cell

4. Telophase:•When chromosomes cease poleward movement, this phase begins•Cleavage furrow forms•Nuclear membrane and nucleus reappear

5. Interphase•Mitosis process will begin again

SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES

Membrane Tissue type Location Function

Mucous Top layer: EpithelialBottom layer: Connective

Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive tract

Protect, lubricate, secrete, and absorb

Serous Top layer: EpithelialBottom layer: Connective

Ventral body cavities and organ linings

Lubricate

Cutaneous Top layer: EpithelialBottom layer: Connective

Body’s exterior Protects deeper body tissue from external hazards

Synovial Connective tissue

Joint cavity linings and bone ends

Lubricates to reduce friction

SKIN STRUCTUREBasic Skin Functions:•Protects deeper tissue from: -Mechanical Damage - Chemical Damage - Bacterial Damage - Ultraviolet Radiation - Heat/Cold Damage•Aids in body heat loss/ heat retention•Aids in excretion of salts, water, and urea.

PROTEINS FOUND IN SKIN

Keratin

Carotene

Melanin

Elastin

A. Yellow, reddish-brown, and black color. Produced when skin is exposed to sun. A localized concentration of this is a freckle.

B. Provides stretchiness to the skin.

C. Waterproofing protein, found in epidermal cells. Found in large amounts in hair and nails.

D. Factor in skin color, that comes from food. Orange-ish color.

A

B

C

D

Types Burns Rule of Nines

First Degree: Damage to epidermis. Redness, peeling skin, and slight pain and swelling. Example is sunburn.

Second Degree: Damage to epidermis and slight damage to dermis. Blisters, swelling, pain and charred skin. Example is touching a hot stove

Third Degree: destroys epidermis and dermis. Numbness, loss of skin and tissue. Example is burning in a fire.

A "Rule of Nines" chart is used to determine the total body surface area that has been burned. The

chart divides the body into sections that represent 9 percent of the

body surface area. 9% Head

9% each Arm18% each Leg

36% Torso1% Pubic Area

RESPONSE TO INJURY

1.Bleeding Inflammatory response2. Scab Formation Phagocytic cells and Fibrin clot3. New Epidermal cells formed Form Germinativum layer – building

outward Fibrin disintegrates4. Scab is shed, Epidermis complete,

presence of shallow depression Fibroblasts producing scar tissue

AGINGEpidermis ThinsVitamin D production decreases 75%Melanocyte activity decreasesGlandular activity decresesBlood supply to Dermis decreasesHair follicles stop functioningDermis thins – elastin decreases

CONNECTIVE TISSUEFunctions:•Supports body organs•Packages and protects body organs•Supports and binds other tissues

Characteristics:•Has large amounts of nonliving matrix

Dense FiberousSkeletal Bone

Hyaline Cartilage Adipose (fat) Areolar

EPITHELIAL TISSUEFunctions:•Forms mucous, serous, and epidermal membranes•Absorb and secrete substances•Forms hormones

Characteristics:•Most widely distributed tissue type in body•Covers external surfaces•Lines internal surfaces

Simple CubialSimple Squamous

Stratified Squamous

NERVOUS TISSUE

Functions:•Transmits electrochemical impulses

Characteristics:•Basis of the major controlling system of the body•Forms the brain and spinal cord

MUSCLE TISSUEFunctions: •Allows for organ movements within the body•Shortens

Characteristics: •Allows you to smile, grasp, swim, ski, and shoot an arrow

Cardiac Smooth Skeletal

Characteristics of Muscle tissue types

Skeletal

Cardiac

Smooth

Voluntarily controlled X

Involuntarily controlled X X

Banded appearance X X

Single nucleus X X

Multinucleate X

Found attached to bones X

Direct eyeballs X

Found in walls of stomach, uterus, and arteries

X

Contains spindle shaped cells X

Contains cylindrical cells X

Contains long, non branching, cylindrical cells

X

Displays intercalated discs X

Concerned with body locomotion X

Changes internal volume of a contracting organ

X

Tissue of the Circulatory pump X

SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS Fast Slow

•Contract quickly and strongly•Large Diameter•Low resistance to fatigue(fatigue quickly)•Have twitches with a very brief contraction phase•Few mitochondria •Can adapt to aerobic metabolism by generatingmore mitochondria

•Resistant to fatigue•Slow to contract•Small Diameter•High oxygen supply

Example: A sprinter

Example: A distance runner

SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUEFunctions of Skeletal Muscles:•Produce skeletal movement•Maintain body position•Support soft tissue•Guard openings•Maintain body temperature•Store nutrient reserves

Epimysium: Surrounds entire musclePerimysium: Surrounds muscle fasciclesEndomysium: Surrounds individual muscle cellsTendon(aponuerosis): Connects muscle to bone

INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF A MUSCLE FIBER (CELL)

1. The plasma membrane is call the Sarcolemma and the cytoplasm is called the sarcoplasma. The sarcoplasm is occupied mainly by long protien bundles, called myofibrils

>myofibrils – subdivisions of muscle fibers made up of myofilament > myofilaments – responsible for muscle contractions and banded appearance of muscle

thin filaments are made up of protein actin thick filaments are made up protein myosin

2. Sarcoplasmic reticulum is found around myofibrils. It releases calcium in the beginning of a muscle contraction

3. Sarcomeres are the contractile part of the muscle

MUSCLE CONTRACTION

1. Nuerotransmitter ACH is released by a motor neuron and binds to sarcolema

2. Sodium ions rush into a cell causing3. Sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca+ causing4. Myosin to be activiated

Sliding Filament Theory: Thin and thick filaments slide along each other, shortening the muscle

Contraction depends on three things:1. Duration of neurostimulus2. Number of Calcium ions

present 3. Availability of ATP

TENSION PRODUCTION

•Normal tension and muscle firmness of a muscle at rest• Increased muscle tone increases metabolic energy used

Muscle Tone-

Tension Types:

Isotonic Contraction-

Isometric Contraction-

Results in motionEx: lifting weights

Muscle develops tension, but doesn’t moveEx: pushing against a doorRelaxation:

Muscle returns to resting length because of:1. Elastic forces (pull of ligaments)2. Opposing muscle contractions3. Gravity

ATP AND CREATINE PHOSPHATE

ATP – energy molecule used by cells

Two ways to generate ATP:1. Aerobic Metabolism

Produces 34 ATP Primary Source when resting

2. Anaerobic Glycolysis Produces 2 ATP Primary source when working

muscles

Creatine Phosphate- Acts as an energy reserve in muscle tissue/stores ATP

MUSCLE FATIGUE AND RECOVERYMuscle Fatigue occurs when muscles can no longer preform the required activity. This happens because they run out of ATP, Calcium, ions, or nervous signals.

>Results in: -Depletion of metabolic reserves -Low ph (acidic) -Muscle exhaustion and pain -Damage to sarcolema and sarcoplasmic

reticulumRecovery period- time required after exertion for muscles to return to normal1. Oxygen becomes available2. Mitochondrial activity resumes

The Cori Cycle removes and recycles lactic acid.3. Blood takes lactic acid to the liver.4. The liver turns in into glycogen5. Muscles use glycogen at peak exertion

HORMONES AND MUSCLE CHANGES

Hormones increased during physical activity:1. Growth2. Testosterone3. Thyroid4. Epinephrine5. Endorphines

Hypertrophy – muscle growth

Atrophy – muscle shrinkageBreakdown begins in weeks or days

CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

Characteristics:1. Single nucleus2. Involuntary 3. Intercalated disks

> Intercalated disks – special contact points for cells4. Striated (branched)

Found:Only in the heart

Functions:Produces heart contractions

SMOOTH MUSCLEFound:1. Around other tissues2. In blood vessels and arteries3. In reproductive, glandular, digestive, and urinary systems4. In integumentary (skin) system5. Hair follicles

Characteristics:6. Single nucleus7. No sarcomeres, tendons, or aponeurosis 8. Scattered myosin filaments9. Involuntarily controlled10.Long and slender

Functions:11.Open and close respiratory passageways12.Raising arm hairs13.Moves food in digestive tract14.Forces urine out of urinary tract

FunctionsSupport

ProtectionMovement

StorageBlood Cell Formation

Classification (by shape)Short- somewhat cube-shaped and include the carpals and tarsals.Long- More long than wide, have a definite shaft and two ends, and consist of all limb bones except patellas, carpals, and tarsals. Flat- thin, flattened, often curved bones that include most skull bones, the sternum, and ribs.Irregular- include vertebrae and coxae.

Bones

BONES- BASIC STRUCTURE

Articular cartilag

e

Epiphyseal plate

(site of red marrow)-spongey bone-red blood cell production

(site of yellow marrow)-compact bone-fat storage

BONE FORMATION1. Hyaline Cartilage “models” are completely covered with bone matrix by

bone-forming cells (osteoblasts). 2. Hyaline Cartilage is digested away leaving a hollow cavity (yellow

marrow).3. After birth, most hyaline cartilage models have been converted to bone-

except articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates.Cells in Bones:

1. Osteocytes- mature bone cells

2. Osteoclasts- bone-eating cells

3. Osteoblasts – matrix depositing bone cells

BONE REMODELING•Bone is dynamic and changing•Bone remodeling is continuously happening due to changes in:

1. Calcium levels in the bone matrix 1. Too much calcium - hypercalcemia2. Too little calcium - Parathyroid Hormone from

parathyroid gland alerts osteoclasts to breakdown bone matrix and release calcium into blood

2. Pull of gravity and pull of muscles3. Breaking of bones 4. Stress on bones makes them thicker

FRACTURES

Simple – clean break that stays in skin

Compound – bone ends break skin

Greenstick – incomplete break; bone splintering

Spiral – twistng forces break bone

Compression- bone crushed

Reductions:

1. Closed – nonsurgical realignment and splinting

2. Open – surgical realignment

SYNOVIAL JOINTS Cavities between bones in synovial joints are filled with synovial fluid. This

fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones, which allows for greater mobility

Synovial Membrane: Lubricant that minimizes friction and abrasion of joint surfaces.Articular Cartilage: Substance that keeps bone ends from crushing when compressed.

FIBROUS AND CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS Fibrous joints –

sutured joints, protecting the underlying structures greatly

Cartilaginous joints – connected by cartilage

THE HEAD AND NECK - MUSCLES

trapezius

THE HEAD AND NECK - BONES

Parietal

Temporal

Lambdoidal suture

Occipital

External auditory meatusMastoid process

Mandible

Coronal Suture

Frontal

Sphenoid

Ethmoid

Nasal

Lacrimal

Zygomatic

Maxilla

TemporalStyloid processMandibular condyle

THE HEAD AND NECK- THE BRAIN

Medulla (Spinal Cord)

Pons

THE HEAD AND NECK- BRAIN DYSFUNCTIONS

Alzheimer’s disease- Progressive degeneration of the brain with abnormal protein deposits

Coma- Total nonresponsiveness to stimulation

Concussion- Slight and transient brain injury

Contusion- Traumatic injury that destroys brain tissue

Intracranial hemorrhage- May cause medulla oblongata to be wedged into a foramen magnum by pressure of blood

Multiple sclerosis- Autoimmune disorder with extensive demyelination

THE HEAD AND NECK – EYE

HEAD AND NECK - EAR

Auditory tube

Incus Malleou

s

Semicircular canal

Stapius

Pinna

Vestibule

HEAD AND NECK – SINUSES

Sinuses are mucus-lined, air-filled cavities in bones.Their purpose is to lighten the skull and serve as residence chambers for speech.They are very susceptible to infection because they are directly linked to nasal passages (outside world and germs).

HEAD AND NECK – NERVOUS SYSTEMFunctions:•Monitors changes inside and outside the body•Processes and interprets info received and makes decisions•Commands responds to muscles and glands

Central Nervous System: brain and spinal cord- Control center of the nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System : Composed of cranial and spinal nerves and ganglia. Divided into Sensory and Motor divisions. Motor:

Autonomic nervous system: Controls involuntary movements and regulates activity of the heart, smooth muscle,

and glands.>Sympathetic- Fight or Flight System

- Activities that expand energy>Parasympathetic- Normally in control

- Conserves and stores energySomatic nervous system: Controls voluntary

activities- such as activation of skeletal muscles

HEAD AND NECK – NERVOUS SYSTEMNeuroglia•Support, insulate, and protect cells and are able to divideNeurons •Transmit electrical messages from one area of the body to another area•Release neurotransmitters•Are unable to divide

Cell body

Dendrites

Axonal terminal

Myelin

Schwann cell nucleus

Nodes of Ranvier

Direction of impulse

Axonal terminal: Releases neurotransmitters Myelin Sheath: Increases speed of impulseDendrite: Conducts electrical currents toward cell body Cell body: Location of nucleusAxon: Conducts impulses away from cell body

1. Motor neurons (Efferent) –Sends out signals from CNS to the body

2.Sensory neurons (Afferent) – Brings signals to CNS from

elsewhere in body

HEAD AND NECK – NERVOUS SYSTEMTypes of Sensory receptors:1. Naked Nerve Endings – pain and

temperature2. Meissener’s Corpuscle – touch and caress3. Pacinian Corpuscle – deep pressure4. Proprioceptors –degree of stretch

Nerve Impulses1. Resting neuron- negatively charged inside the cell membrane and

positively charged outside the cell membrane2. Stimulated neuron- the permeability of a patch on the cell

membrane alters. Positively charged sodium ions begin to enter the cell, making the inside locally permeable (depolarization).

3. The nerve impulse- depolarization spreads along the cell membrane and eventually the charge on either side of the cell membrane is temporarily reversed.

4. Repolarization- cell membrane again alters its permeability. + charged sodium ions begin to pass out of the cell. Finally, outside of the cell is positively charged and inside in negatively charged.

HEAD AND NECK – NERVOUS SYSTEM

HEAD AND NECK – ENDOCRINE SYSTEMFunctions:•Produce hormones >hormones –Chemical messengers that interact with specific receptors to regulate cell activity.Composed of:•Adrenal glands•Pancreas•Pituitary glands•Ovaries/Testes•Parathyroid gland•Thyroid gland

HEAD AND NECK – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

GlandsGland Location Function

Pituitary Brain •MASTER GLAND•Controls other glands•Regulates: growth metabolism, secretion of other glands, reproductive functions

Parathyroid

Vocal chords, beside Pituitary gland

•Regulates calcium absorption and deposition

Thyroid Vocal chords •Stimulates growth and metabolism•Produce parathyroid hormone

Adrenal Kidneys •“fight or flight” response•Regulate mineral/water balance in body•Inhibit inflammation•Regulate reproductive organ activity

HEAD AND NECK–ENDOCRINE SYSTEM-HORMONES

Hormone Location Function

Growth Anterior Pituitary Gland

Stimulates growth

Follicle-stimulating

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Stimulates production of ova and sperm

Prolactin Anterior Pituitary Gland

Stimulates milk production in women’s breasts

PTH Parathyroid Gland

Regulate calcium absorption and deposition

Calcitonin Thyroid Glands Causes blood calcium to be deposited in bones as calcium salts

Adrenaline Adrenal Gland “fight or flight” response

Cortisol Adrenal Gland Stress resistance

Estrogens Adrenal Gland Stimulate female reproductive organs

Glucagon Pancreas Stimulates release of glucose into the blood

Insulin Pancreas Stimulates storage and use of glucose

Testosterone

Testes Stimulates development of reproductive characteristics

Melatonin Pineal Gland Signals duration of darkness to the body, may help with biorythms

THE BACK- SPINAL CORD

1.

1.

1.

2.

2.

2.

3.

3.

3.

4. 4.

4.4.

5. 5.

4. 4.

5. 5.

1. Body

2. Vertebral foramen

3. Spinous process

4. Transverse process

5. Superior articular process

THE BACK- MUSCLES

TrapeziusDeltoid

Erector spinalLatissimus dorsi

External oblique

Gluteous medias

Gluteus maximus

THE THORACIC CAVITY- BONES

Manubrium

Body

Xiphoid process

Sternum

12 Pairs of Ribs:1-7: True Ribs

8-12: False Ribs11&12: Floating

Ribs

THE THORACIC CAVITY- SCAPULA

Axillary

MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR TRUNK

Latissimus dorsi

External intercostal

Pectoralis major

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Functions: 1. Delivers oxygen and nutrients to the

body tissues2. Protects body; destroys bacteria and

tumor cellsMade up of: 3. The Heart4. Blood vessels

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- BLOOD• Carries Oxygen, CO2, Nutrients, and Waste products.

• Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets 1. Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)

-A red blood cell’s primary function is to deliver oxygen to tissues. They also help in ridding the body of carbon dioxide. These cells have a biconcave lens shape, which provides more surface area so O2 and CO2 molecules can attach to the hemoglobin on the blood cells.

2. White blood cells (Leukocytes) -The main function of a white blood cell is to fight infections and viruses in the body. There are 5 types of white blood cells:

1. Neutrophils- Most abundant white blood cell. Crucial in fighting infections.

2. Eosinophils- act against parasites and are responsible for allergic reactions

3. Basophils- Help with the inflammatory response when tissue is damage

4. Monocytes- Act against the multiplication of germs

5. Phagocytes- Engulfs and absorbs waste material

3. Platelets-The function of platelets is to stop blood from leaving wounds

BLOOD TYPING

There are 4 types of blood:A: -Produces B antibodies -Can donate to A and AB -Can receive from O and A

B: -Produces A antibodies -Can donate to B and AB -Can receive from O and B

AB: -Produces neither A nor B antibodies -Can donate to AB -Can receive from O, A, B, and AB

O: -Produces A and B antibodies -Can donate to O, A, B, and AB -Can receive from O

In addition to the A and B antigens, there is a third antigen called the Rh factor, which can be either present (+) or absent ( – ). In general, Rh negative blood is given to Rh-negative patients, and Rh positive blood or Rh negative blood may be given to Rh positive patients.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: HEARTPath of a red blood cell: Aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, vein, inferior vena cava, right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, arterioles, capillaries, venules, pulmonary vein, left atrium, left ventricle, aortaPulmonary Circuit•The right side of the heart•Pumps blood to the lungs

Systemic Circuit•Left side of the heart•Pumps blood to the entire body

Arteries: Carry blood away from heartVeins: Carry blood to heartCapillaries: Between arteries and veins

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMThree influences of blood pressure:1. Cardiac output2. Peripheral resistance3. Blood volume

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Functions:•Provides an extensive surface area for gas exchange between air and blood.•Moves air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs along the respiratory passageways.•Protects respiratory surfaces from dehydration and environmental variations, and defends the respiratory system and other tissues from invasion of pathogens.•Produces sounds involved in speaking, singing, and other forms of communication. •Facilitates the detection of olefactory stimuli by olefactory receptors in the superior portions of the nasal cavity.

Organization:•The Respiratory is divided into:1. The upper respiratory system

-nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx2. The lower respiratory system

larynx, trachea, bronchi, branchioles, and alveoli

UPPER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Frontal sinus

Nasal cavityConchae

Opening to auditory tube

Sphenoid sinus

Hard palletOral cavity

Pharyngeal tonsilNasopharynx

oropharynxPalantine tonsil

Laryngopharynx

Vocal folds (chords)

Esophagus

Trachea

Hyoid bone

Soft palletLingual tonsils

Epiglottis

LOWER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Visceral pleura

Parietal pleura

Trachea

Larynx

Superior Lobe

Mediastinum

Inferior Lobe

Pleural space

Brochi

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- HOW IT WORKS

THE ABDOMINOPELVIC AREA- PELVIS

ischium

True pelvis

False pelvis

Obturator foramenAcetabulum

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Functions:•Breaks down foodstuffs into smaller particles that can be absorbed and used as fuel for the body.

Composed of:•Mouth•Esophagus•Stomach•Small intestine•Large intestine•Rectum•Anus

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEMThe Mouth- A cavity lined with a mucous membrane. In the mouth, the teeth chop and grind food into smaller pieces and mix it with saliva

The Esophagus- A muscular tube that’s about 10 inches long. This is where your tongue pushes food, when you swallow. The wall of the esophagus contains smooth muscle, which involuntarily squeezes to carry food from the mouth to the stomach.

The Stomach- An elastic, muscular organ. This is where the esophagus empties. The stomach contracts and expands, churning food and mixing it with digestive juices. The stomach then empties into the small intestine.

The Small Intestine- The small intestine is divided into three sections: the duodenum, the first foot, the jejunum, the next 8 feet, and the ileum, the last 12 feet. The walls of the small intestine have millions of glands that produce additional digestive juices. These walls also have millions of tiny finger-like projections, called villi, that absorb nutrients and deliver them to the bloodstream. Bile, a digestive juice, is released from the gallbladder into the small intestine to help break down food. Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder.

The Large Intestine- Food that was not digested in the small intestine moves on to the large intestine. This part of the digestive tract absorbs water, essential salts, and certain vitamins and drugs.

Rectum and Anus-The remaining waste travels to the last section of the digestive tract, the rectum. Waste is eliminated through the Anus, which has a voluntarily controlled sphincter muscle, in adults. The waste leaves the body as feces.

THE URINARY SYSTEMFunctions:•Rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes•Conserves body water or eliminates excess

Made up of:1. Kidneys2. Ureters3. Urinary Bladder4. Urethra

THE URINARY SYSTEM

Kidneys-• Blood filtration and urine production•Regulation of volume, chemical composition, and pH of blood•Regulation of blood pressure•Stimulation of RBC production

Ureters- The body has two ureters, one for each kidney. The ureters extend from the kidney to the bladder. In the Ureters, urine is moved from the kidneys to the bladder.

Bladder- A hollow, elastic, muscular organ situated in the pelvic cavity. When the bladder is filled with urine, the stretching stimulates nerve endings, which send a message to the brain that the bladder is full. A sphincter muscle clamps shut the exit of the bladder. When this muscle is relaxed, urine flows out of the body, through the urethra.

Urethra- a small tube that leads from the bladder to the exterior of the body. In females, the urethra is embedded in the front wall of the vagina. In males, the urethra passes through the prostate gland and the penis.

THE LEGS- MUSCLES

Gluteus Maximus

Gluteus Medius

Gracilis

SemitendinosisBiceps Femoris

Semimembrinosis

Soleus

Gastrucnemius

Achilles tendon

Tensorfacialata

Sartoreus

Rectus Femoris

Vastus lateralis

Vastus medialis

Peroneus

Tibialis anterior

THE LEGS- BONES

Tibial tuberosity

Intercondular emminence

Femur

THE FOOT

Tarsals

Calcaneous

Talus

THE ARMS-MUSCLES

THE ARM- BONES

Deltoid tuberosity

Coronoid fossa

THE HAND