The Jamaica Youth Survey
Assessing Core Competencies and Risk for
Aggression among Jamaican Youth
J U L I E M E E K S G A R D N E R , K I R K R . W I L L I A M S ,
N A N C Y G . G U E R R A , I A N W A L K E R
Introduction
THERE IS GLOBAL INTEREST in promoting healthy youth development and
preventing antisocial and problem behaviour during adolescence.' Not only
is positive development an important goal in its own right, linked to academic
achievement and socioeconomic success,^ but many social and emotional
competencies also decrease risk for antisocial behaviours that compromise
individual health and development and exact costs for society.' Among
adolescent problem behaviours, rising rates of youth violence worldwide have
been a particular cause for concern and are considered a major public health
problem. Nowhere is this problem more severe than in the Caribbean region,
where homicide rates for this age group are among the highest in the world.^
Within the Caribbean, the highest documented homicide rates are in Jamaica,
at approximately 60 per 100,000 islandwide, rising to 140 per 100,000 in
inner-city communities of Kingston, the capital city.'
Focusing on Jamaica, these high rates of violence, particularly among
youth, have been accompanied by repeated calls to develop and implement
effective programmes. International donors, governmental ministries, health
systems, and non-profit agencies have pushed for the development of empir-
ically supported programmes and policies to prevent and mitigate aggression
and violence from the early years through adolescence and beyond. There is
a clear need for greater monitoring and evaluation of programmes which target
35
36 Julie Meeks Gardner, Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Ian Walker
youth, and a policy mandate to this effect might be useful. However, to date,the majority of available programmes have not been carefully evaluated, mak-ing it difficult to differentiate programmes that are popular and/or garnermedia attention from those that demonstrate evidence of effectiveness. InJamaica and elsewhere in the Caribbean, there has been relatively little progressin developing coordinated responses to youth violence prevention and con-ducting rigorous scientific studies of programme outcomes.
An important first step in building capacity for this type of evaluation is todevelop a reliable and valid youth self-report assessment tool to measure riskand to establish programme impact. This includes long-term impact onaggressive and violent behaviours as well as short-term effects on proposedmediators of change, that is, those attitudes, skills and beliefs that are targeteddirectly by the intervention because of their association with aggression andviolence. Further, given that many youth violence prevention programmesemphasise positive youth development, these mediators should reflect corecompetencies for positive development that are protective against youthviolence and also lead to productive engagement in society, greater health,and enhanced well-being.
There is debate regarding the relevant contributions of various factors
THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY 37
within youth development, especially as regards antisocial behaviour, and
about interventions which can improve outcomes.^ We do not review that
literature here, rather we underscore the need to have in place an instrument
which has been shown to be valid and reliable within the cultural context in
order to properly assess both contributing factors and interventions in a
systematic and repeatable way. The present study reports on the development
and validation oí the. Jamaica Youth Survey. This survey was developed as part
of a project funded by the World Bank to evaluate individual-level
programmes for promoting well-being and preventing violence among teenage
boys and girls (ages 12-18 years) in Jamaica. Short-term outcomes included
five core competencies for healthy development that have been linked empir-
ically with aggression and violence (described below) and that typically are
targeted by community-based positive youth development and prevention
programmes. Long-term outcomes emphasised distinct types of aggressive and
violent behaviour and aggressive propensity (intent to behave aggressively).
All items and scales were modified from previously validated instruments.
Although a number of youth development studies have been carried out
in the Caribbean, we are unaware of any other detailed assessments of instru-
ments for measuring this kind of risk in the Caribbean.
Core competencies, healthy development, and violenceprevention
The Jamaica Youth Survey emphasises five core competencies linked to healthy
development and prevention of youth problem behaviours including violence.
As described elsewhere,^ there is a substantial empirical literature linking each
competency with adjustment and prevention outcomes. Although the bulk
of that research has been conducted on non-Caribbean youth, research with
Jamaican youth suggests that they are also important in promoting health and
preventing problems during childhood and adolescence.^ From a more global
perspective, these social-emotional competencies have been viewed as key indi-
cators of health, well-being, and performance in society, including academic
achievement throughout childhood and adolescence and socioeconomic
success in adulthood.^
Positive sense ojself. An important marker of adjustment for adolescents is
38 Julie Meeks Gardner, Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Ian Walker
the development of a coherent and pro-social identity grounded in personal
accomplishments, connections to family and community, and a productive
role in society. We have operationalised positive sense of self as including an
affective component reflected in global self-esteem (one's personal regard and
feelings towards self) as well as a general sense of self-efficacy, defined as
agency, purpose, and hopefulness for the future.
Self-control: An essential component of adjustment is the ability to
effectively control one's feelings (emotional self-control) and behaviours
(behavioural self-control). Low levels of self-control (particularly the ability
to control angry and impulsive behaviours) have been implicated in aggressive
behaviour from a very early age'° and have been proposed as leading causes of
delinquency and criminality."
Decision-making skills: There is a robust empirical literature linking mature
social problem-solving and decision-making skills with both adjustment and
prevention of youth problem behaviours. Maturity of judgment is evident in
solutions that involve careful assessment of problems, consideration of alter-
nate solutions, review of consequences, and concern for how one's actions
impact others.'^
Moral system of belief: In addition to discrete problem-solving skills, youth
develop underlying cognitive schema or normative beliefs about the appro-
priateness of behaviours with moral consequences (e.g., harm to others, harm
to society). These beliefs involve concepts such as fairness, equity and personal
responsibility, as well as moral prescriptions for the acceptability of aggressive
and violent behaviours.^'
Pro-social connectedness: For youth navigating the transition to adulthood,
positive role models or mentors provide an important grounding in a larger
supportive community. Research has shown that youth with more pro-social
bonds are less likely to be involved in violence and delinquency and more
likely to be productively engaged in society.'4
Aggression and aggressive propensity
By definition, aggression is a heterogeneous set of behaviours aimed at harm-
ing others, with violence being the extreme case.'' Non-physical aggression
includes yeUing, teasing, threatening, insulting someone, shaming, saying
THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY
mean things, and excluding socially. Physical aggression includes pushing,
shoving, fighting, throwing objects, slapping, and using a weapon. There are
many scales that measure self-reported aggressive behaviour, typically over a
defined period and measured in frequency of behaviour.'^ However, aggres-
sion and violence are low base rate behaviours, meaning that even the most
violent youth do so only infrequently. An alternate approach to assessing
aggressive behaviour involves determining one's 'threshold' for aggression,
that is, the likelihood that specific provocations would result in aggressive
responses. Towards this end, we included a scale to measure individual thresh-
old or propensity for aggression.
Methods overview
The data utilised in the present study were collected during 2007-2008 as part
of an evaluation sponsored by the World Bank. Sites included the Kingston
YMCA programme for males, and the Women's Centre of Jamaica Founda-
tion (WCJF) programme for females. A research team from the University of
the West Indies (UWI), Mona collected all data. The ethics committee of the
UWI approved the study and data collection procedures.
Participants
Male sample: All boys who were participating in the YMCA intervention or
were currendy on a wait list to participate were invited to participate in the
survey data collection. Of the 149 intervention pardcipants eligible to complete
the survey, 128 boys (86%) received parental permission and youth assent. The
research team was also able to locate and receive permission from a total of 55
boys on the wait list to participate. Thus, data were collected from 183 boys
from the intervendon and wait list control groups. The total male sample
ranged in age from 12 to 17 years, and all participants were from poor, urban
communities.
All boys who had graduated from the YMCA intervention within the
previous five years and for whom contact information was available were con-
sidered to be eligible for the graduate sample. From this list, youth were
40 Julie Meeks Gardner, Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Ian Walker
randomly selected and invited to participate until a total sample of 60 youthwas achieved. The research team contacted eligible youth, the study procedureswere explained, and parental permission (for youth under age 18) and youthassent were solicited. To establish an equivalent community control samplethat had not participated in an intensive intervention programme during theadolescent years, we worked with a community agency for street youth toidentify eligible male participants. We were able to identify, secure permission,and collect data on a comparable sample of 60 community control youth.Thus, data were collected from 120 boys from the intervention and commu-nity control groups. However, the age range (12-28) for this sample farexceeded that for the YMCA intervention and wait list sample (12-18). Hence,30 cases 19 years of age or older were dropped from the graduate sample (N =30), leaving a total male sample size of 273 for this analysis.
Female sample: All girls who were participating in the WCJF programmeat the time of the current study were eligible to be interviewed. The pro-gramme served pregnant or new mothers, operating in seven main centresand six outreach centres throughout Jamaica. Of the 130 girls deemedeligible and initially contacted to participate, 120 (92%) received parentalpermission and youth assent. A comparison sample of 75 high-school-agefemales was also selected to complete the assessment, drawn from the samesecondary schools which the WCJF participants previously attended but whowere not pregnant or new mothers and not participating in WCJF pro-grammes. Thus, data were collected from 195 girls from both the WCJFprogramme and comparison high schools. The total female sample ranged inage from 12 to 18 years.
Data collection procedures
All participants were interviewed individually by one of six interviewers fromthe research team using the questionnaires. The field coordinator for theresearch team observed approximately 6% of the interviews to ensure thatthe materials were presented correctly, item wording was followed, probeswere used, and participants' questions were handled appropriately. No diffi-culties in the administration of the surveys were noted.
A few boys, selected by the researchers and staff, were further interviewed
THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY 41
with open-ended questions regarding their participation in the programme or
wish to participate, and their own perceptions of the programme and their
progress. Excerpts from these interviews are shown in the text box.
The Jamaica Youth Survey
The 107-item instrument was intended to measure five core competencies (55
items), aggressive behaviour (15 items), and propensity for aggression (20
items). There were also additional items to assess demographic and family
information, previous gang history, masculinity/aggression, and intervention
response (17 items), although these are not considered in the present analyses.
The instrument was designed to be interviewer-administered, though a highly
literate sample should be able to answer the questions on their own. The meas-
ure is available from the first author.
For each of the five core competencies, we adapted items/scales from pre-
viously validated instruments tapping similar constructs, resulting in 55 items
to assess core competencies. For each of these items, respondents answered on
a 4-point scale ranging from "i" (strongly disagree) to "4" (strongly agree).
We also reverse-coded 19 of these items to protect against response set (the
tendency to repeat the same responses). Higher scores indicate higher levels
of competency.
Positive sense of self To measure general self-esteem (affect towards self), we
included 9 items from the Rosenberg Modified Self-Esteem Scale.'-' A sample
item is, "I feel that I have a number of good qualities (good things about me)."
To assess self-efficacy, we included 5 items from the Cognitive Autonomy and
Self-Evaluation (CASE) Inventory.'^ A sample item is, "I think my life has
'purpose' or meaning {I think that there is a reason for my life).''
Self-control: We adapted 5 items from the Boxer Impulsivity Scale.'? These
items tapped impulsive responding and control over angry feelings. A sample
item is, "I can do things to calm down when I am angry or excited." Three
items were developed specifically for this survey that assessed delay of gratifi-
cation. A sample item for delay of gratification was, "It is hard to wait for
something I want."
Decision-making skills: Items were adapted from the Cognitive Autonomy
and Self-Evaluation (CASE) Inventory.^" Eight items tapped a range of
42 Julie Meeks Gardner, Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Ian Walker
decision-making skills, including searching for relevant information, generat-
ing many alternate solutions, and considering consequences for self and others.
A sample item was, "I consider different choices before making up my mind
about something."
Moral system of belief: The format and items from the Normative Beliefs
about Aggression Scale^' were used to generate a 14-item scale of moral system
of belief. Respondents were asked whether it was right or wrong to engage in
behaviours that caused harm to others and society, including fighting with
others, taking advantage of people, cheating, breaking promises, and not being
productively engaged in society. A sample item was, "It is important to have
a job and be a good worker."
Pro-social connectedness: This ii-item scale was derived from two measures
of perceived social support: the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social
Support^^ and the Presence of Caring Scale.̂ ^ These items tapped the extent
to which individuals had adult mentors, or support, and were aware of pro-
social opportunities in their communities. A sample item was, "I know an
adult I can turn to for help when something is bothering me or I am worried
about something."
Self-reported aggressive hehaviour: For aggressive behaviour, we used 15 items
tapping verbal aggression, physical aggression, indirect aggression, and weapon
carrying. Respondents were asked to indicate how often in the past month
they had engaged in these behaviours with responses on a 4-point scale: "i"
(never), "2" (once or twice), "3" (3-5 times), and "4" (6 or more times). This
format was adapted from the Academic Centres of Excellence Youth Violence
Self-Report Scale.^^ Items also measured aggression against males and aggres-
sion against females separately. A sample item was, "In the last month, how
many times have you shoved or pushed a male? a female?" An average score
was calculated by summing across and dividing by the total number of items,
with higher scores reflecting a higher frequency of aggression and vice versa.
Aggressive propensity: We used 20 items from the "What Would Make You
Fight?" scale to measure the propensity for youth to engage in aggressive
behaviour. This scale has been developed and validated by the Academic
Centres of Excellence (ACE) Cross-site Analytical Tools Working Group.^5
The underlying logic of this measure is that youth will vary in their threshold
for aggression, meaning some will resort to physical aggressive behaviour with
less provocation than others. Respondents were asked whether they would
THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY 43
"hit or fight with a male (or female) if he (or she) engaged in ten different
provocative behaviours, for example, hit you first, shouted at you or called
you names, gave you a dirty look, spread rumours and lies about you behind
your back, or took something of yours without asking". Respondents answered
on a 4-point scale:"i" (never), "2" (I might), "3" (I probably would) and "4"
(Yes, for sure). An average score was calculated by summing across and divid-
ing by the number of items calculated.
Results
Personal reports
In order to gain some insight into the background of the youth who partici-
pated in the instrument development, focus group discussions were
conducted. Some illustrative quotations from these are shown in the text box.
These show some of the experiences of violence, family life, struggles with
school, and also ordinary concerns or activities of young people.
Voices of youth who participated in the instrument development
The questionnaire seeks to collect quantitative data about youth, including
aggression, home background, experiences of violence. These quotations from
young men are illustrative of their backgrounds and perceptions.
"I used to fight every day, two times, three times, for any reason. But notagain — things change. Why you fight? Some people get on your nerves andmy temper can't take it. Now, not so much."
"I was very young and my uncle got shot and died. We were very close,when my mother start to beat me, he would come over and ask her why.One day when I was eleven, me and my uncle was ketchin' up fire to keepaway mosquito. One car come park up on the bridge with two man. Oneman come out with a gun and shot mi uncle. He get five shot, one in himchest. He die. It make me feel very, very, very bad. Me run away . . . I tellmyself when I go into the army, I going hunt him down and kill him, 'causeI mark his face. That's what I tell myself. But he might dead already."
Continues on next page
44 Julie Meeks Gardner, Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Ian Walker
"I live with my mother, brother and sister, four of us. When she is down,I do things around the house, clean, wash clothes, cook, cook for every-body. I can cook!"
"Once you get into this badness, death is the only way out."
"You make a wrong move, you pay for it."
"Somebody do something bad to somebody you love, the rage tek you andyou could end up killing somebody and regret what you did."
"My friend, he is in his early twenties and always show me how to draw.Always show me new things. He practise and take about five hours anddraw his friend. It look just like her."
"One night somebody named E. was keeping a dance, two lanes were keep-ing dance. Police came to lock off the sound and one lane ask the policefor a bligh so they only lock off one dance. Man from the other lane comeround and fire shot, say is we call police to lock off their sound. E. got shotin his head and dead. His brothers went over and shot two person. Policecome back and say, afi:er we give you bligh you start war. But people seepolice was wearing Reeboks so they know is not real police. Everybody startto run, all man who can't even walk find himself up a tree. A woman nameP. had a gun and shoot a man. I jump zinc fence until I reach home."
"I like to draw and play videogames. My mother buy me a PlayStation."
"Everybody has a girlfriend. Most girls have a boyfriend, even more thanone! All schoolers, even from basic school."
Analysis plan
The primary objective of the analysis was to establish the reliability and validity
of the core competency, aggressive behaviour and aggressive propensity meas-
ures. Reliability was determined by calculating the internal consistency of each
measure. Establishing concurrent validity required using a previously validated
and widely accepted criterion variable, with a plausible rationale as to why it
should be related to the core competency measures. Even though the positive
sense of self scale consisted of both the Rosenberg Modified Self-Esteem Scale
THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY 45
(14) and the Cognitive Autonomy and Self-Evaluation (CASE) Inventory (15),
the former scale meets the requirements of a criterion variable for the concur-
rent validity analysis. The rationale for anticipating empirical relations between
the self-esteem scale and the other core competency measures is straightfor-
ward: the more youth feel efficacious about their immediate and future lives,
and the more they feel competent in their decision-making, their social
connections with others, and their ability to control their actions and emo-
tions, the more they will feel positive affect toward themselves.
As described previously, evaluative items pertaining to forms of physical
and verbal aggression dominated the moral system of belief scale. Hence, the
concurrent validity of this measure was determined by estimating the empirical
relation between this scale and the indices of aggressive behaviour and aggres-
sive propensity. All concurrent validity analyses were conducted using
Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression.
Internal consistency and concurrent validity of the
Jamaica Youth Survey
The results of the internal consistency analysis are presented in Table i. With
the exception of the self-control and decision-making measures, those coeffi-
cients were well above the standard cutoff for "acceptable" internal consistency
(.70). Moreover, a comparison of the coefficients across the two samples
indicated substantial similarity by gender. A further examination of the two
exceptions suggested that the reverse-coded items were problematic; that is,
they were not interrelated vnth the positively worded items. Hence, they were
excluded, and the alpha coefficients were re-calculated. As noted in parentheses
in Table i, those coefficients for self-control and decision-making either exceed
the acceptability standard (.71 and .73, respectively, for females) or at least
approach that standard (.69 for both measures concerning the male sample).
The OLS regression results bearing on the concurrent validity of the self-
control, decision-making, and pro-social connectedness measures are shown
in Table 2. The estimated effects of these measures on the self-esteem scale
were all statistically significant and positive in direction, as expected. Those
effects were strongest in magnitude for the measures of self-control and
pro-social connectedness.
46 Julie Meeks Gardner, Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Ian Walker
Table 1: Tests of internal consistency (alpha coefficients) of the core competency,
aggressive behaviour, and aggressive propensity measures
Measures
Positive sense of self
Self-control^
Decision-making'
Moral system of belief
Pro-social connectedness
Aggressive behaviour
Aggressive propensity: Female
Aggressive propensity: Male
'Alpha coefficients in parentheses were calculated with reverse-coded items removed.
Females
(N = 195)
.78
.41 (.71)
.70 (.73)
.86
.85
.84
.75
.73
Males
(N = 273)
.73
.51 (.69)
.66 (.69)
.86
.85
.84
.75
.81
Table 2: Concurrent validation: Estimated effects of the measures of core competen-
cies on the measure of self-esteem
Measures
Panel A
Self-control
Decision-making
Pro-social connectedness
Panel B
Self-control
Decision-making
Pro-social connectedness
b
.270
.159
.229
.269
.120
.211
se
Females (N = 195)
.075
.076
.071
Males (N = 273)
.057
.056
.057
Beta
.251*
.147*
.231*
.270*
.130*
.233*
Note: Intercept for the females equation = 1.171, and the R2 = .228. Intercept for the
males equation = 1.305, and the R2 = .232.
*p < .05.
THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY 47
Table 3: Concurrent validation: Estimated effects of the measure of moral system of
belief on the measures of aggressive behaviour and aggressive propensity
(female and male)
Measures
Panel A
Aggressive behaviour
Aggressive propensity: Female
Aggressive propensity: Male
Panel B
Aggressive behaviour
Aggressive propensity: Female
Aggressive propensity: Male
b
-.163
-.441
-.340
-.202
-.206
-.410
se Beta
Females (N = 195)
.090
.092
.097
-.129
-.326*
-.245*
Males (N = 273)
.082
.079
.104
-.148*
-.157*
-.233*
R2
.017
.106
.060
.022
.025
.054
Intercept
2.114
3.340
3.002
2.285
2.270
3.379
Note: *p < .05.
The results of the concurrent validity analysis for the moral system of belief
measure are displayed in Table 3. The estimated effects of this measure on
self-reported aggressive behaviour and both versions of the aggressive propen-
sity measure (a female versus a male provocateur) were statistically significant
and negative in direction within the male sample, as expected. Although
cconsistently in the anticipated direction (negative) within the female sample,
moral system of belief was not significantly associated with self-reported
aggression. Rather, it had a statistically significant estimated eflfect only on the
two versions of the aggressive propensity measure.
Linkages between core competencies and aggression: Do
self-esteem and moral system of belief mediate relations?
Two additional analyses were conducted to bring evidence to bear on this
question, using the two criterion variables incorporated in the concurrent
48 Julie Meeks Gardner, Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Ian Walker
Table 4: Potential mediation: Estimated effects of the measure of self-esteem on
the measures of aggressive behaviour and aggressive propensity
(female and male)
Measures
Panel A
Aggressive behaviour
Aggressive propensity: Female
Aggressive propensity: Male
Panel B
Aggressive behaviour
Aggressive propensity: Female
Aggressive propensity: Male
b
-.235
-.059
-.132
-.086
-.207
-.226
se Beta
Females (N = 195)
.082
.089
.091
-.202*
-.048
-.103
Males (N = 273)
.085
.081
.109
-.061
-.154*
-.125*
R2
.041
.002
.011
.004
.024
.016
Intercept
2.282
2.029
2.255
1.002
2.235
2.754
Note: * p < .05.
validation analyses. Both rest on the assumption that building core compe-
tencies may not directly or immediately reduce the propensity and/or
occurrence of aggression, but their influence might be mediated by these
criterion variables. First, empirical relations were estimated between the
self-esteem scale and the indices of self-reported aggression and aggressive
propensity, since all core competency scales were shown to be significantly
associated with self-esteem. Second, the effects of the core competency meas-
ures on the moral system of belief scale were estimated. Results for self-esteem
are presented in Table 4.
The measure of self-esteem had a significant and negative estimated effect
on self-reported aggressive behaviour for females but not for males. Con-
versely, it had a significant and negative estimated effect on both versions of
the aggressive propensity measure for males but not for females. In all cases,
the estimated effects were in the direction expected (negative), although
the effect sizes were relatively small in magnitude. Nonetheless, these find-
ings have promise for future research specifying and estimating the mediating
THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY 49
Table 5: Potential mediation: Estimated effects of the measures of core competencies
on the measure of moral system of belief
Measures
Panel A
Positive sense of self
Self-control
Decision-making
Pro-social connectedness
Panel B
Positive sense of self
Self-control
Decision-making
Pro-social connectedness
b
.198
.082
.351
.189
.198
.138
.291
.215
se
Females (N = 195)
.078
.063
.065
.062
Males (N = 273)
.070
.052
.054
.053
Beta
.170*
.083
.352*
.207*
.170*
.135*
.309*
.232*
Note: Intercept for the females equation = 1.087, and the R2 = .374. Intercept for the
males equation = .853, and the R2 = .414..
*p<.05.
influences of building core competencies on aggression, especially since the
aggressive propensity and self-reported aggression measures were significantly
and positively associated for females (female provocateur r = .374, p < .000
and male provocateur r = .433, p < .000) and for males (female provocateur
r = .484, p < .000 and male provocateur r = .432, p < .000).
The findings bearing on the potential mediating influences of the core com-
petencies on aggressive behaviour and aggressive propensity via moral system
of belief are presented in Table 5. All of the estimated effects in both samples
were positive in direction, suggesting that self-efficacy, decision-making skills,
self-control, and pro-social connectedness were linked to greater disapproval
of aggressive and analogous behaviours. Moreover, with one exception
(self-control for females), all estimated effects were statistically significant and
similar by gender.
50 Julie Meeks Gardner, Kirk R. Williams, Nancy G. Guerra, Ian Walker
Discussion
A new scale for measuring core competencies, propensity for aggression, and
aggressive behaviour was evaluated with a sample of male and female Jamaican
youth between the ages of 12 and 18. Each of the scales demonstrated adequate
reliability for both males and females. The scales performed quite consistently
across both genders. Concurrent validity was established by significant rela-
tions between the core competencies and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale^^
and between the moral system of belief scale and both aggressive propensity
and aggression. Additional analyses suggest that self-esteem and moral system
of belief may serve as mediators between core competencies, positive youth
development, and prevention of aggression. Of course, the proposed mediators
(or core competencies) included in the Jamaica Youth Survey are not exhaus-
tive, and simply represent a recent framework for highlighting some of the
more important social and emotional competencies that also have been linked
to positive health outcomes and prevention of youth problems.^'' In more
economically disadvantaged communities and countries, additional skills may
be required to successfully navigate daily life that are not included in this meas-
ure. Further, specific culturally linked attitudes, values, and beliefs may have
a particular influence vis-à-vis a specific type of behaviour.
An innovative feature of this assessment is the inclusion of a measure of
propensity for aggression. Given that aggression is a relatively stable and
low-base-rate behaviour, it may be difficult for brief or even longer-term
interventions to yield changes in actual behaviour. Further, self-reports of
behaviour, particularly for at-risk youth enrolled in alternative programmes,
may be highly subject to demand characteristics resulting in under-reporting.
The propensity for aggression scale focuses on 'triggers' for aggression and
attempts to measure an individual's threshold for responding with aggressive
and/or violent behaviours. A challenge for violence prevention programmes
is not to prevent aggression or violence under all circumstances (aggression is
an adaptive response under some conditions) but to make it less likely,
particularly in response to trivial conflicts. The Jamaica Youth Survey thus
provides a number of scales to measure distinct but complementary interven-
tion outcomes and can be a useful tool for establishing risk and evaluat-
ing health promotion and prevention programmes in Jamaica and the
Caribbean. WR
THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the World Bank. We thank project coordinator Joan Thomas,
research assistant Amika Wright, field assistants Doniesha Burke, Janet DeSouza, Sacha-
Marie Hill, Debbie-Ann Pryce, Shanza-Lee Reid and Yakeisha Townsend, administrator
Marva Campbell, secretary Marilyn Brown and driver Merrick Thomas. We sincerely
appreciate the cooperation and time of the youth, their parents, teachers and schools.
NOTES
1. Sophie Naudeau et al., "Programs and Policies that Promote Positive Youth Devel-
opment and Prevent Risky Behaviors: An International Perspective", in Core Com-
petencies to Prevent Problem Behaviors and Promote Positive Youth Development: New
Directions in Child and Adolescent Development, ed. Nancy G. Guerra and Catherine
Bradshaw (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008), 75-87.
2. James Heckman, Schools, Skills, and Synapses, Discussion Paper No. 3515 (Chicago:
American Bar Association, 2008).
3. Nancy G. Guerra and Catherine Bradshaw, eds.. Core Competencies to Prevent Prob-
lem Behaviors and Promote Positive Youth Development: New Directions in Child and
Adolescent Development (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008), 122.
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THE JAMAICA YOUTH SURVEY 53
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