7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 1/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i st s D i v e r g e n c e
o f Cha rac ter
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
Brandeis University
Waltham Massachusetts
Every one knows how greedily a theorist pounces on a fact, highly
favourable to his views.
- Charles Darwin, 1846
INTRODUC'I~ION
Natural Selection has become a paradigm for the demons trati on
of the influence of external factors on the formulation of scientific
theories. Darwin himself indi cated th at reading Malthus in 1838 was a
key factor in arriving at his theory, 1 and the Malthusian infl uence is
undeniably present. Yet the linkage between natural selection and the
social and political envi ronm ent in which it was formulated is complex. 2
The fact is that Darwin had read the Malthusian statements on several
occasions before Sept ember of 1838. 3 Moreover, even a cursory look
1. Autobiography in Francis Darwin, ed., The Life and Letters of Charles
Darw/n, ed. 2 vols. (New York: Appleton, 1896), I, 68. Hereafter, this book is
cited as LLD.
2. For a contrast of views on the issue, see, e.g., G. Himmelfarb, Darwin and
the Darwinian Revolution
(New York: Doubleday, 1959); Gavin de Beer,
Charles
Darwin: Evolution by Natural Selection (New York: Doubleday, 1964); R. M.
Young, Malthus and the Evolutionists, Past and Present 43 (1969), 109-141;
P. J. Vorzimmer, Darwin, Malthus, and the Theory of Natural Selection, Z
Hist. Biol. 30 (1969), 527-542; S. Herbert, Darwin, Malthus and Selection,
J. Hist. Biol. 4 (1971), 209-217; M. T. Ghiselin, The Triumph of the Darwinian
Method (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969); C. Limoges,La s~l~ction
naturelle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1970); E. Mayr, Darwin and
Natural Selection, Amer. Sci. 65 (1977), 321-327; E. Mayr,Evolution and the
Diversity of Life: Selected Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1976). One
of the most perceptively and persuasively argued cases for the complexity of the
situation is P. Bowler, Malthus, Darwin, and the Concept of Struggle, J.
Hist.
Ideas 37 (1976), 631-650.
3. He had read it in Paley's Natural Theology while an undergraduate at
Cambridge and in 1833 in Humboldt's Political Essay on the Kingdom of New
Spain (New York: Riley, 1811) in Buenos Aires, while the Beagle docked there;
Journal o f the History of Biology vol. 13, no. 2 (FaU 1980) pp. 195-289.
0022-5010/80/0132-0195 $09.50.
Copyright ©
1980
by D. Reidel Publishing Co. Dordrecht Holland and Boston U.S.A
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 2/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
at the Victorian periodicals of the 1830s makes it clear that the laws
governing the growth of po pulat ion were central to ma ny of the politi-
cal and economic issues being debated at the time and that it would
have been difficult for anyone reading the
E d i n b u r g h R e v i e w
or the
Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w , as Darwin did, not to be familiar with Malthus'
thesis. 4
Any clarification of the process by which Darwin got a theory by
which to wo rk must account for the resonance set up in Darwin's
min d in September 1838 by the interac tion of external and internal
factors. At the very least this implies a careful analysis of the evo luti on
and development of the scientific part of Darwin's endeavors. For as
C. C. Gillispie has aptly no te d in sharpening Pasteur's famou s stat emen t
about chance favoring the prepared mind, the mind has to be not
only prepared b ut cocked ahead of time. 's In September 1838 that
was certainly true of Darwin's mind. Darwin came to Malthus not for
his amu se me nt - as he would have us believe - bu t after reading
Brewster's review of the first two volumes of Comte's
P h i l o s o p h i e
p o s i t i v e . Reading that review had led him to Quetelet's S u r l S o m m e ,
and to a lengthy review of it in the
A t h e n a e u m .
It was there that he
once again came across the Malthusian principle of p opu lat ion growth. 6
His scientific inquiries were thus the stimulus that led him to Malthus,
and in the summer of 1838, when Darwin was led to Malthus by way of Quetelet,
he was also rereading Humboldt's
Political Essay.
The C transmutation notebook
has the following entry on p. 268: Humboldt: New Spain much about castes
etc. ; and on the same page appears: Find out from Statistical Society where M.
Quetelet has published his laws about sexes relative to age of marriages. All
four transmutation notebooks are transcribed in Gavin de Beer, ed., Darwin's
Notebooks on Transmutation of Species, Bull . Brit . Mus. Nat. H ist .) Hist . Se t .) ,
2 ,
(1960), De Beer, M. J. Rowlands, and B. M. Skramorski, ed., Pages Excised
by Darwin, ibid., 3 (1967), 129-176 (excised pages). De Beer's First, Second,
Third, and Fourth notebooks correspond to Darwin's B, C, D, and E note-
books. Throughout I will cite them by Darwin's letter and page number followed
by a lower-case e in the case of excised pages: e.g., C, p. 123.
4. See, e.g., Elie Haldvy, The
Gr ow th o f Philosophic Radicalism
(Boston:
Beacon Press, 1955); Edwin Cannan,
A H is tory o f the Theories o f Product ion and
Dis tr ibut ion in Engl ish Pol i t ical Economy from 1776 to 1848,
3rd ed. (London:
Staples Press, 1917).
5. C. C. GiUispie, private communication. Pasteur's original statement is: In
the fields of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind ; quoted in Rend
Vallery-Radot,
La vie de Pasteur
(Pads: Haehette, 1900), p. 88.
6. See S. S. Schweber, 'The Origin of the
Origin
Revisited, Z
Hist. Biol., 10
(1977), 229-316.
196
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 3/95
Darwin and the Political Economists
and in September 1838 his researches were at a stage where he could
assimilate and use Malthus' insight.
The interaction of external and internal factors is no less important
in explaining the process by which Darwin arrived at his principle of
divergence of character - his explanation o f how diversity is generated.
In this paper I analyze some of the external and internal aspects of the
genesis of the principle of divergence of character, focusing particularly
on the relationship between political economy and evolutionary theory.7
As will become clear, there are many parallels between how Darwin
came to formulate natural selection and how he arrived at the principle
of divergence. Darwin himself indicated that his explanation of the
divergence of characters was essentially equivalent to the concept of the
physiological division of labour that Milne-Edwards had promulgated
in his writings, a That principle, I shall show, was certainly known to
Darwin before 1852, the date usually ascribed to Darwin's insight after
his reading of Milne-Edwards' In troduction h la zoologie gbn~rale. 9
Milne-Edwards himself credited his formulation o f the concept of the
division of physiological labor to the writings of political economists.
Darwin never so credited his principle, yet as I shall document, he was
certainly familiar with the doctrines o f the leading political economists
of the day. The question therefore arises why Milne-Edwards in France
7. For previous investigations of this question, see L. Eisely,
Darwin's Century
N e w York: Anchor Books, 1961), pp. 182-184; C. Limoges, Darwin, Milne-
Edwards, et le prineipe de divergence, XII Congrks International d'Histoire des
Sciences, 1968, 111-115; C. Limoges,La s~lection natureUe, pp. 135-137; Robert
Young, Darwinism and the Division of Labour, The Listener, 88 (1972), 202-
205; H. Grubor and P. Barrett,
Darwin on Man
(New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974),
pp. 117-118; M. P. Winsor,Starfish, Jellyfish, and the Order of Life (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1976), pp. 171-178;E. Mayr,Evolution and the Diversity of
Life; M. T. Ghiselin, The Economy of Nature and the Evolution of Sex (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1974); W. Faye Cannon, The WheweU-Darwin
Controversy, J.
Geol. Soc., 132
(1976), 377-384; Donald Worster,
Nature's
Economy: The Roots o f Ecology
(San Francisco: Sierra Book Club, 1977); Janet
Browne, '~he Charles Darwin-Joseph Hooker Correspondence: An Analysis of
Manuscript Resources and Their Use in Biography, J.
Soc. Bibliog. Nat. Hist., 8
(1978), 352-366.
8. R. C. Stauffer, ed.
Charles Darwin's Natural Selection
(Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 233; Charles Darwin, On the Origin of
Species,
facsimile of the 1st edition, with an Introduction by Ernst Mayr (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964),
p . 1 0 1 .
9. H. Milne-Edwards, Introduction ~ la zoologie g~n~rale ou considerations
sur les tendances de la nature dans la constitution du rbgne animal (Paris: Victor
Masson, 1851).
197
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 4/95
SILVAN S. SCHW EBER
f r e e ly a d d u c e d p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y a s a s o u r c e f o r a b i o lo g i c a l p r i n c ip l e ,
w h e r e a s D a r w i n i n E n g l a n d s t e a d f a s tl y r e f u s e d t o d o s o .
T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e n es is o f t h e p r in c i p le o f d i v er g e n c e t h e r e f o r e
r e q u i r e s f u l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l a s w e l l a s i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s . C o n -
c e r n i n g t h e f o r m e r , m a n y s c h o la r s h a v e s u g g e st e d t h a t t a k e n a s a w h o l e
D a r w i n i a n t h e o r y i s c h a r a c t e ri s ti c a ll y B r it is h . S e v e n t y y e a r s a g o J o h n
T h e o d o r e M e r z i n h i s c la s si c
History o f European Thought
v e n t u r e d t h e
o p i n i o n t h a t p h y s i o l o g y a n d e c o n o m i c s j o i n e d h a n d lo i n V i c t o ri a n
E n g l a n d . D a r w i n ' s
Origin of Species
c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s e v o l u -
t i o n a r y t h o u g h t j o i n i n g h a n d w i t h B r it is h p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y a n d B r it is h
p h i l o s o p h y o f s c ie n c e . M y a i m i n i n v e st ig a t in g t h e f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d
D a r w i n ' s th i n k i n g a b o u t t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f d i v e r si ty is t o s u b s t a n ti a te t h e
t h e si s o f t h e u n i q u e l y B r i t is h c h a r a c t e r o f D a r w i n i a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y .
T h e p h i l o s o p h y o f in d i v id u a l is m t h a t D a r w i n s u b s c r ib e d t o w a s , o f
c o u r s e , a c h a r a c t er i s ti c f e a t u r e o f t h e s c h o o l o f B r i ti sh p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y
f r o m A d a m S m i t h t o M c C u l l o c h . A f f i n i t y f o r , a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h ,
i n d iv i d u a li st ic ( a t o m i c ) e x p l a n a t i o n s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n f e a t u r e s o f
t h e B r i ti sh m i n d i n t h e f ir st h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I t is o n e o f
m y a im s h e r e t o a n al y z e t o w h a t e x t e n t D a r w i n ' s c o m m i t m e n t t o
i n d i v i d u a l is m r e f l e ct s a n i n d e b t e d n e s s t o t h e p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m i s t s a n d
t o t h e B e n t h a m i t e d e d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h t o p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y . S i m i la r ly ,
I a t t e m p t t o s h o w t h a t , w h e r e a s o n t h e C o n t i n e n t u n i v e rs a l p r in c i p le s
w e r e b e i n g a d v a n c e d t o a c c o u n t f o r n a t u r e ' s d i v e rs it y , D a r w i n w a s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y B r i t i s h i n s t r e s s i n g t h e n e e d t o u n d e r s t a n d p a r t i c u l a r
a n d s e p ar a te p h e n o m e n a a s r e f le c t in g u n iv e rs a ls . 11 B u t u n d o u b t e d l y
D a r w i n ' s c o n s t a n t a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n a ll i ts
u n i q u e n e s s i n o r d e r t o a p p r e h e n d t h e u n iv e r sa l fe a t u r es o f i ts h i s t o r y
a r e a l so a s p e c t s o f h i s g e n i u s.
1o. John Theodore Merz , A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth
Century 4 vols. (Edinburgh, 1904-1912), II , 395 -396 ,415 . See also the perceptive
remarks in vol. I comparing the British approach with that o f the contine nt in
physics, mathematics, and the other sciences. For comments on a somewhat
later period, see Gerald L. Geison,
Michael Foster and the Cambridge School o f
Physiology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 220, 348-351.
11. Darwin's indebtedness to Scott ish philosophy merits a thorough study.
Scott ish philosophy from Hume to Dugalt Stewart and Thomas Browne rejected
the notion that one could explain anything by referring to ult imate principles or
processes whose existence and operation could not be ascertained from the
observation o f part icular instances. An d H um e's notion o f causali ty played a
central role in the development o f the social sciences and in ascertaining
mechanisms of evolution. See Norman Kemp Smith, The Philosophy of David
Hume (Lo ndo n: Macmil lan, 1941); Thom as Browne 's Inqu iry into the Rela tion
of Cause and Effects , in Geo ffrey Keynes, ed., The Works of Sir Thomas Browne
1 9 8
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 5/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
O f c o u r s e , i n t e m a l f a c t o r s a ls o p l a y e d a r o le in t h e g e n e s is o f D a r -
w i n ' s p r i n c i p l e o f d i v e r g en c e o f c h a r a c te r . I n f a c t , D a r w i n h a d a l r e a d y
o b t a i n e d t h e
essential
i n s ig h t s i n t o t h e d i v e r g e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r s d u r i n g
t h a t a m a z i n g l y c r e at iv e p e r i o d f r o m 1 8 3 7 t o 1 8 4 1 . W h e n h e w r o t e th e
S k e t c h 12 i n 1 8 4 2 , D a r w i n v e r y p r o b a b l y th o u g h t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m
h a d b e e n s o l v e d . I n t h e e n s u i n g y e a r s , h e e v i d e n t l y f o r g o t s o m e o f t h e
i n s i g h ts h e h a d e a r l i e r r e c o r d e d in h i s n o t e b o o k s , f o r t h e E s s a y o f
1 8 4 4 i s m u c h l e s s e x p l i c i t o n t h e i s su e t h a n t h e S k e t c h o f 1 8 4 2 .
T h e q u e s t i o n i s w h y ? F o r t h e a n s w e r , I b e l ie v e w e m u s t e x p l o r e c e r t a in
p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n s . W h e n D a r w i n o p e n e d h is t r a n s m u t a t i o n
n o t e b o o k s 13 i n J u l y 1 8 3 7 h e w a s e l a b o r a t i n g t w o r e s e a rc h p r o g r a m s
s i m u l t a n e o u s ly . O n t h e o n e h a n d , h e w as t r y i n g t o c o r r o b o r a t e t h e
fact
o f e v o l u t i o n , a n d o n t h e o t h e r , h e w a s s ea r c h in g f o r t h e
mechanism
o f
e v o l u t io n . A l t h o u g h D a r w i n r e a li z ed th a t t h e t w o p r o g r a m s co u l d b e
k e p t s e p a r a te , t h e y n o n e t h e l e s s b e c a m e i n t e r t w i n e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f te r
t h e M a l t h u s i a n i n s ig h t . I b e l ie v e t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g t h is in s i g h t
D a r w i n f e l t t h a t h e h a d a u n i v e r sa l m e c h a n i s m a n d t h a t n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n
6 vols. , (L ond on : Fa ber and Gw yer , 1928); J . B . M orre l l , ' q 'h e Un ivers i ty of
Ed inburgh in the La te E igh teen th Cen tu ry ,
1sis, 62
(1971) , 158-171. F or re -
marks on the Br i t i sh cha rac te r o f Da rwin ian evo lu t ion see E . M ayr , Fh e Na tu re
o f the Darwin ian Revo lu t ion ,
Science, 176
(1971) , 981-989, re pr in ted in M ayr ' s
Evolution and the Diversity o f Life, pp . 277-296 . The a t t empt to cha rac te r i ze
Darwinian evolu t ionary the ory as Bri t ish has a long his to ry . I t has been observed
repea ted ly tha t J ames Cowles Pr i cha rd , Wi ll iam Lawrence , Joseph Adam s , J ames
An derson , Wil liam M arsha ll , an d Char les W ells, among others , were look ing for a
mechanism to exp la in the or ig in of organ ic d ivers i ty based sole ly on individu al
he red i ty and va r i a t ion . See Herbe r t Hayes Odo m, Gro und Work fo r Da rwini sm:
The ories of Here di ty and Varia t ion in Gre a t Bri ta in , 1790 -1820 , Ph.D. d iss .,
Harvard Univers i ty , 1972; P. J . Dar l ington, Darwin's Place in History (Oxfo rd :
BlackweU, 1959), pp. 19-24; Jacques Roger,
Les sciences de la vie dans la pens~e
franeaise du XVlI1e sibcle (Paris: A Col in , 1963); and J . B . M orre l l , Individua l ism
and the St ruc ture of Bri t i sh Sc ience in 1830, Hist. Stud. Phys. Sci., 3 (1971) ,
183-204.
12 . Bo th the Ske tch o f 1842 and the Es say o f 1844 appea r in Cha rles
Darwin, The Foundations of the Origin of Species : Two Essays Written in
1842 and 1844, ed. Fran c is Darwin (Cam bridge: Cambridge Un ivers i ty Press ,
1909), and in Charles Darwin and A. R. Wallace,
Evolution by Natural Selection
(Cambridge: Cam bridge Univers i ty Press , 1958). My c i ta t ions re fer to the Darwin
and W allace bo ok .
13 . De Beer , ed . , Da rw in ' s No tebook s on T ransm uta t ion o f Spec ie s ; Gav in
de Bee r and M. J . Rowlands , ed . , Ad den da and Cor r igenda , Bull. Brit. Mus.
(Nat. Hist.) Hist Ser., 2 (1961 ); De Beer, Row lands , and Sk ram orski , ed . , Pages
Exc i s ed by Darw in , pp . 129-176.
1 9 9
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 6/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
would metamorphose all of biology, in the same way that Newton's
insights had revolutionized the physical sciences. 14 In the summer of
1839, when Darwin dosed his fourth transmutation notebook, he had
a unitary evolutionary view of everything around him: the planetary
system, our own planet, its geology, geography, and climate, its living
organisms (including, of course, man) and their social organizations.
More important, he was convinced that the dynamics of this evolu-
tionary process was explained by the invariable laws of physics and
chemistry and by natural selection without the necessity of divine
intervention at any stage or level.
Ghiselin has perceptively and convincingly argued that to under-
stand the genesis and execution of the various research programs
Darwin undertook after 1839, one must keep in mind the centrality of
natural selection as the dynamical exl~lanatory theory. Is From 1839 to
1859 Darwin was committed to the following overall view of natural
selection:
Members of a species exhibit variations. These variations are
manifest in individuals as different morphologies, physiologies, and
behaviors. Some of these variations are heritable. Because in each
generation more individuals are produced than can survive to reproduce,
there is a struggle for existence. In this struggle (which is interspecific,
intraspecific, and with the physical environment), certain heritable
traits will render an organism better adapted to its environment than
other members of the species (not endowed with this trait or endowed
with other traits). The fitter individuals - tha t is, the ones better
adapted to their environment - will therefore leave more offspring
(with similar traits). Adaptation of the various parts of an organism or
between the organism and its environment is, however, never perfect.
The many needs of the organism, the complexity of the organism and
of the environment, all make perfect adaption 16 impossible even for
the simplest organism (although for some organisms their adaptation
14. S. S. Schweber, The Young Darwin, £ His t . Bio l . 12 (1979), 175-192.
15. Ghiselin, The T r i u m p h o f t h e D a r w i n ia n M e t h o d .
16. In the Essay of 1844 Darwin does speak of perfect adaptation with
reference to sexual selection: '°rhe most rigorous males, implying perfect ad-
aptation, must generally gain the victory in their several contexts. This kind of
selection, however, is less rigorous than the other [i.e., natural] (p. 121). For a
sharply contrasting view, see Dov Ospovat, Darwin after Malthus, address at
the History of Science meeting, Madison, Wisconsin, Oct. 31, 1978, and '~Perfect
Adaptation and Teleological Explanation: Approaches to the Problem of the
History of Life in Mid-Nineteenth Century,
Stud. Hist . Biol . 2
(1978), 33-56.
200
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 7/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i ca l E c o n o m i s t s
t o t h e i r e s s e n t i a ll y c o n s t a n t e n v i r o n m e n t i s s u c h a s t o a l lo w t h e m t o
s u rv i ve w i t h o u t f u r t h e r e v o l u t i o n f o r v e r y l o n g t i m e s ) .
B u t t h e c a u se s o f v a r i a ti o n s , a n d o f t h e i r f r e q u e n c y , c o n s t i t u t e d
p r o b l e m s t h a t D a r w i n w a s t o g r a p p le w i t h u n su c c e s sf u l l y t h r o u g h o u t
h i s l if e . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f s ex u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n w i t h v a r i a t io n s h a d b e e n
a p p a r e n t t o h im f r o m t h e t i m e h e o p e n e d t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n n o t e b o o k s .
I t i s o n e o f D a r w i n ' s g r e a t i n s ig h t s t h a t h e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t v a r i a ti o n s
w e r e n o n d i r e c t e d a s e a r l y a s 1 8 3 8 , a n d c o u l d a c c e p t t h e m a t h i s l e v el
o f d e s c r i p t i o n a s r a n d o m e l e m e n t s - e ve n t h o u g h h e b e l i ev e d t h a t
u l t i m a t e l y t h e y w e r e c a u s e d . T h e r o le o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n c a u si n g
v a r i a t i o n s w a s c o m p l e x a n d d i f f i c u l t t o s p e c i fy . D a r w i n b e l i ev e d t h a t
a n o r g a n i s m p l a c e d u n d e r n e w c o n d i t i o n s v ar ie s i n e v e r y t r if l in g
r e sp e c t 1 7 t o s o m e d e g r e e a n d t h a t s o m e o f th e s e s l ig h t v a r i a t io n s a re
( o r te n d t o b e c o m e ) h e r e d i t a r y .
T h e d y n a m i c i n t e r r e la t i o n b e t w e e n e n v i r o n m e n t , v a r ia t io n s , n a t u r a l
s e l e c t i o n , a n d a d a p t a t i o n s w a s a l w a y s p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f D a r w i n ' s o v e r a ll
v i ew . N a t u r a l s e l e c t io n r i g o r o u s l y s e l e c t e d v a r i a t io n s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e
e l e m e n t s t h a t w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r v a r i a t i o n s a n d t h e r a t e o f v a r i a ti o n s .
I n t h a t s en s e n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n h a d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e o r i g in o f s ex .
I n d e e d , o n e o f D a r w i n ' s r e s e a r c h e f fo r t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l if e w a s t o e x -
p l a in t h e o r ig i n o f s e x a n d s u ch r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s as h e r m a p h r o d i s m ,
T
t h e d i c h o g a m y o f p l a n t s , 19 a n d t h e d i m o r p h i s m o f s e x u a l l y r e p r o d u c i n g
o r g a n i s m s . 2 ° T o D a r w i n t h e s e l f -r e f l e x iv e a n d s e l f - r e g u l a ti n g c h a r a c t e r
o f h i s d y n a m i c t h e o r y w a s o n e o f i t s e s se n t i a l a s p ec t s . I f t o t h e y o u n g
D a r w i n o f 1 8 3 9 i t w a s th i s f e a t u r e w h i c h m a d e h i m h o p e h is t h e o r y
m i g h t i n d e e d e n c o m p a s s t h e e n t i r e b io l o g i c a l s p h e r e , t h i s s a m e a s p e c t
17. Darw in and Wal lace , Evo lu t ion by Na tura l Se lec t ion p . 41 . The quo ta t ion
occurs in the open ing s en tence o f the Ske tch o f 1842 .
18 . Da rw in 's in t e re s t in he rmap hrod i sm i s a l ready ev iden t in the no teboo ks .
See, e.g., B, p. 96 , C, p. 245, D, p. 174, a nd E , pp . 70-71. See th e l is t ings in
Co nco rdan ce -D arw in Manusc ript s a t Cambr idge Unive rs i ty L ib ra ry , ed . P . H .
Ba rre t t (Michigan S ta te U nivers i ty , 1977). I than k Professor Ba rre t t for mak ing
a copy o f the Con cordance avai lab le to me .
19 . Box 49 o f Da rwin ' s pape rs a t Cambr idge Unive rs i ty L ib ra ry con ta ins
h i s no te s on d ichogam y in p lan t s ( the m a tu r ing o f the an the rs and s tigmas o f
ind iv idua l f lower a t d i f fe ren t t imes ) da ted 1841 . A t tha t t ime Darwin v iewed
d ichogam y no t o n ly a s a dev ice to reduce the s e l f- fe r ti l iz a t ion o f ind iv idua l f lowers
bu t also as a means o f favoring th e crossing o f diffe ren t individuals .
20. In his A u t o b i o g r a p h y L L D p . 74 , Da rwin wro te , I had no t i ced in 1838
o r 1 8 3 9 t h e d i m o r p h i s m o f Linum f la i r im and had a t f i r s t t hough t tha t i t was
mere ly a case o f unmean ing va r i ab i li ty . Bu t on examin ing the com mo n spec ie s
o f Pr imula I found tha t the two fo rms were mu ch too regu la r and cons tan t to be
thus v iewed .
2 0 1
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 8/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
may well have d eluded the older Darwin in to believing that he was no t
abando ning his original theory when he adopted a more Lamarckian
position in the third a nd later editions of the Origin.
I submit that in 1839 Darwin felt that the p henomenological facts
that he had accumulated in the transmut ation notebooks would be
explained by natural selection, in con jun cti on with geological, geo-
graphic, and climatological data and principles. I believe that in 1839
Darwin felt confid ent th at na tural selection would explain not only the
two primary facts of the biological world, adap tati on and the increasing
diversity of organisms over t ime, bu t also such Cuviedan formal laws as
the uni ty of type, the condit ions of existence, and the correlation
of parts (to the exten t that they were true), and more particularly, the
many biogeographical facts that he had gleaned from his vast readings
and that play a central role in the tran smut atio n notebooks. 21 Darwin
21. The centrality of biogeography in the notebooks has been stressed by
Limoges, La sdlection naturelle pp. 57-59, and by R. C. Stauffer, Ecology in the
long Manuscript Version of Darwin's Origin of Species and Linnaeus' Economy of
Nature, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 104 (1960), 235-241, and Haeckel, Darwin,
and Ecology, Quart. Rev. Biol. 32 (1937), 138-144. See also P. Vorzirnmer,
Darwin's Ecology and Its Influence upon His Theory,
Isis 56
(1965), 148-155;
F. Egerton, Humboldt, Darwin, and Population, J. Hist. Biol. 3 (1970), 326-
360; Egerton, Studies of Animal Population from Lamarck to Darwin, aT.Hist.
Biol. 1
(1968), 255-259. For earlier but post-Or/gin, nontechnical presentations
of biogeography, see Asa Gray, Species as to Variation, Geographical Distribu-
tion, and Succession, Amer. J. Sci. and Arts May 1863, reprinted in Asa Gray,
Darwiniana ed. A. H. Dupree (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1963). Biogeography also played a major role in Wallace's development of natural
selection theory. In 1876, with Darwin's encouragement, Wallace wrote The
Geographical Distribution of Animals (London: Macmillan, 1876), noting in the
preface: I am well aware that this first outline of a great subject is, in parts, very
meagre and sketchy; and, though perhaps overburdened with some kinds of
detail, yet leaves many points most inadequately treated. It is therefor~ with some
hesitation that I venture to express the hope that I have made some approach to
the standard of excellence I have aimed at; - which was, that my book should
bear a similar relation to the eleventh and twelfth chapters of the Origin of
Species as Mr. Darwin's Animals and Plants Under Domestication does to the
first chapter of that work. Should it be judged worthy of such a rank, my long,
and often wearisome labours, will be well repaid. See also A. R. Wallace and W.
T. Thiselton-Dyer, '~flie Distribution of Life, Animal and Vegetable in Space
and Time, Humboldt Library of Popular Science Literature January 1885;
and Thiselton-Dyer's Geographical Distribution of Plants and Hans Gadow's
Geographical Distribution of Animals, chap. 16 and 17 in A. C. Seward, ed.,
Darwin and Modern Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1909). For
other interesting articles on biogeography, see David Starr Jordan, Isolation as a
Factor in Organic Evolution, in Fifty Years of Darwinism: Modern Aspects o f
202
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 9/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
h i m s e l f st r e ss e d t h a t t h e b i o g e o g r a p h y o f th e G a l ~ p a g o s w a s c ru c i a l f o r
h i s re c o g n i t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n i n n a t u r e .
B i o g e o g r a p h y w a s o f p a r t ic u l a r in t e r e s t t o D a r w i n n o t o n l y b ec a u s e
i t c o u l d s t r e n g t h e n t h e c a s e fo r e v o l u t i o n ( d e s c e n t a n d th e a s s u m p t i o n
t h a t s p e c i e s o r i g i n a t e i n w e l l - d e f i n e d si n g le c e n t e r s a t w e l l - d e f ' m e d t i m e s
a n d m i g r a te t h e r e f r o m b e i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e q u a l i ta t iv e fa c ts o f
g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ) , b u t a l so b e c a u s e b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l d a t a c o u l d
b e e x p r e s s e d q u a n t i t a t iv e l y . A f t e r t h e M a l t h u s i a n i n s ig h t , t h e i s su e
b e c a m e h o w n a t u r a l s e le c t io n a n d t h e g e o lo g i ca l h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r t h
w o u l d a c c o u n t f o r t h e se b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c ts . 2 z T h a t s o m e o f t h e f a c t s
w e r e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y s t a t e d a s s t a t is t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s m a d e t h e m v e r y
a t t r a c t iv e s i n ce D a r w i n ag r e e d w i t h H e r s c h e l a n d C o m t e t h a t t h e
u l t i m a t e o b j e c t o f p h y s i c a l t h e o r i e s is t o
p r e d i c t , a s e x a c t l y a s p o s s i b l e
a ll th e p h e n o m e n a w h i c h a b o d y w i l l p r e s e n t w h e n p l a c e d in a n y g i v en
c i r c u m s t a n c e s . 2 3
B y t h e 1 8 4 0 s b i o g e o g r a p h y w a s t h e c o r e o f n a t u r a l h i s t o r y . I m -
p o r t a n t b i o g e o g r a p h ic a l q u e s t io n s w e r e b e in g p o s e d b y m e n w i t h
t ra i n in g a n d c o m p e t e n c e i n b o t a n y a n d / o r z o o l o g y a n d in g e o l o g y ,
p a l e o n t o l o g y , a n d g e o g r a p h y , m e n s u c h a s L y e l l , E . F o r b e s , J . H o o k e r ,
a n d D a n a . B u t n o n e o f t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s w a s t r y i n g t o a n s w e r si m u l-
t a n e o u s l y a s m a n y q u e s t i o n s a s D a r w i n . F o r b e s i d e s a d d r e s s in g t h e i s su e
o f c e n t e r s o f c r e a t i o n , D a r w i n w a s a l so u s i n g b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l d a t a t o
c l a r i f y t h e r o l e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n p r o d u c i n g v a r i a t io n s , t o v e r i f y h i s
a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e a b s o l u t e n e s s o f c o m p e t i t i o n , t o s u p p o r t h i s
Evo lu t ion
(New Yo rk : Hen ry Hol t , 1909) ; J . B . S . Ha ldane , Na tura l Se lec t ion ,
in P. R. Bell , ed. ,
Darwin 's Biological Work: Some Aspec ts Recons idered
(Cam-
br idge: Cam br idge Univers i ty Press, 1959); and P . J . Dar l ington , J r . , Darw in and
Z o o g e o g r a p h y ,
Proc . Am er . P hi l. Soc . , 10 3
(1959), 307-319.
2 2 . T h e n o t e b o o k s c o n t a i n m a n y r e f e r e n c e s t o A . y o n Hu m b o l d t a n d A .
B o n p l a n d ' s
Essai sur la g~ographie des plantes
(Par is , 1805) and to Humboldt ' s
l a te r e s says on the l aws obse rved in the d i s t r ibu t ion of vege tab le fo rms . Th e
la t te r e s says (or ig ina l ly wr i t t en in F rench) were t r ans la ted in to Engl i sh and
a p p e a r e d in t h e Phi l. M ag. J . , 4 7 (1816) , 446 , and in the Edinburgh Phil. J., 6
(1822) , 273. The ea r l ier essay a lso app eared in 1817 as
De Dis tr ibut ione Geo-
graphica Plantarum
(Pads ) ; the r e Humbold t showed tha t in p lan t s the average
num ber of species in genera i s l a rge r by a f ac tor o f two in F rance as compared
wi th the num ber in L apland . Hum bold t be l ieved tha t the num ber of spec ies in
each order i s de te rmined by a m athem at ica l law and tha t th i s l aw r emains cons tan t
th rough out any geo log ica l epoch . Darwin apprec ia ted Hum bold t ' s e f for t s to use
these quan t i t a tive r e la tions to p r ed ic t p lan t d i s t r ibu t ions in s imi la r c l ima t ic
r eg ions. T he E n o teb oo k co nta ins many ques t ions r ela t ing to qu ant i t a t ive b io-
geographical data.
23 . Schweber , Or ig in of the
Origin,
p. 264.
2 0 3
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 10/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
view tha t adapta t ions were toward s ta t ions in the eco nomy of
na ture , to corre la te the fossi l record wi th geologica l his t ory in t ime and
space , and to tes t de ta i led mech anis ms of spec ia t ion - and a ll this to
s t reng then the case of na tura l se lec t ion.
Darwin ' s in te re s t in b iogeography had probably been s t imula ted
while he was a t Cambridge by Henslow,24 as well as by reading of
24. In reviewing John Richardson's
Fauna Boreali-America
in the
Edinburgh
Review 52
(1831), 328-360, James Wilson wrote an essay on the geographical
distribution of animals that surveyed the field as of 1830, before the publication
of LyeU's
Principles of Geology.
Wilson wrote: A knowledge of the various
phenome na pre sented by the different groups of animals and plants, in accordance
with the latitude, the longitude, and the altitude of their position constitutes the
science .. . and forms one of the mos t ir~teresting and important branches of
natural history . . . The geographical distribution of animals presents a wide field
for speculation, although t he modes by which that distribution has been effected
will probably remain ever concealed from human knowle dge . Their gradual
extension by natural means, from a single center of creation, scarcely falls within
the sphere of credibility; and thus the creation of various groups of species over
different points of the earth's surface . . . or the removal and dispersion, by
supernatural agency, o f the greater proportion of existing species from an original
center seem to be the two p o i n t s. . , to be il lu st ra te d. .. It is for the naturalist
• to collect an ample, accurate and extended series of facts ... and, by com-
paring and combining these determinant observations, to deduce the laws in
accordance with which species and genera are now dispersed over the surface
of the earth. As a footnot e to this last sentence, Wilson added: One of the
most important of those preliminary enquiries which are essential to a proper
comprehension of zoological geography, consists of the investigation and as-
certainment (at least approximately) of the limits which nature has assigned to
the variation in the specific characters of animals, and the establishment of fixed
and determinate principles, by reference to which it may be discovered whether
certain distinctions were sufficient to constitute a specific difference, or were
merely the result of climate, or some peculiar or accidental combination of
circumstances . . . One of the chief difficulties . . . in tracing the distribution
of widely-extended species, arises from the uncertainty under which naturalists
labour, from the want o f a positive and assured test to ascertain whethe r a certain
character should be regarded as expressive of specific distinction , or ought rathe r
to be ranked as within the legitimate range of individual variation . . . Where we
have acquired a knowledge of the habits and economy of a species, and of the
individuals of that species, wheresoever found , and if these are uniformly the
same under different and far-removed localities, then a distinction in plumage
should be rega rded as insufficient to cons titut e a specific difference between them;
but when we f'md the individual from one country or c ontine nt characterized and
distinguished by some peculiarity in their instinctive habits, or modes o f life, as
well as by a cognizable different of aspect, we are then authorized to infer that
they are specifically distinct, and are entit led to rank them accordingly. We have
entered into these apparently trifling details, because we are aware that some
modern writers deny that any species is widely distributed.
204
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 11/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
H u m b o l d t i n p r e p a r i n g f o r h i s C a n a r i e s I s l a n d tr i p . 2s T h e Beagle h a d
c a r r i e d m a n y o f t h e c l a ss ic s o f b i o g e o g r a p h y o f th e p e r i o d , a m o n g t h e m
H u m b o l d t ' s w o r k s , R o b e r t B r o w n ' s A p p e n d i x t o Flinder's Voyage, and
A . P . d e C a n d o l l e ' s i m p o r t a n t a n d i n f l u en t i a l w o r k s o n p h y t o g e o -
g r a p h y . 26 I n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 3 2 D a r w i n r e c e iv e d t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e o f
L y e U ' s Principles o f Geology, 27 w h i c h c o u l d
pty
h a v e b e e n s u b t i t l e d
B i o g e o g r a p h y , s in c e i ts m a j o r c o n c e r n s w e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f a c ts
a b o u t t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r g a n i s m s a n d a d i s c us s io n o f
w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a n a c c e p t a b le e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h o se f a c t s ) s L y e U h a d
2 5 . I n t h e Autobiography, D a r w i n i n d ic a t e s t h a t d u r i n g m y l a s t y e a r a t
C a m b r i d g e , I r e a d w i t h c a r e a n d p r o f o u n d i n t e r e s t H u m b o l d t ' s Personal Narrative'
(LLD, p . 47 ) . He r ead pas sages f rom i t a l oud t o h i s f r i ends on t he i r excu r s ions
w i t h H e n s l o w . D a r w i n ' s p e r s o n a l c o p y o f v o ls . I a n d I I o f A . V o n H u m b o l d t a n d
A . B o n p l a n d ' s Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the
New Continent during the Years 1799-1804, t rans . Helen Wil l iams, 7 vols . in 9
( L o n d o n , 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 2 9 ) , w a s g i v e n t o h i m b y H e n s l o w an d i s i n s c ri b e d J . S .
H e n s l o w t o h i s f r i e n d C . D a r w i n o n h i s d e p a r t u r e f r o m E n g l a n d u p o n a v o y a g e
r o u n d t h e W o r l d 2 1 S e pt . 1 8 3 1 .
2 6 . D a r w i n n o t e d i n h i s
Autobiography
t h a t h e h a d m e t R o b e r t B r o w n
seve ra l t imes be fo re boa rd ing t he Beagle, a n d h e w r o t e H e n s l o w t h a t h e h a d
r e c e i v e d ad v i c e f r o m B r o w n a b o u t m i c r o s c o p e s . A m o n g D a r w i n ' s r e p ri n t c o l le c -
t i o n i s a c o p y o f B r o w n ' s Observations on the Organs and Mode of Fecundation
in Orehideae andAsclepiadeae ( L o n d o n : R i c h a r d T a y l o r , 1 8 3 1 ) , i n s cr i b e d G i v e n
t o m e b y M r. B r o w n o n F r i d a y , D e c e m b e r 9 t h , 1 8 3 1 . I n v i e w o f B r o w n ' s t ra v e ls
a s a na tu r a l i s t and h i s phy togeograph ic i n t e r e s t s i t i s no t un l i ke ly t ha t Brown
w o u l d h a v e s tr e ss e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b i o g e o g r a p h y i n t a l k in g t o D a r w i n .
D a r w i n ' s l e t t e r s t o H e n s l o w d u r i n g t h e v o y a g e o f t h e Beagle i n d i c a te t h a t t h e
Dictionnaire elassique dTffstoire naturelle (Par i s : R ey e t Grar t ie r , 182 2-183 1) ( in
w h i c h C a n d o l l e h a d w r i t te n t h e a r ti c l e o n p l a n t g e o g r a p h y a n d H u m b o l d t t h a t o n
g e o g n o s y ) a n d H u m b o l d t ' s
Voyages aux regions equinoxiales
were aboa rd , and ,
m o r e o v e r , t h a t D a r w i n w a s re a d i n g t h e m . S e e N o r a B a r l o w , e d ., Darwin and
Henslow: The Growth of an Idea, Letters, 1831-1860 ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s it y o f
Cal i forn ia Press , 1867) , in par t icu lar le t te r 1 , p . 26 , le t te r 19 , p . 54 . Candol le ' s
e s say on p l an t geog rap hy had o r ig ina ll y appea red i n 18 20 a s t he Essai el~mentaire
de g~ographie botanique; in t h is f o r m , i t w a s w e l l k n o w n a n d h a d p r o v e d v e r y
i n f lu e n t ia l . I t c o n t a i n e d t h e p r o f o u n d s t a t e m e n t : A l l t h e t h e o r y o f g e o g r a p h i ca l
b o t a n y r e s ts o n t h e p a r t ic u l a r i d e a o n e h o l d s a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f li v in g t h in g s a n d
t h e p e r m a n e e o f s p e c i e s .
27 . Cha r l e s Lye l l , Principles of Geology, v o l . I I ( L o n d o n : J o h n M u r r a y ,
1832) .
28 . Chap . 5 o f vo l . I I o f LyeU ' s Principles of Geology, p . 66 , beg ins w i th :
N e x t t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r s p ec i es h a v e a r e a l e x i s t en c e , t h e
cons id e ra t i on o f t he l aws wh ich r egu l a t e t he i r geog raph ica l d i s t r i bu t i on i s a
s u b j e c t o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e g e o l o g i st . I t i s o n l y b y s t u d y i n g t h e s e l a w s
w i t h a t t e n t i o n , b y o b s e rv i n g th e p o s i t i o n w h i c h g r o u p s o f s p ec ie s o c c u p y a t p re -
s e n t, a n d i n q u i r in g h o w t h e s e m a y b e v a r i e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e b y m i g r a ti o n s ,
2 0 5
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 12/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
w r i t t e n V o l u m e I I , h e w r o t e h is fa t h e r in 1 8 2 9 , i n o r d e r t o s o lv e t h e
g r a n d p r o b l e m , w h e t h e r t h e v a r io u s l iv i n g o r g a n i c sp e c ie s c a m e i n t o
b e i n g g r a d u a l l y a n d s i n g ly i n i n s u l a t e d s p o t s , o r c e n t r e s o f c r e a t i o n ,
o r i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s a t o n c e , a n d a l l a t t h e s a m e t i m e . 29 I n t h e s a m e
l e t t e r L y e l l h a d w r i t t e n , T h e l a t t e r c a n n o t , I a m a l r e a d y p e r s u a d e d , b e
m a i n t a i n e d . T h e f i r st n o t e b o o k o n t r a n s m u t a t i o n , t h e B n o t e b o o k ,
w h i c h D a r w i n o p e n e d i n J u l y 1 8 3 7 , i s f u l l o f b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l d a t a a n d
q u e r ie s . I n i t D a r w i n d e m o n s t r a t e s h i s i n t i m a t e a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h
t h e s t a n d a r d w o r k s d e a l i n g w i t h b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s : t h o s e
b y H u m b o l d t , C a n d o l l e , R . B r o w n , P r i t c h a r d , L y e l l . a° T h e B n o t e -
b o o k a ls o r e c o r d s t h a t D a r w i n h a d s t u d i e d S w a i n s o n ' s
Treatise on the
Geography and Classification o f Animals. 31
A l t h o u g h D a r w i n c o n -
s i d e r e d S w a i n s o n ' s v i e w o n c l a s si f i c at i o n b a s e d o n M a c L a e y ' s q u i n e r i a n
s y s t em w o n d e r f u l l y a b s u r d , h e m u s t s u r e ly h a v e a g r ee d w i t h S w a i n s o n
t h a t t h e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s fa c i n g n a t u r a l h i s t o r i a n s w e r e :
W h a t a r e t h e c a u se s t h a t h a v e p r o d u c e d t h i s d i s s i m i l a r i t y o f c r e a t u re s ?
a n d s e c o n d l y , i s t h e r e
method
i n a l l t h i s a m a z i n g d i v e r s i t y ? 32 T h e
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e B n o t e b o o k r e c o r d s t h e s p l i t t in g o f sp e c i es i n t o
b r a n c h e s - t h a t i s , t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f d i v e r s i t y - a s a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l
fa c t . 33
O r g a n i z e d b e i n g s r e p r e s e n t t r e e , irregularly branched. ( B , p . 2 1 )
by changes in phy s ica l geograp hy, and o the r causes , tha t we can hop e to learn
whe the r the du ra t ion o f species be l imi ted , o r in wha t man ne r the s t a t e o f the
anim ate world is a ffec ted by the endless v ic iss i tudes o f the inanim ate . Vol . I I
o f L y e l l ' s Principles i s a l so impor tan t because i t con ta ins many re fe rences to
CandoUe, Brown, an d H um boldt , w hich wou ld have s t imu la ted Darwin to read
these w orks.
29. M rs . Lyel l , ed . ,
Life Letters and Journals of Sir Charles Lyeli Bart.
2 vols . (Lo ndo n: Joh n M urray , 1881) , I , 246.
30 . See the en t r i e s unde r the se names in Ba r re t t ' s Conc ordance to the
no tebooks .
31. William Swainson,
A Treatise on the Geography and Classification of
Animals
(Lo ndo n: Longmans , 1835); see B, pp . 67 , 92 , and 276.
32. Swainson,
Treatise on the Geography and Classification of Animals
pp .
1-2.
33 . The t r ee -o f -l i fe and co ra r ' -o f - l i f e me taphor an d diag rams a re in t roduced
ear ly in the 'B notebook, pp . 21-24; see the d iscuss ion in Gruber and Barre t t ,
Darwin on Man
(New Yo rk: E. P . Du t ton , 1974); H. Gru ber , Da rw in ' s
Tree of
Nature and Othe r Images o f Wide Scop e . in On Aesthetics in Science ed. J .
Wechsler (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1978).
2 0 6
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 13/95
Darwin and the Political Economists
The tree of life should perhaps be called the coral of life, base of
branches dead; so tha t passages cannot be seen. (B, p. 25)
The b ottom of the tree of life is utterly ro tten and obliterated in the
course of ages. (B, pp. 25-26)
What was at issue was the cause and mechanism of the splitting.
When Darwin opened his transmutation notebooks he has already
committed to the theory of descent. On that view all the different
species of a genus descended from a common ancestor. The members o f
a species must therefore at some remote time have inhabited a well-
defined area from which their descendants spread to the regions they
now occupy. In those cases where physical barriers such as mountain
chains and oceans separate the areas now occupied by the same group,
the question of how the migration was effected must be answered.
Since most of the existing flora and fauna came into existence during
the Tertiary and Secondary periods, the nature of and the changes in the
surface of the earth during these periods had to be addressed. Darwin
did so. a4 Al though he did not divulge his views on the mutability of
species to Lyell in the 1837-1839 period, biogeography was probably
the subject most freely discussed between them relating to the mystery
of mysteries. Both were concerned with migration mechanisms and
possible migration routes consistent with the geological history o f the
earth, since both believed in single centers of creation. Lyell, who in
1838 believed in the f'trdty of species (but also in their extinction),
would only go so far as to consider the introduction of a new species
as occurring through natural, secondary (though unknown) causes. 3s
Darwin, the private transmutationist, had to supply a detailed mecha-
nism for the origin of new species. To both it was clear that geographic
34. In Lyelrs Princ ip les o f Geology , which Darwin studied carefully in its
original form in the f'trst edition of 1830-1833 and thereafter in its various re-
visions, the Tertiary period received special attention. The fossil record of the
mollusks of the Tertiary was the basis of the time reckoning Lyell had developed.
See M. Rudwiek, The
Meaning o f Fossi ls : Episodes in the H is tory o f Palaeontology
(New YorK: American Elsevier, 1972); M. Rudwick, '°l'he Strategy of Lyell's
Principles o f G eolo gy, Is is , 61
(1970), 4-33; L. G. Wilson,
Charles Lye l l , The
Years to 1841: The Revolut ion in Geology (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1972); and particularly M. Rudwiek, Charles Lyell's Dream of a Statistical
Palaeontology, Palaeontology, 21 (1978), 225-244.
35. W. F. Cannon, '°l'he Uniformitarian-Catastrophist Debate, Isis, 51
(1960), 38-55, and '°l'he Problem of Miracles in the 1830's,
Vict. Stud. , 4
(1960), 5-32; see alsoL i f e o f L y e l l, I, 467.
207
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 14/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
i s o l a t i o n p l a y e d a s p e c ia l r o l e in t h e p r o c e s s . D a r w i n h a d w i t n e s s e d a t
f i rs t h a n d t h e e n d p r o d u c t o f t h e i s o l a t i o n p r o c e s s i n t h e G a l ~i pa go s. H i s
m e c h a n i s m f o r s p e c i a t i o n is e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e
f i rs t t r a n s m u t a t i o n n o t e b o o k : 36 i s o l a t e s p e c ie s , e s p e c i a l ly w i t h s o m e
c h a n g e p r o b a b l y v a r y q u i c k e r ( B , p . 1 7 ) . T h i s i s o l a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n
p e r m a n e n t v a r ie t ie s , p r o d u c e d b y c o n f i n e d b r e e d i n g a n d c h an g i ng
c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h v a r ie t ie s b e c a m e n e w s p ec ie s w h e n t h e y n o l o ng e r
i n t e r b r e d w i t h t h e p a r e n t f o r m : a s p ec ie s a s s o o n a s o n c e f o r m e d b y
s e p a r a t i o n r e p u g n a n c e t o i n t e r m a r r i a g e - s e t t le i t ( B , p . 2 4 ) . E a r l i e r,
i n 1 8 2 5 , V o n B u c h h a d a r r i v e d a t a c o n c l u s i o n i d e n t i c a l t o D a r w i n ' s
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r o l e o f is o l a t i o n i n t h e m e c h a n i s m o f s p e c i a t io n , a n d
D a r w i n f a v o r a b l y c o m m e n t e d o n i t w h e n h e c a m e a cr o ss V o n B u c h ' s
d i s c u s s i o n i n 1 8 3 8 . 37
T h a t r e c e n t l y s e p a r a t e d i s l a n d s , s u c h a s E n g l a n d , s h o u l d h a v e f e w e r
p e c u l i a r s p e c ie s t h a n l o n g - e s t a b l is h e d is l a n d s , su c h a s N e w Z e a l a n d ,
w a s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t o D a r w i n , g i ve n h is v i ew s o n i so l a t i o n . H i s n o t e -
b o o k s a ls o g iv e e v i d e n c e o f o t h e r q u a l i t a ti v e i n s i g h ts , a l l v e r y p l a u s ib l e
o n t h e b a s is o f d e s c e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e o l d e r a g r o u p o f o r g a n i s m s ,
t h e w i d e r s h o u l d i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n b e , a n d , c o n v e r s e l y , r e la -
t i v e l y r e c e n t g r o u p s s h o u l d b e m o r e r e s t r i c te d . T h a t g r o u p s o f a n i m a l s
w e r e r e s t r i c t e d , o r n e a r l y s o , t o c e r t a i n a r e a s t h o u g h w e l l a d a p t e d t o
l iv e e ls e w h e r e w a s , o f c o u r s e , a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t f o r e v o l u t i o n . I n d e e d ,
D a r w i n h a d b e e n v er y m u c h s t r u c k b y t h e f a c t t h a t s lo t h s a n d a r m a d i l lo s
w e r e c o n f i n e d t o S o u t h A m e r i c a a n d th a t t h e e x t in c t m e g a t h e r i u m h a d
i n h a b i t e d t h e s a m e r e g i o n . 3s
36. Malcolm J . Kottler, '~3harles Darwin's Biological Species Concept and
T h e o r y o f G e o g r a p hi c S p e c ia t io n : T h e T r a n s m u t a t io n N o t e b o o k s , Ann. Sei. 35
(1978), 275-297.
37. L. yon Buel l , Description physique des isles Canaries trans. C . Boulanger
(Pads : F . G . L evrau l t , 1926). Von Bue l l r epa id the com pl imen t ; wr i t ing to Hum-
b o l d t a f t e r h e h a d r e a d D a r w i n ' s Journal of Researches yon Buch sa id tha t h is
v iews on th e o r ig in o f species on ea r th a re ve ry s t im ula ted by the exce l l en t and
so l id desc r ip tion o f the Ga l~pagos by Darwin . He d id no t , howeve r , ag ree wi th
Darwin ' s theo ry o f the fo rma t ion o f co ra l a to l l s . See H . Beck , Alexander yon
Humboldt
(Wiesbaden: F. Sterner, 1959), II , 301 n. 120.
38 . In chap . 10 o f the Origin Darwin w rote : Mr. Cl i f t m any years ago
showed th a t the fos s il mam mals f rom the Aus t ra l i an caves were c lose ly a l l i ed to
the l iv ing marsupia ls of th a t con t inen t . . . I was so mu ch im pressed wi th these
fac ts tha t I s t rongly ins is ted , in 1839 and 1845, on th is ' law of the su ccess ion, ' on
' th i s wonde r fu l r e l a t ion in the s am e con t inen t be tween the dead and l iv ing ' ; s ee
a lso F . Darwin and A. C. Steward , ed . , More Letters of Charles Darwin 2 vols.
(Lo ndo n: Joh n M urray , 1903) , le t te r 87 , to Char les Ly el l , pp . 132-134; th is bo ok
is here af te r c i ted as
More Letters.
2 0 8
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 15/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
I n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 8 3 9 , D a r w i n o b s e r v e d :
V a r i e t i e s ar e m a d e i n t w o w a y s - l o c a l v a r ie t ie s w h e n w h o l e m a s s o f
s p e c ie s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o s o m e i n f l u e n c e , & t h is w o u l d t a k e p l a c e
f r o m c h a n g in g c o t m t r y : b u t g r e y h o u n d s , r a ce - ho r se , P o u l t e r p i d g e o n
h a v e n o t b e e n t h u s p r o d u c e d , b u t b y t r a in i n g c ro s s in g & k e e p i n g
b r e e d p u r e - / & s o i n p l a n t s e f f e c t u a l l y t h e o f f s p ri n g a r e p i c k e d &
n o t a l l o w e d t o c r o s s . /H a s n a t u r e a n y p r o c e s s a n a l o g o u s - i f s o s h e
c a n p r o d u c e g r e a t e n d s - B u t h o w - e v e n i f p l a c e d o n Is l d - i f s o
t h e n g iv e m y t h e o r y - e x c e l l e n t l y t r u e t h e o r y . ( E , p . 1 1 8) a9
T h i s e n t r y c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t D a r w i n r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a p r i o r i n a t u r a l
s e l e c t i o n c o u l d g i v e r is e t o a l i n e a r e v o l u t i o n w h e r e i n a s p e c i e s e v o l v e s
i n t o a s in g l e n e w o n e . T h e a n a l o g y w i t h a r t i f i c i a l s e l e c t i o n , t h a t is , t h e
b r e e d e r ' s
picking -
s ~ le c ti n g th e i n d i v i d u a l s h e w a n t s a n d p r e v e n t i n g
t h e i r c r o s s in g w i t h o n e s w i t h u n w a n t e d t r a i t s - s u g g e s t e d t h e m o d e l f o r
b r a n c h i n g e v o l u t i o n . B u t h o w d o e s n a t u r e e f fe c t r e p r o d u c t iv e i s o l a ti o n ?
I s s p e c i a t i o n i n n a t u r e a l l o p a t r i c o r s y m p a t r i c ? R e f l e c t i n g t h e p r i o r i t y
o f h i s z o o l o g i c a l i n t e re s t s , D a r w i n b e l i e v e d u n t i l 1 8 4 2 t h a t s p e c i a t i o n
i n n a t u r e w a s a l l o p a t r i c . ( I t i s s t il l a n o p e n q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r s y m p a t r i c
s p e c i a t i o n h a s e v e r o c c u r r e d i n t h e h i g h e r a n i m a l s .) B u t D a r w i n ' s
b o t a n i c a l s t u d i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r 1 8 4 2 , g av e h i m c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f
s y m p a t r i c s p e c ia t i o n i n p l an t s . A n d E d w a r d s F o r b e s ' s g r e a t w o r k o n
t h e i n v e r t e r b r a t e s o f t h e A e g a n S e a 4 ° m u s t h a v e r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s i n
D a r w i n ' s m i n d a b o u t h o w t h e w e a l t h o f s p e ci es i n th e o p e n s ea c o u ld
h a v e d e v e l o p e d b y a l l o p a t r i c s p e c i a t i o n . 41
39. E, p . 114 is dated M arch 12, 1839. A t some la ter date Darwin inser ted
a f t e r t h e se n t en c e Ha s n a t u r e a n y p r o ce s s a n a l o g o u s . . . t h e wo r d s m a k e s t h e
d i f f icu l ty apparen t by c ross-ques tion ing .
40 . E . Forbes , Re por t on the M ollusca and Rad ia ta o f the Aegean Sea ,
and on The i r D is t r ibu t ion Co ns ide red as Bea t ing on Geolo gy , Report of the
Thirteenth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement o f Science 13
(1843), 130-207.
41 . Forb es ' s paper show ed tha t l ike the l and , the seabed was subdiv ided in to
zones and s ta tions . Al though the po ten t ia l f o r species fo rm at ion by geographica l
i so la t ion ex is ted on the sea f loor , how such spec ia fion occur r ed wi th in a zone was
not obvious . Forbe s ' s work p robab ly al so r e inforced Darwin ' s v iew tha t ad ap ta -
t ions were tow ard ecological niches. To da y i t i s c lear that D arwin was tackl ing
ext r em ely d i f f i cu l t p rob lems , man y o f which a r e s t il l unso lved. The answer to th e
quest ion of w heth er species or iginate a l lopatr ical ly or sympatr icaUy is an ambig-
uous one. The voca bulary which has em erged in recent years is revealing. In addi-
tio n t o aUopatr ic and sy m pa tr ic spec iation , one speaks o f semigeographic, semi-
sym patr ic , s ta t ipa tr ic , parap atr ic , a l lo parap atr ic specia t ionI See, e .g ., G. L . Brush,
Modes o f an imal Spee ia t ion , Ann. Rev. Ecol. and Syst. 6 (1975), 339-364.
2 0 9
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 16/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
Th ere w ere a l so o th e r d i f f icu l t i e s . Na tu ra l s e lec t ion as a me chan ism
ac ted s e lec t ive ly on i nd i v i dua l s B y A u g u s t 1 8 3 8 , D a r w i n h a d l o c a t e d
the s i te o f r an do m var ia t ions in ind iv idual s . H is s tud y o f b reed ing , even
tho ug h the in i ti a l focu s was on asce r ta in ing the causes o f va r ia t ion ,
h a d i m p r e s se d h i m w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t e v e r y i n d iv i d u al i s d i f f e r e n t
f r o m e v e r y o t h e r a n d m a d e h i m s e ns it iv e to t h e c r i t ic a l i m p o r t a n c e o f
se lec t ing the ind iv idua l s u sed in b reed ing . In the pe r iod f rom 1838 to
1 8 4 4 t h e r e w a s n e v e r a n y q u e s t i o n i n D a r w i n ' s m i n d t h a t t h e m e c h a -
n i sm which op era tes in na tu re ac ted s e lec t ive ly on ind iv idua ls : ea ch
ind iv idua l o f each spec ies ho lds i t s p lace e i the r by i t s own s t rugg le
a n d c a p a c i t y o f a c q u ir in g n o u r i s h m e n t i n s o m e p e r i o d ( f r o m t h e e gg
upwards ) o f i t s l i f e , o r by the s trugg le o f i ts pa ren t s ( in sho r t lived
organ i sms , when the main check occur a t long in te rva l s ) aga ins t and
c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s o f t h e s a m e o r d i f f e r e n t species . '42
A l t h o u g h t h e d y n a m i c s w a s t o b e in d i v id u a l is ti c , o n e o f th e c e n t r a l
c o m p o n e n t s o f th e t h e o r y , n a m e l y t h e o r ig i n , d i s t ri b u t i o n , a n d p ro p a g a -
t ion o f va r ia t ions amo ng ind iv idua ls , was t e r r a i nc ogn i t a T o o v e rc o m e
t h is d i f f i c u l ty D a r w i n h a d t o a c c e p t a c o a r s e r l ev e l o f d e s c r ip t i o n w i t h
var ie ti e s and spec ies a s the un i t s o f va r ia t ions . I be l i eve i t was Darwin ' s
ignorance o f the gene t i c l aws fo r ind iv idua l s and h i s inab i l i ty to fo rmu -
l a t e i n v a r i a b l e l aw s o f v a ri a t io n s a n d h e r e d i t y f o r i n d iv i d ua l s t h a t l e d
h i m t o b a s e h is t h e o r y o f sp e c i a t io n o n p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l aw s o f t h e
var ia t ion in w ide- rang ing , popu lous spec ies . Those popu lous spec ies
t h a t p r e s e n t t h e m o s t v a r ie t ie s a re t h e m o s t l i k e l y t o p r o d u c e n e w
spec ies . Popu lous spec ies w i th w ide r anges a re the mos t l ike ly to f r ed
themse lves in d i f f e ren t geograph ic r eg ions ; such n ew env i ron m en ts w i l l
r e su l t in va r ia t ions be ing p rod uc ed , hence new var iet i es . W ide r ange
a l so makes i t more l ike ly tha t phys ica l i so la t ing mechan isms wi l l
ex i s t , a l lowing va r ie t i e s to become good spec ies in t ime . Thus w ide-
ranging , popu lous spec ies , wh ich p resen t the m os t va r ie ti e s , a r e the
mos t l ike ly to p roduce new spec ies . I be l i eve i t was th i s in s igh t , and
t h e c o n s e q u e n t a c c e p t a n c e o f w o r k i n g a t t h e v a r ie t y -s p e c ie s l e v e l, t h a t
g e n e r a t e d D a r w i n 's e x t e n d e d s e a r c h f o r p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s
on the va r iab i l i ty o f w ide- rang ing genera and spec ies du r ing the 1840s
and 1850s . P rec i s e ly the d a ta he need ed were available in the p lan t
s ta t is ti c s o f t h e p h y t o g e o g r a p h e r s a n d i n t h e r e p o r t s o f t h e b e s t z o o -
geographer s .
By the end o f the 1840s Darwin ' s inqu i r i e s in to th e geograph ica l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f l o r a a n d f a u n a , h i s t a x o n o m i c r e s e a r c h e s b a s e d o n
42. Essayof 1844, p. 119.
2 1 0
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 17/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
d e s c e n t , h i s d if f ic u l ti e s w i t h s p e c i a t io n m e c h a n i s m s a n d w i t h h o w m u c h
o f a r o l e t o a s c r i b e t o i n t r a s p e c i f i c a s c o m p a r e d w i t h i n t e r s p e c i f i c
c o m p e t i t i o n , a l l h a d r e i n f o r c e d h i s a p p r o a c h t o c o n s i d e r v a r i e t i e s a n d
s p e c i e s a s t h e u n i t s o f d e s c r i p t i o n . I t i s t h e r e f o r e p e r h a p s n o t t o o
s u r p ri si n g t h a t w h e n D a r w i n o n c e a g a in f a c e d th e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m o f
t h e b r a n c h i n g o f s p e c ie s a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t d i v er g e n c e i n t h e e a r l y
1 8 5 0 s , h e h a d f o r g o t t e n t h o s e i n s i g h t s o f 1 8 3 9 w h i c h h a d b e e n b a s e d
on a s t r i c t l y i nd iv idua l is t ic app roac h . 43
D a r w i n ' s c o r re s p o n d e n c e w i t h H o o k e r a t te s t s t o h i s c o n s t a n t c o n c e r n
i n t h e 1 8 4 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 8 5 0 s w i t h p r o b l e m s r e la t in g t o s p e c i a ti o n i n
p l a n t s . S i m i la r q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e t a x o n o m y a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s tr i b u -
t i o n o f t h e C i r r e p e d ia p r o b a b l y b r o u g h t u p t h e i ss u e o f a g en e r a l, all-
e n c o m p a s s i n g , e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r s i t y o f o r g a n i s m s
o v e r t i m e , - t h a t i s, a n e x p l a n a t i o n a p p l i c a b le t o t h e e n t i r e b i o lo g i c a l
sphere . R ead ing M i lne -Edw ards in 1852 he lped c l a r i fy t he i s sue . In
hi s Zoolog i c gbnbra l e M i l n e - E d w a r d s h a d r a i s e d t h e s t a t e m e n t s t h a t
n a t u r e i s p ro d i g a l i n t h e v a r i e t y o f h e r c r e a t i o n s , y e t p a r s i m o n i o u s
i n t h e m e a n s o f d i v e rs if y i n g h e r w o r k s '4 4 t o t h e s t a t u s o f g e n e ra l
p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l a w s , w h i c h h e c a l l e d t h e l a w o f d i v e r s i t y a n d t h e
l a w o f e c o n o m y . F o r D a r w i n th e c h a ll en g e w a s h o w t o a c c o u n t f o r
t h e s e f a m i l i a r a n d w e l l - k n o w n o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f a u n i v e r s a l
m e c h a n i s m .
B u t j u s t a s D a r w i n w a s f a m i l ia r w i t h M a l th u s b e f o r e S e p t e m b e r
1838 , so be fore 1 8 5 2 h e w a s a c q u a i n te d w i th A d a m S m i t h 's d o c t ri n e o f
t h e d i v is io n o f l a b o r as t h e c o m p e t i t i v e m e c h a n i s m d r iv in g t h e a r t i f ic i a l
e c o n o m y o f c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s tr y a n d w i t h M i ln e -E d w a rd s ' c o n c e p t
o f t h e d i v is io n o f p h y s io l o g i c a l l a b o r i n t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e . I n 1 8 5 2 ,
a s i n 1 8 3 8 , D a r w i n c o u l d a m a l g a m a t e t h e c o n c e p t s h e a l r e a d y k n e w
abou t on ly a f t e r a r r i v ing a t a ce r t a i n s t age i n h i s s c i en t i f i c i nqu i r i e s .
L im oges , in h i s pe r sp i cac ious ana lys is o f D arw in ' s a r r iva l a t t he p r i nc ip l e
o f d iv e rg e n ce o f c h a r a c te r , h a s e m p h a s i z e d t h a t D a r w i n t r a n s f o r m e d
M i l n e -E d w a r d s c o n c e p t i o n . I c o n c u r . W h e r e a s t o M i ln e - E d w a r d s t h e l a w
o f d i v e r si ty a n d t h e l a w o f e c o n o m y w e r e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s ,
a n d t h e d i v i s io n o f p h y s i o lo g i c a l l a b o u r a descriptive un i fy ing p r i n -
c i pl e f o r t h e o b s e r v e d s p e c i a li z a ti o n o f f u n c t i o n i n o rg a n i s m s , f o r D a r w i n
p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i v is io n o f l a b o u r , n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n , a n d e x t i n c t i o n w e r e
t h e e l e m e n t s o f a s e l f - c o n si s te n t d y n a m i c s t h a t c o u l d e x p l a i n d i v e rg e n c e .
43. This po int has been stressed by E rnst Ma yr in private conversations.
44. Milne-Edwards, Zo olog ie g~ndrale pp. 7-8 . The idea that '~nature is like
an artist mak ing a thousand pictures fro m a single pla n is Goethe's.
211
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 18/95
SILVA N S. SCHWEBER
Af te r Darwin r ead Mf lne -Edwards a l l t he p rev ious i n s igh t s f e l l i n to
p l ac e . A d a p t a t i o n t o w a r d a p la c e in t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f l i fe p e r u n i t a r e a a s t h e
o v e r a ll d ri v in g f o r c e m a k e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w h y t h e r e i s d i v er g e n c e o f
c h a r a c t e r : i n e c o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n t h e p r i m a r y
fac to r o f d ive rgence is func t i ona l spec i a l i za t ion .
I n t h e S k e t c h a n d t h e E s s a y D a r w i n h a d t r e a te d a d a p t a t i o n a s a
p r o c e s s b y w h i c h i n d iv i d u al s f o u n d a n e c o l o g ic a l n i c h e ( i .e . , f u n c t i o n )
in na tu re , ye t ha d i n s i s ted on d i scus sing spec i a t i on i n t e rm s o f va r i e ti e s
t h a t s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e g e o g r a p h i c a ll y i so l a te d . H e h a d n o li n k
b e t w e e n a d a p t a t i o n a n d s p e c i a ti o n e x c e p t w h a t e v e r c o u ld b e s u p p l ie d
b y a q u a s i- d e v e l o p m e n t a l i d e a o f t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s s ib l e t e n d e n c y t o
i n c re a s e t h e n u m b e r o f l iv in g b e i n g s . M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' d i sc u s si o n o f th e
d iv i s i on o f phys io log i ca l l abo r sugges t ed t o Darwin an exp l i c i t r e l a t i on
b e t w e e n a d a p t a t i o n a n d s p e c i a t i o n : T h e o r g a n i sm s t h a t m o v e i n t o
u n o c c u p i e d n i c h e s w il l e n j o y r e d u c e d c o m p e t i t i o n , h e n c e a n a d a p t iv e
advan t age , and wi ll sh i f t t he i r spec i es t o m ov e i n to t he s ame n i ches .
S i n c e c o m p e t i t i o n i s m o r e i n t e n s e b e t w e e n c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s p e c i e s ,
d i v e r g e n c e w i l l r e s u l t . B u t a n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e n o t e d :
Mi lne -Edwards ' d i s cus s ion was based on a t e l eo log i ca l me t aphys i cs ,
w h e r e a s D a r w i n ' s m e c h a n i s m w a s s e l f -r e g u l a ti n g a n d e s c h e w e d
te l eo log y an d ren oun ced f i na l causes. A l so , r a t he r t han b as ing h i s d i s-
c u s si o n o n t h e c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e t o t h e i n d i vi d u a l t h a t r e s u lt s f r o m
d i vi si on o f l a b o r , D a r w i n r e l ie d o n t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f l if e p e r
un i t a rea as t he overa l l p r i nc ip l e .
I d o n o t d o u b t t h a t w h e n h e a d o p t e d t he m a x i m u m - m i n i m u m
f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e U t i li ta r i a n s a n d A d a m S m i t h ' s i n si g h t i n t o t h e
c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e d i v is io n o f la b o r , D a r w i n w a s a w a r e t h a t
h e w a s b i o l o g i z i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s p o li ti c a l e c o n o m y g a v e f o r t h e
d y n a m i c s o f t h e w e a l t h o f n a ti o n s. I n t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n a n d t h e M
a n d N n o t e b o o k s , 4s D a r w i n h a d e x p l i c it ly s t a t e d h i s h o p e t h a t h i s
e v o l u t io n a r y t h e o r y a n d m e c h a n i s m w o u l d a c c o u n t fo r th e d e v e l o p m e n t
o f i n s t i n c t , h u m a n i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d h u m a n s o c i e t i e s . F o r D a r w i n ,
p s y c h o l o g y a n d p o li ti c al e c o n o m y w e r e b r a n c h e s o f e v o l u ti o n a r y
b i o l o g y , w h o s e e m p i r i c a l l a w s w e r e e v e n t u a l l y t o b e e x p l a i n e d b y
bio logical pr incip les .
Bu t Darwin was a l so s ens i t i ve t o t he cons t r a in t s pu t on t he deve lop -
m en t o f b io logy as a s c i en t i f ic d i s cip li ne by h i s soc i e ty . B io logy , l ike
45. The M and N notebooks have been transcribed by P au l Barrett and
published in Gruber and Barrett, Darwin on Man
2 1 2
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 19/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
e v e r y o t h e r s c i en c e , w a s n o t t o b e t a i n t e d w i t h p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y - a t
l e a s t n o t c o n s c i o u s l y o r o v e r t l y . I b e l ie v e t h is t o b e o n e o f t h e r e a so n s
M i l n e - E d w a r d s p r o v e d s o a t t r a c t i v e t o D a r w i n . H e c o u l d m e t a m o r p h o s e
M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' d i v i s i o n o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l l a b o r i n t o t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l
d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r , 46 a s c r ib e t h i s p r i n c i p l e t o a g r e a t z o o l o g i s t a n d
t h e o r e t i c i a n o f b i o l o g y , a n d n e v e r h a v e t o r e fe r t o p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y .
I n Natural Selec tion a7 a n d i n t h e Origin 48 D a r w i n i s a t p a i n s t o q u o t e
M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' c o n c e p t o f t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i v is i o n o f l a b o r a n d to
i n d i c a t e i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i v e r g e n c e . T h e i n i t ia l v e r s i o n o f
t h e p r i n c i p l e , w h i c h I t a k e t o b e t h e ' 5 a r d v e rs a l v e r s i o n f o u n d i n t h e
f i r s t d r a f t o f Natural Selection D a r w i n p u t t o p a p e r t o M a c h 1 8 5 7 ,
a n d i t i s e s s e n t i a l ly t h i s v e r s i o n th a t h e c o m m u n i c a t e d t o A s a G r a y i n
S e p t e m b e r o f t h a t y e a rs . 49 T h e p r i n c i p le w a s o n c e a g a in a m p l i f ie d
w h e n D a r w i n w o r k e d o n t h e G e o g r a p h i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n c h a p t e r o f
Natural Selection in the s p r i n g o f 1 8 5 8 . s ° I t w a s e v i d e n t l y t h e n t h a t i t
4 6 . T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a d j e c ti v e p h y s i o l o g i c a l i s i m p o r t a n t . A s o n e o f t h e
ed i to r s
of More Letters
F r a n c i s D a r w i n c o m m e n t e d t h a t D a r w i n ' s u s e o f d i v i s io n
o f p h y s i o l o g ic a l l a b o u r i n h is l e t t e r t o H o o k e r i n 1 8 5 4 w a s a slip o f t h e p e n
f o r p h y s i o l o g ic a l di v is i on o f l a b o u r . B u t i n f a c t D a r w i n w a s c o r r e c tl y q u o t i n g
M i l n e -E d w a r d s . I t w a s i n hi s o w n w r i ti n g th a t D a r w i n p u t p h y s i o l o g i c a l b e f o r e
d i v i s i o n . S e e More Letters I , 76 .
47 . Da rwin , Natural Selection p. 233.
48 . Da rwin , Origin p. 115-116.
49 . Da rw in and Wal l ace, Evolution by Natural Selection pp . 264 -267 .
5 0 . R . C . S t a u f f e r, in hi s m a s t e r y e d i t i o n o f Natural Selection i nd i ca t e s t ha t
c h a p . 6 , O n N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n , w a s w o r k e d o n a t t w o d i ff e r e n t p e r io d s . T h e
f i rs t d r a f t ( w r i t t e n o n g r a y f o o l s c a p p a p e r ) w a s c o m p l e t e d o n M a r ch 3 1 , 1 8 5 7 ,
a n d c o n t a i n e d o n l y a b r i e f m e n t i o n o f t h e p r in c i p l e o f d iv e r g e n ce . T h e l a t e r
a d d i t i o n s a n d v e r s io n s ( w r i t te n o n b l u i sh - g ra y p a p e r ) w e r e m a d e b e t w e e n A p r i l 1 4
a n d J u n e 1 2 , 1 8 5 8 , a n d i n t h e m D a r w i n d e v o t e s o v e r f o r t y p a g e s t o d i v e r g e n c e.
The r e f e r ence t o Mi lne -Edwards occu r s i n t he second d r a f t o f t h e p r i n c ip l e o f
d i v e rg e n c e . I t h a s b e e n h y p o t h e s i z e d b y J o h n L . B r o o k s ( T h e American Phi-
losophical Society Yearbook 1 9 6 8 , p p . 5 3 4 - 5 3 5 ) t h a t D a r w i n ' s c o n c e p t o f
d ive rgence was fo rm ula t ed i n r e sponse t o h i s r ece ip t o f W a l l ace ' s MS in 1858 .
B r o o k s s u g g es te d t h a t D a r w i n d i d n o t o b t a i n t h e M S o n J u n e 1 8 , 1 8 5 8 , a s i s
u sua l l y a s sum ed , bu t o n May 18 , so t ha t i t was in Da rw in ' s hands s eve ral week s
b e f o r e J u n e 1 2 , t h e d a t e D a r w i n g i v es i n h is p r iv a t e d ia r y f o r t h e c o m p l e t i o n
o f t h e n o t e o n d i v e r g e n c e t h a t h e i n s e r te d i n c h a p . 6 o f t h e l o n g m a n u s c r i p t
o f w h i c h t h e Origin of Species i s an abs t r ac t . H . L . McKinney in Wallace and
Natural Selection (Ne w Haven : Y a le Un ive r s i t y P re ss , 1972) , pp . 138 -146 , ha s
c o n c l u s iv e l y s h o w n t h a t D a r w i n d i d n o t r e c e iv e t h e W a ll ac e M S b e f o r e J u n e 3 ,
1 8 5 8 . B u t t h e r e c an b e n o d o u b t t h a t D a r w i n h a d t h e c o n c e p t o f d i v e r g en c e o f
c h a r a c t e r b e f o r e M a y o r J u n e o f 1 8 5 8 . T h e l e t te r o f S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 7 t o A s a G r a y
w o u l d b e s u f f i c i e n t p r o o f o f t h a t .
2 1 3
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 20/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
o c c u r r e d t o h i m t o a m a l g a m a t e t h e v i su a l iz a t io n o f t h e t r ee - o f- l if e
d ia g ra m s o f t h e e a r l y B n o t e b o o k s w i t h t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e p r i n c ip l e
o f d i ve r ge n c e . T h e f a m o u s d i a g ra m o n p a g e 1 1 6 o f t h e Origin ( w h i c h
also appears in Natural Selection) r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r o c e s s o f s p e c i a ti o n
b o t h i n s p a ce a n d i n t im e . I t i s t h e h ig h p o i n t o f t h e Origin a n d d r a m a t -
ica l ly il lus t ra tes the or ig in o f species .
T h u s t h e u n r a v el in g o f h o w D a r w i n o b t a i n e d , a n d f m a l l y f o r m u l a t e d
the p r inc ip le o f the d ive rgence o f cha rac te r i l lu s t r a tes the p roces s o f
t h e o r y f o r m a t i o n a s a c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n o f i n t e rn a l , e x te r n a l , a n d
ind iv idua l p sycho log ica l f ac to r s . What fo l lows he re examines th i s
proce ss in d eta i l .
D A R W IN O N D IV E R G E N C E O F C H A R A C T E R
In h is Autobiography, D a r w i n r e c a l l e d t h a t w h e n h e f i r s t w o r k e d
o u t , i n th e p e r i o d f r o m 1 8 3 8 t o 1 8 4 4 , h o w n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n w o u l d
a c c o u n t f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f n e w s p e ci e s, h e f a il e d t o a d d r es s a p r o b l e m
o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e :
T h i s p r o b l e m i s t h e t e n d e n c y i n o r g a n ic b e in g s d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e
s a m e s t o c k t o d iv e rg e in c h a r a c t e r a s t h e y b e c o m e m o d i f i e d . T h a t
t h e y h a v e d i v e r g e d g r e a t l y i s o b v i o u s f r o m t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h
spec ies o f a l l k inds can be c lassed un der genera , genera un der f ami l ie s ,
f ami l ie s un der sub -o rders , and so fo r th . Autobiography, p . 68 )
W r i ti ng i n 1 8 7 6 , D a rw i n w o n d e r e d h o w h e c o u l d h a v e o v e r l o o k e d
th i s p ro b lem and i t s so lu t ion , and then r eca l l ed h i s happ ines s a t fmding
t h e s o l u t io n : I c a n r e m e m b e r t h e v e r y s p o t i n t h e r o a d , w h i l st i n
m y c a rr ia g e , w h e n t o m y j o y t h e s o l u t io n o c c u r r e d t o m e ; a n d t hi s
w a s l o n g a f t e r I h a d c o m e t o D o w n Autobiography, p . 69 ) . In the
Autobiography (p . 69 ) Darwin a lso ind ica ted tha t the so lu t ion as I
be l i eve , i s tha t the mod i f i ed o f f sp r ing o f a l l dominan t and inc reas ing
f o r m s t e n d t o b e c o m e a d a p t e d t o m a n y a n d h i g h l y d iv e r si fi e d p l a ce s i n
t h e e c o n o m y o f n a tu r e .
Darwin f i r st d ivu lged h i s p r inc ip le o f d ive rgen ce to H oo ke r in a
l e t t e r d a t e d A u g u s t 2 2 , 1 8 5 7 . A f t e r i n q u ir in g w h e t h e r H o o k e r ' s f in d in g s
c o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l ts o f A s a G r a y a n d H . C. W a t so n w h o h a d m a r k e d
fo r h im in the i r ca ta logues s everal c lose ly r e la ted , ye t d i s t inc t species o f
B r i ti s h fl o r a , D a r w i n c o m m e n t e d :
I f i t a ll h o l d g o o d i t is v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r m e ; f o r i t e x p l ai n s , a s I
2 1 4
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 21/95
Darwin and the:Political EconomiSfS
' ~ i all classification, i ,e:; t t ie quasi.branching a n d sub-branching
o f fo rm s, as i f : f ro m o n e r00 t i big genera increasing and: spl i tt ing up~
e re :. a s' y o u wi l l pe t ce ive l B u t t h en : com es in , a l so wha t ~I ea lf ,a
principle of divergence;~wki~h ~ k I ca n explam; :bi /t w hich i s too
' 5 t ? :
: : ong; and perhaps yo u W ould no t Care to hear , ' .~
) : : ~ L :
He did, howeve r , s ta te the pr inciPle mo re
fuUy in his
famous ; le t te r
t O AsaG ray o f Sep tember 5 ; i 8 5 7 : ' : ~ : .....
Another pr inciple , which may be cal led
t h e p ~ i p l e d i v e r g e n e l
plays, I believe, an im po rtan t pa rt in the origin of species. Th e same
Sp:6t ~ SaP p6~ :mo re: life
i f
o c eu p ie d b y v e r y ~ v e ~ e f 0 ~ s : W e :see
th i s 'i n ~ e m ~ y : ge ne r i c fo rms ' ~ a square:'yard 0 f t u r f , and in
t h e p l a n ts :o r i n s e c t s O n a n y H tfle u n i f o rm
i s l e t b e l o a ~ g
~ o s t
in ¢ ~ a b ly ~ to aS m an y gen era and fami lies a.~ species . . N o w ; every
0 t ~ c b e in g , b y : p i o p a g a ~ g sO r a p i d l y , m a y b e ~said t o b e striv in g
i ts U tmoSt t o ~C rea~
numbeis~
So i t : ~ : be wi th the Of fspring
o f ' a n y ' species: a f t e r i t :has bee0m ~ diVeisi fied~into variet ids; o r
subspeeies~ 0r fr o 6 SpeCies: ~ d ~it f6116Ws;' I ~ , fro m ~ e Tore
going facts, tha t the varying offspring o f each species will try (on ly
few will succeed) to seize on as many and as diverse places in the
ec on om y o f nata~e ~as poSSible . EaCh :new: variety Or Species, w he n
fo rm ed , ~ gene ra l ly ~ e . t h e ph ee bf~ and~thus ex t emi ina t e i ts l es s
w ell-fi t ted p ar en t, ~ T ~ :I 15eiieve-tOb e th e origin Of th e classification
an d affinities o f organic beings at all times ; fo r organic beings always
seem
to branch and sub-branch l ike the ' ~ b s O f a: t i'ee f rom a
c o m m o n t r u e ; t h e th e
:iess vigo rous '~th~ n et
ge ne ra and,families, : . , : , ~:i : . . . . .
This sketch is most imper fec t ; bu t in so shor ta space I cannot
make i t ,bette r, :Your ~ a # a t i o n :must fill up ve ry Wide b l~ s . S 2
gence is e vid en t.in a lt his w riting s on ,the~subjeet;..Whilea t w o r k o n ,th e
"Big Spec ies Book,': ' Da rwin w ro te tO H ooke r 0n JUne 8 ( 1858
version published at the LinneanSociety."
215
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 22/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
the 'Principle of Divergence,' which, with 'Natural Selectio n' is the
keyst one of my boo k; and I have a very great confidence it is soun d. s3
When in July 1858 Darwin laid claim with Wallace to the discovery of
the laws which affect the produ cti on of varieties, races, and species at
a meeting of the IAnnae an Society, Darwin attached to the materia l
presented to the Society his letter to Gray, quoted above, that o utlined
the principle o f divergence, s4
Gavin de Beer inferred from a letter Darwin wrote to George Ben-
tha m in 1863 that Darwin arrived at the principle arou nd 1852. ss In
that letter Darwin said:
I, for one, can
ons ient iously
declare that I never feel surprised at
any one sticking to the belief of im muta bili ty; though I am often
not a little surprised at the arguments advanced on this side. I
remember too well my endless oscillations of d oubt and difficulty.
It is to me really laughable when I th ink of the years which elapsed
before I saw that I believe to be the expl anat ion of some parts of
the case; I believe it was f ifte en years aft er I began before I saw the
meaning and cause of the divergence of the descendants of any one
pair. s~
Given the importanc e that Darwin attached to the principle of diver-
gence, it is interesting that although he could remember the very spot
in the road where the solution occurred to him, he could no t pinpo int
53. More Letters II, 109.
54. Charles Darwin, and Alfred Wallace, On the Tendency of Species to
Form Varieties and On the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural
Means of Selection, Z Linn. Soe. 3 (1859),45 (read July 1, 1858);see especially
the Abstract of a letter from C. Darwin, Esq., to Professor Asa Gray of Boston,
U.S., dated September 5, 1857.
55. De Beer, Evolution by Natural Selection p. 140. It was George Bentham's
paper on the fixity of species that was displaced by the reading of the Darwin-
Wallace material at the Lirmean Society on July 1, 1858. Bentham seems to be
one of the few people who was struck by the Darwin-Wallace findings, for he
altered his paper in the light of their presentation. Bentham was a naturalist
whose book Labiatarum Genera et Species (London, 1832-1836) Darwin had
studied in 1837-1839. On March 6, 1838, Darwin noted on p. 104 of the E
notebook: Mr. Bentham says in Sandwich Isld. he believes there axe many cases
of genera peculiar to the group having species peculiar to the separate islands.
In his work on the Labiatae some of the species are described - capital case -
for Sandwich Isld are very similar to Galapagos - study Flora. What general
forms - ar e the Labiatae nearest to American or Indian Groups?
56. LLD II, 210-211.
216
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 23/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
m o r e a c c u r a t e l y th e d a t e o f h i s i n si g h t. I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t t he r e~ w e r e
su f f i c i en t m i l es tones i n h i s l if e - e .g . , t he co m ple t i on o f h i s f i r s t
v o l u m e o n t h e c ir r ip e d e s s7 - f o r D a r w i n n o t t o h a v e t o a p p e n d I
b e l i e v e t o h i s d a t in g . A l s o , i n v i e w o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r in c i p l e ,
i t is o d d t h a t D a r w i n d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e th e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h h e a r r iv e d
a t h i s p r i nc ip l e .
I n h is B i g S p e c ie s B o o k , t h e p r in c i p le o f d i v er g e n c e i s p r e s e n t e d
i n C h a p t e r V I , O n N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n . D a r w i n o p e n s h i s d i sc u s si o n o f
t h e p r i n c ip l e b y s a y in g th a t h e b e l i e v e s t h a t it h a s p l a y e d a m o s t
i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n N a t u r a l S e l e c ti o n . ' s 8 T h e p r i n c ip l e i s e x p l a i n e d ( a s
i n a ll o th e r c ases ) w i th a r t i f ic i a l s e lec t i on . In
o u r d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n s . . . E a c h n e w p e c u l ia r it y e i th e r s tr ik e s
m a n ' s e y e a s c u r io u s o r m a y b e u s e fu l t o h i m ; & h e g o e s o n s l o w l y &
o f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s ly s e le c ti ng t h e m o s t e x t r e m e f o r m s . . . & h e
m a k e s h i s s ev e ra l b r e e d s o f i m p r o v e d t u m b l e r s , c a r r ie r s , p o u t e r s , f a n -
t a i l s , &c , a l l a s d i f f e ren t o r d ive rgen t a s pos s ib l e f rom the i r o r i g ina l
p a r e n t s t o c k th e r o c k p i g e o n ; t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s , & i n h is e y e s i n fe r i o r
b i r d s , h a v i n g b e e n n e g l e c t e d i n e a c h g e n e r a t i o n & n o w b e c o m e
e x t i n c t . . . M o r e o v e r , f a r m o r e f a n c y - p i g e o n s w i l l b e k e p t . . .
a f t e r t h e y h a v e b e c o m e b r o k e n u p i n to v e r y d is ti n ct b r e e d s , t h a n
w h e n f e w e r m o r e s im i l a r b i r d s e x i s te d .
D a r w i n t h e n s t a te s t h a t a n a n l o g o u s p r i n c ip l e , n o t l ia b l e t o c a p r i c e , i s
a t w o r k i n n a t u re
& tha t va r i e t ie s o f the s ame spec i es , & spec ies o f t he s am e genus ,
f a m i l y o r o r d e r a r e a l l, m o r e o r le s s, s u b j e c t e d t o t h i s i n f l u e n c e . F o r
i n a n y c o u n t r y , a f a r g r e at e r n u m b e r o f in d iv i du a ls d e s c e n d e d f r o m
t h e s a m e p a r e n t s c a n b e s u p p o r t e d , w h e n g r e a t ly m o d i f i e d in m a n y
d i f fe ren t ways , i n hab i t s cons t i t u t i on and s t ruc tu re , so as t o f ' d l a s
m a n y p l a c e s , a s p o s s ib l e , i n t h e p o l i t y o f n a t u r e , t h a n w h e n n o t a t a ll
o r o n l y s li g h tl y m o d i f i e d .
W e m a y g o f u r t h e r t h a n t h is , & in d e p e n d e n t l y o f th e c a se o f
f o r m s su p p o s e d t o h a v e d e s c e n de d f r o m c o m m o n p a r e n t s , a ss e rt t h a t
a g r e a t e r a b s o l u te a m o u n t o f l if e c a n b e s u p p o r t e d i n a n y c o u n t r y o r
57. Charles Darw in, A M o n o g r a p h o n t h e S u b c la s s O r r i p e d ia w i t h F i g u re s o f
A l l t h e S p e c ie s : T h e L e p a d i d a e o r P e d u n c u l a t e d O r r i p e d e s (London: The Ray
Society, 1851).
58. Darwin, N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n p. 227.
2 1 7
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 24/95
S I L V A N S . SC H W E B E R
on the g lobe ; wh en l if e is deve loped und e r m any & wide ly ~ f f e ren t
forms, than when un de r a few & a l lied fo rm s; th e faires t measure
o f t h e a m o u n t o f l i f e , b ein g p r o b a b l y t h e a m o u n t o f c he m ic al
composi t ion and decom posi t ion w i ~ a g iven per iod .S9
Fu rthe r on in his discussion Darwin indicates tha t :
~ e v iew tha t t h e greatest nu m be r o f org ~i¢ be ingsi (or m ore s tr ic t ly
the greatest am ount of l i fe ) can be supp or ted on any area , by the
g rea te s t amo un t o f t he ir d ive r si f ica t ion , . , i s i n f ac t t ha t o f " the
div is ion o f labour , " so admirably propoun ded b yM ilne EdWards ,1
w ho argues that a s tom ach w il l digest bet ter , i f i t does not , as in
m an y.o f the lowes t ~ a s , serve a t the same time as a resp ira tory
o rgan ; t ha t a S tomach ~ ge t m ore nu tm ne n t ou t o f vegetab e o r
~ a l m a t t e r , i f adap ted t o d iges t e i the r Sep~a tely in stea d o f
bo th. It is obvious ~a 't m ore descendants fro m a Carnivorous animal
cou ld suppor t ed i n k y country:: i f some we re adap ted , by 10ng
cOntinUed m od i f i ca t ion th ro u~ i na tura l s e l ec tion , t o hu n t small
p rey , & o ~ r s i a rge p r e y l i n g e i th e r on p la ins o r i n ~ fo rests~ in
burrowS, or On trees or in the w ater l ~ ~
1 . M i l n e - E d w a r d s , I n t r o d u C t io n ~t l a' Z o o l 0 g i e g 6 n ~ r a l e . . . P a ri s, i 8 5 1 s e e
p . 35 , p . 55 -7 , and a r t . Organ i sa t i 6n ~ i n Dict . class: hist . nat v01. 12, Paris ,
1827 , p . 332-44. e°
Darwin s tressed tha t h e cons idered i t "o f the u tmo st im por ta nce fu l ly
to recognize that the a m oun t of li fe in any co un try, & sti ll m ore that
the num ber o f mod i f ied descendants f ro m a com m on pa re n t , w ill i n
c h i e f p a r t d e p en d t h e a m o u n
o
diversificati0n which they have
unde rgone , s o a s b e s t t ° f lU a s m any & as wide ly d i ff e r en t p laces a s
poss ib le i n th e grea t scheme o f nature."61 In Ch apter I V of atural
Selection Darwin ha d establ ished that th e species of the larger genera
in any cou nt ry (n ot a l l the , species , ,bu t on ly sp m e, & chie f ly those
wh ich are w ide rangers , mu ch diffused & num ero u in individuals")
prese nt a greater a verage nu m be r ~0f varieties th a t a re in "som e degree
perm ane nt" 62 th an d o the species o f the smaller genera. The more
m od ified form s of the se stable varieties - i .e., inc ipie nt species - are
less l iable to extin ction .
59. Ib id . , p . 228 . :
60 . I b id . , p . 233 .
6i . Ibid., p. 234.
62. Ibid., p. 235.
218
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 25/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
T h e f o r m a t i o n o f n e w ~ e t i e s a n d s pe ci es t h ro u g h n a tu r al se te c fi on
i m p li es m u c h e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e l es s a l t e r e d . H e n c e , th o u g h t h e l a rg e r
g e n e r a m a y b e n o w v a r y i n g l m o s t , & m u s t , :~ , h a v e :v a r ie d a r g e ly , s o
a s t o h a v e b e c o m e m o d i f i e d i n to m a r i y s p e c if ic f o rm s , y e t s u c h l ar ge
g e n e ra m u s t h a v e s u ff e re d a l a r g e a m o u n t o f e x t i n c t i o n . ~3
. . . . ~ : . , r
" T h e c o m p l e x a c t i o n o f t h e s e s e ve ra l p r in c ip l es n a m e l y , n a t u r a l s d e c -
t i o n , d i v er g e nc e & e x t i n c t i o n , '6 4 i s t h e n c o n v e y e d b y t h e f a m o u s
d i a g r a m t h a t i l l u s t r a t e s " t h e m a n n e r , i n w h i c h I b e l ie v e s p e ci es d e s c en d
f r o m : e a c h o t h e r . " 6s ~
T h e d i s c u s s io n o f t h e p r in c ip l e o f d i v e r g e n c e i n t h e
Origin o f Species
i s p a t t e r n e d o n t h a t i n Na tu r s l S e l e c t io n . I n t h e Origin t h e p r o b l e m
t o b e s o l v e d is p g s e d a s f o l lo w s : ~ ,'H ow . . . d o e s t h e l e ss e r d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n v a ri et ie s b e c o m e a u g m e n t e d i n t o t h e g r e a te r d i ff e r e n c e b e t w e e n
s pe c ie s? "6 6 S o m e :o f t he f ea tu re s D ~ h a d m o s t s tre ss ed i n t h e
" B ig S p e c i e s B o o k " : - i n p a rt ic u la r, t h e q u a n t it a ti v e a sp e ct s o f h is
f o r m u l a t i o n o f n a t u r a l s e l e ct io n , t h e n u m b e r o f s ta b le : va ri et ie s i n t h e
l ar ge r g e ne ra , a n d t h e d y n ~ c s o f e x t i n c t i o n - a re n o t e m p h as iz e d a s
m u c h i n t h e
Origin
W h a t i s g a i n e d b y t h e g r e a t e r c o n c is e n e ss i s t h e
m e t a p h o r t h a t r ep re se n ts t h e a ff in i ti es o f a ll t h e b e i n g s O f t h e sa m e
c la ss a s " a g r e a t t r e e " a n d t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e d i a g r a m m a t ic re p r e s e n ta -
t i o n ~o f t h e " g re a t T r e e o f L i f e " t o t a x o n o m y a n d s pe ci at io n . I n t h a t
s e ns e t h e d i sc u s si o n f o l l o w i n g t h e " P r i n c i p l e o f D i v e r g e n c e " i s t h e l h ig h
p o i n t o f t h e Origin o/S pe cie s. 67
I n t h e p r e f a c e t o T h e Variation o /A n im als andP lan ts under Dom es-
tication
68 D a r w i n giv es th e m o s t s uc c in c t s ta t e m e n t o / t h e p r o b l e m a n d
i t s so lu t ion .
r ,
W e s h al l s e e h o w d i f fi c u lt , o r r a t h e r h o w i m p o s si b le i t o f t e n i s, t o
d i s tingu i sh be tw een r aces and subspec ies , a s the l e s s we l l -marked
f o r m s h a v e s o m e t im e s ~ be en d e n o m i n a t e d ; a n d a g ai n b e t w e e n
s u b s p e c i e s a n d t r u e sp e ci es i I s ha ll f u r t h e r a t t e m p t t o s h o w t h a t i t
is t h e c o m m o n a n d w i d e ly ra n g in g , o r , a s t h e y m a y b e c a ll ed , t h e
63. Ibid., p. 235.
64. Ibid., p. 235.
65, Ibid., pp, 236,237 . . . .
66. Darwin, Or/g/n, p. 111. . . . . . .
67. Ib id ., pp . 111,126.:
68 . Charles Darwin, The
V a r ia t io n o f n i m a l s a n d P l a n ts u n d e r D o m e s t i c a t i o n
2 vols. Lon don : J oh n Murray, 1868); the 2nd ed., revised, appea red in 1875~
2 1 9
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 26/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
dominant species, which most frequently vary; and that it is the
large and flourishing genera which include the greatest number of
varying species. Varieties, as we shall see, may jus tly be called
incipient species ... The differences between natural varieties are
slight; whereas the differences are considerable between the species
of the same genus and great between the species of distinct genera.
How do these lesser differences become augmented into the greater
difference?. . .
It has been shown from many facts that the largest amount of life
can be supported on each area, by great diversification or divergence
in the structure and const itution of its inhabitants. We have, also,
seen that the continued production of new forms through natural
selection, which implies that each new variety has some advantage
over others, inevitably leads to the extermination of the older and
less improved forms. These latter are almost necessarily intermediate
in structure, as well as in descent, between the last produced forms
and their original parent-species; thus the lesser differences charac-
teristic of varieties come to be augmented into the greater differences
characteristic of species, and by the extermination of the older
intermediate forms, new species end by being distinctly defmed
objects.
Thus, also, we shall see how it is that organic beings can be classed
by what is called a natural method in distinct group, - species under
genera, and genera under families. 69
DIVERGENCE IN THE NOTEBOOKS
When Darwin claimed to have obtained the principle of divergence
around 1852, he seems to have forgotten the insights he had gained in
1837 and in the period after he read
Malthus 7°
Darwin recorded the tree-of-life imagery for the first time in the B
notebooks in the summer of 1837. The various tree-of-life diagrams
that appear in the B notebooks represent (1) the endeavor of each typ-
ical element to extend his domain into other domains ; 71 (2) the gaps
69. Darwin, Variation o f Animals andPlants, 2nd ed., p. 18.
70. That the insight into divergence of character may have occurred twice has
previously been suggested by Gruber,Darwin on Man, p. 117.
71. The first diagram appears in B, p. 26. A particularly penetrating discussion
of the tree-of-life diagrams appears in Darwin on Man, pp. 117-118, 140-149,
195-198, and in Gruber's essay Darwin's Three o f Nature.
220
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 27/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
i n t h e f os si l r e c o r d , w i t h d o t t e d l in e s s h o w i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n
h y p o t h e t i c a l e x t i n c t f o r m s ; 72 a n d ( 3 ) t h e r o l e o f e x t i n c t i o n : e x t i n c t i o n
i s r e q u i re d . 73 T h e d i ag r am s t h u s i m p l i c i t ly i n c o r p o r a t e t h e n o t i o n o f
s tr u gg l e, t h e e x p o n e n t i a l g r o w t h o f th e n u m b e r o f s pe c ie s ( si n c e e a c h
b r a n c h s p li ts i n t o f u r t h e r r a m i f ic a t io n s ), a n d t h e r o l e o f e x t i n c t i o n .
E x t i n c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e t h e r e m u s t b e a m e c h a n i s m t h a t k e e p s
t h e n u m b e r o f s p ec i es c o n s t a n t . T h e l a w o f c o n s e r v a ti o n o f s pe c ie s w a s
a L y e l l i a n p r i n c ip l e t h a t D a r w i n a c c e p t e d a t t h a t s ta g e o f h is t h e o r iz i n g ,
a s is i n d i c a t e d o n p a g e 3 6 o f t h e B n o t e b o o k s . T h e t r e e o f li f e a ls o
d i a g ra m m a t ic a l ly i l lu s t ra t e d t h e t a x o n o m i c r e l a t i o n o f s p e c ie s t o g e n e r a,
genera to f ami l ie s , f ami l i e s to suborder s . 74 Th e v i sua l iza t ion a f fo rde d
by the d iag rams r a is ed in Darw in ' s m ind ques t ions such as , I s the
s h o r tn e s s o f l if e o f
species in
c e r t a i n o r d e r s c o n n e c t e d w i t h g a p s i n
t h e s e r i e s o f c o n n e c t i o n s ? ( i f s t a r t i n g f r o m s a m e e p o c h c e r t a i n l y )
(B , p . 35 ) . Th e d iag rams a l so he lp ed Darwin d i s ce rn ho w the g rea t
g a p b e t w e e n b i r ds a n d m a m m a l i a, s ti ll g r e a te r b e t w e e n v e r t e b r a t e &
ar t i cu la te , st il l g rea te r be tw een an imal and p lan t s (B , pp . 42 -43 ) cou ld
b e e x p l a i n e d , n a m e l y :
t h e
grea t er t he groups t he grea t er t he gaps
( o r
so lu t i ons
o f
con-
t i n u o u s s t r u c t u r e b e t w e e n t h e m ( B , p . 4 2 ) .
T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t a l l t h e s e e a r l y n o t i o n s a n d t h e i r
p i c t o r ia l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e b a s e d o n a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h
spec ies a re th e un i t o f ana lysi s . Th e to ta l num be r o f spec ies i s con s tan t ,
y e t t h e d i ag ra m s s u gg e st a n e x p o n e n t i a l g r o w t h o f t h e n u m b e r o f s p ec ie s
t h a t s o m e w h a t m u s t b e c h e c k e d . E x t i n c t i o n m u s t t h e r e f o r e o c c u r o n a
v a s t sc a le . I n d e e d , D a r w i n f o l l o w e d h i s e n t r ie s o n t h e t r e e o f li f e w i t h
l e n g t h y s p e c u l a t io n s o n e x t i n c t i o n . Y e t h e w a s n o t s a ti sf ie d w i t h h is
u n d e r st a n d in g o f e x t i n c t i o n a n d t o w a r d t h e e n d o f 1 8 3 7 h e w r o t e ,
w e a k e s t p a r t o f t h e o r y d e a t h o f s pe ci es w i t h o u t a p p a r e n t p h y si ca l
c a u s e ( B , p . 1 3 5 ) , e v e n t h o u g h h e h a d e a r li e r s u r m i se d t h a t e x t i n c t i o n
w as a c o n s e q u e n c e . . , o f n o n a d a p ta t io n o f c i rc u m s t a nc e . 7s
72. The second diagram is in B, p. 26; B, p. 25: '~' he tree of life should
perhaps be called the coral of life; base of branches dead; so that passages cannot
be seen.
73. The diagram is in B, p. 35; B, p. 36: Case must be tha t one generation
then should have as many living as now. To do thi s & to have many species (as is)
requires ex t inc t ion .
74. B, pp. 21-22: Organized beings repre sent a tree, irregularly branched;
some branches far more branched, - Hence Genera. See also B, pp. 39-40.
75. B, pp. 37-38: With respe ct to e xtinction we can easy see tha t variety of
ostrich Petise may not be well adapted, & thus perish out, or on other hand like
Orpheus being favourable, many might be produ ced.
221
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 28/95
S I L V A N S, S C t tW E B E R
.....O n e o f th e. p r o b l e m s D a r w i n f a c e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e x t i n c t i o n
w ~ t h a t i t c o u ld b e t h e r ~ su l t o f
accidental
e v e n t s : a c h a n c e t r ~ s p o r t
o f s o m e s e ed o r a n i m a l , o r m a n b r i n g i n g n e w f lo r a i 0 r f a u n a i n t o a
g e o g ra p h ic a r e a . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m w a s h o w t o i n te g ra t e s u c h
chance
e f f e c ts i n t o a d e t e r m i n i s t i c t h e o r y t h a t w a s t o a c c o u n t f o r p h e n o m e n a
i n w h i c h e x t i n c t i o n p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r01e,76 ~
T h e t i m e sc a l es o n w h i c h e x t i n c t i o n o c c u r s w e r e M s o g i v i n g D a r w i n
t r o u b le a t t h i s t i m e . E x t i n c t i o n c o u l d o c c u r r a p i d l y a s w n a s s l o w l y ,
W h e n i t o c c u r r e d r a p i d l y , w a s it, a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e, d i c t u m N a t u r a
n o n f a c e t s a l t u m , t o w h i c h D a r w i n w a s c o m m i t t e d ? H o w d i s co n -
t i n u o u s a p r o c e ss c o u l d h e a l l o w i n t o t h e t h e o r y w i th o u t~ ~ o l a t i n g t h e
g r e a t p r i n c i p le o f c o n t i n u i t y ? W h a t d i d r a p i d e x t in c t i o n i m p l y f o r
L y e U 's c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e T e r t ia r y p e r i o d , w h i c h h a d b e e n b a s e d o n t h e
76 . The : evo lu tion o f Da rwin ' s un de r s t an d in g o f e x t inc t ion i s v iv id ly spe l led
o u t i n t h e t w o e d i ti o n s o f th e Voyage o f th e Beagle. ln the f i r s t ed i t ion~ h e
Journal o f Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Various
Countries Visited by H. M.. S. Beagle under the Command of Captain Fitz Roy,
g:
N .
from 18s2 to 183a
( L o n d o n : C o l b u r n l~ 1839), the MS O f which was
c o m p l e t e d i n 1 83 7, b e f o r e t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n n o t e b o o k s , D a ~
concludes h is
brief
d i sc u s si o n o f e x t i n c t i o n w i t h : ' , A l l th a t a t p r e s e n t c a n b e s a id
wi th ce r t a in ty , i s tha t , a s w i th the ind iv idua l , so wi th the spec ie s, t he ho ur o f l i fe
has ru n i t s course , an d i s Spen t . However , Da rwin ha d wr i t t en ea r l i e r in the
d is cuss ion tha t va r i a t ions o f c l im a te and foo d , o r in t roduc t io n o f enemies, o r the
increased num bers of o th er species ,' [a re] the cause of the sUecessi0n o f races . In
the 2nd ed . , the:Journal of Researches into the Natural History o f the Countries
Visited during the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle round the World ( L o n d o n : 4 ,
M u rr aY , 1 8 45 ) , D a r w i n w r o t e , C e r t a in l y n o f a c t i n t h e l o n g h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d
i s so s t a r t ling as th e wide and repea ted ex te rm ina t io n o f i t s inhab i t an t s . ' , The
discuss ion on ext in c t io n is mu ch long er here , and D arwin e xp l ic i t ly s ta tes h is
Malthusian insights a n d V ividly expresses his co m m itm en ts to allo pa tric Speciati0n.
He re i t e ra te s h i s s t rong com mi tm en t to a na tu ra l is t i c exp lan a t ion o f ex t inc t ion
and mockingly sugges ts tha we shou ld no t be su rp r i s ed to f in d ex t inc t ion p re -
ceded by very low p opu la t ion densi ties . His d iscussion ech oes Pa ley ' s in Natural
Theology:
t o a pa t i en t a t t h e c lose o f h i s d is ea se . . . . Dea th . . . . i s on ly the l a s t
o f a long t ra in o f changes; in h i s p rogre s s th rough which , i t i s pos s ib le tha t he m ay
exper ience no Shocks or sudden t rans i t io ns (The . Works of William Pale),, D. D.
[Ph i l ade lph ia ; J . W oodward , 1831 ] , p . 479) . Da rwin a l so s tres se s tha t ex t in c t ion
can b e in i t i a t ed by a chan ce even t , I t w as c l ea r to D a rw in tha t h i s theo ry n eed
no t accoun t fo r chance even ts such a s the t r anspo r t o f a s eed by winds o r b i rds
b e in g c a r r ie d b y a s t o rm t o a n is la n d . T h e y f o r m e d t h e initial conditions fo r
t h e p h e n o m e n a t o b e e x p l ai n ed b y t h e t h e o r y , w h ic h w as t o a c c o u n t f o r th e
regularities tha t occu rred when a sy s tem w as p laced unde r spec i f ied c ircumstances.
Th i s po in t had been ex p l i c i t ly d is cussed in Hersche l 's Preliminary Discourse on
NaturalPhilosophy (Lon don : L a rdne r ' s Cab ine t , 183 t ) .
2 2 2
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 29/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i e a l ~ E c o n O m i s t s
a s s u m p t i o n : o f ~ g r a d u a l a n d : u n i f o r m r a t e o f c h a n g e ha .th e o r g a n i c
w or ld. 77 ~ . . ~ .~ : . . . . ....... .% . ~:
Read ing . Mal thus , .Es say . on : Popu la t iOn in S e p t e m b e r 1 8 3 8 ag a in
d r e w D a r w i n ' s : a t t e n t i o n : t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t i m e sc ale s,T S: T h e t w o
M a l t h u s i a n l a w s : .w e re q u a n t i t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s : c o m p a r i n g
r a t e s , : o f
g r o w t h = t h e g r o w t h o f h u m a n p o p u la t i on s ~ i f u n c h e c k e d , i s e x p o n e n t i a l
a s c o m p a r e d w i t h th e i n c r e a s e i n t h e f o o d s u p p l y o n w h i c h m a n s ub si st s- ,
w h i c h t e n d s t o h a v e a c o n s t a n t r a te o f i n c re a s e , : : . . . . :
T o c l a r i fy t h e v a r io u s t i m e s c al es i n v o lv e d : b e c a m e : v e r y i m p o r t a n t
t o D a r w i n f o r u n d e r s ta n d i n g h o w n a t u r a l s e le c t io n o p e r a t e d . T o b e g in
w i t h , h e h a d t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h p a r a m e t e r s , a s : a f ir s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n ,
c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d c 0 n s t a n t i n ~ e w h e n : an a ly z in g v a r io u s p h e n o -
m e n a . T h e f i rs t a n d l o n g e s t r e l e v a n t ~ e s ca le w a s ' t h e g e o l 0 ~ c a l o i ie :
t h e a v e ra g e t i m e S c a l e f o r t h e s u b s i d e n c e a n d e l e v a t i o n o f C o n t i n e n t s
a n d t h e c o r r e l a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d c l i m a t i c c h a n g e s . 79 - T h e t i m e s c al e
f o r s p e c i a t i o n , D a r w i n a s s u m e d , w a s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t if fs g e o l o g i c a l t i m e
s ca le s ° T h o u g h e x t i n c t io n e o u l d U n d e r e e r t ~ ~ c u m s t a n c e s b e re l a t e d
t o g e o l og i c al c h a n g es , e x t i n c t i o n c o u l d O c c u r m U c h m 0 r e r a p i d l y ' ~ a n
s c h ch a n ge s ( a s w h e n a n e w s p e ci es e n t e r e d a p l a c e m t h e e c o n o m y
77, LyeU's
Principles o f Geology
(London, J ; Mur ray) , ve t , I ( 1830) , voLI I
( 1 8 3 2 ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y v o l. I l I ( 1 83 3 ) . S e e a l s o : R u d wi c k , M eaning O f Fossils,
and Ru dw iek , ' Char les Lye ll~s D ream of a S ta t i s t i ca l Pa laeonto logy , , ' pp , 225 ,
244. ' . . . . • .
7 8 , S e e m y d is cu ss io n i n " Or ig i n o f t h e Origin,, :pp. 299-302~ A typ ica l en t ry
o f t h a p e r i o d i s t h e o n e Da r wi n wr o t e o n Oc t o b e r 4 , 1 83 8, i n E , p . 4 : ' , I t c a n n o t
be ob jec ted to m y theory , th a t the am oun t o f change w i th in h is tQr ical t imes has
been s m a l l - b e c a u s e c h a n g e in f o r m i s s o le l y a d a p t a t i o n o f w h o l e o f~ on e r a c e t o
s o m e c h an ge o f c ir c u m s t a n ce s ; n o w w e k n o w h o w s lo wl y & i n s e n s i b l y s u c h
changes a re in p ro g re ss - w e f ee l in te r es t in d iscover ing a char lge of l eve l e r a f ew
fee t dur ing the l a s t two thousand year s in I t a ly , bu t w ha t change wo uld such a
chang e p rodu ce in c l ima te yege ta t ion & c ~ - i t i s the e~cu ms tanee o f smal l phys ica l
changes & osci l la t ions , not af fect ing organic forms, that the whole value of the
g e o l 0 g i e a l c h r o n o lo g y d e p e n d s t h a m o s t s u b li m e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e ge n u s o f
men.,~ See a lso th e sect ion "O n Time,r~ chap. 7 o f Char les Ba bbag e ' s Ninth
Bridgewater Treatise
(Lond on: John Mur ray , 1838), w hich Darwin r ea d in Oc to ber
1838. , ,
: "7 9 ' E ' p . '125:1 "No o ne bu t a p r ac t i sed geo log is t can rea l ly com prehend ho w
o l d t h e wo r l d i s , a s t h e m e a s u r em e n t s r e f e r n o t t o r e v o l u t io n s o f t h e s u n & o u r
l ives, b u t to . pe r iod necessa ry to fo rm heap of pebbles & e & e: the~success ion o f
organis m te l l s no th ing ab ou t l eng th O t ime , on ly order s o f succession .' . . . . .
. . 80 . D, p . 140: "wh en we m ul t ip ly the e f f ec t s o f ea r thquakes , e leva ting for ces
in r ai sing cont inen ts , s ea on beaches w e r ea l ly measure the r ap id i ty o f changes o f
f o rm s & i n s t in c t s i n t h e a n i m a l k i n g d 0 m . " :
2 2 3
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 30/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
o f n a t u r e a n d e x t e r m i n a t e d t h e f o r m e r t e n a n t s ) , s i T h e t i m e s c al e f o r
i n d i v id u a l , s m a l l v a r i a t io n s w a s s h o r t c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e g e o l o g ic a l
t i m e s ca le , v a r i a t i o n s in a p o p u l a t i o n b e i n g c o p i o u s a n d o c c u r r i n g
u b i q u i t o u s l y . - V a r i a t i o n s a r e a d d i t i v e , a n d b y t h e i r c u m m u l a t i v e
e f f e c t s ( m e a s u r e d o n t h e t i m e s ca le o f a g e n e r a t i o n ) s 2 v a r i e t ie s a n d
e v e n t u a l l y n e w s p ec ie s a r e p r o d u c e d , t h r o u g h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f n a t u r a l
s e l ec t io n . U n t i l 1 8 4 4 , w e m u s t r e m e m b e r , D a r w i n b e l i e v e d t h a t sp e c i a-
t i o n o c c u r s w h e n i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i s m s a r e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y i s o l a t e d , a s i n
t h e c a se o f t h e G a l ~ p a g o s m o c k i n g b i r d s , s3
8 1 . T h e e c o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t o f p l a c e is r e f e r e d t o i n t h e n o t e b o o k s , e .g ., E , p .
1 1 4 ( M a r c h 1 2, 1 8 3 9 ) : w e m u s t r e c o l l e c t t h e m u l t i t u d e o f p l a n t s i n t r o d u c e d
i n t o o u r g a r d e n s . . , w h i c h a re p r o p a g a te d w i t h v e r y l i t tl e ca re - & w h i c h m i g h t
s p r e a d t h e m s e l v e s a s ~ ve ll a s o u r w i l d p l a n t s , w e s e e h o w f u l l n a t u r e , h o w f 'm e l y
e a c h h o l d s i t s p l a c e . E a r l ie r , i n h i s O r n i t h o l o g i c a l N o t e s , w h i c h w e r e v e r y
p r o b a b l y w r i t te n d u r i n g 1 8 3 6 o n t h e la s t l eg o f t h e Beagle v o y a g e , D a r w i n h a d
n o t e d : I h a v e s p e c im e n s [ o f G a l~ p a g os m o c k i n g b ir d s ] f r o m f o u r o f t h e l ar g e r
i s la n d s . . . T h e s p e c i m e n s f ro m C h a t h a m & A l b e r m a r l e I s ld a p p e ar to b e t h e
s a m e ; b u t t h e o t h e r t w o a r e d i f f e r e n t . I n e a c h I s l d . e a c h k i n d i s exc lus ive ly f o u n d :
h a b i t s o f a l l a r e i n d i s ti n g u i s h a b l e . W h e n I r e c o l l e c t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f o r m o f t h e
b o d y , s h a p e o f s ca le s & g e n e r al s iz e, t h e S p a n i a r d s c a n a t o n c e p r o n o u n c e , f r o m
w h i c h I s la n d a n d T o r t o i s e m a y h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t . W h e n I s e e t h e s e I s la n d s i n
s i gh t o f e a c h o t h e r , &
[ b u t
d e l e t e d ] p o s s e s s e d o f b u t a s c a n t y s t o c k o f a n i m a l s ,
t e n a n t e d b y t h e s e b i r d s , b u t s l i g h tl y d if f e r i n g i n s t r u c t u r e & f i ll in g t h e s a m e place
[ m y i ta li c s] i n N a t u r e , I m u s t s u s p e c t t h e y a r e o n l y v a r i e t i e s . . . I f t h e r e i s t h e
s l ig h t e s t f o u n d a t i o n s t o t h e s e r e m a r k s t h e Z o o l o g y o f A r c h i p e la g o e s , w i ll b e w e l l
w o r t h e x a m i n i n g ; f o r s u c h f a c ts [ w o u l d i n s e r te d ] u n d e r m i n e t h e s t a b i li ty o f
S p e c i e s . N . B a r l o w , e d ., D a r w i n ' s O r n i t h o l o g i c a l N o t e s , Bull. Brit . Mus. (Nat.
Hist .) , Hist. Set . , 2 , n o . 7 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 2 0 3 - 2 6 2 . F o r t h e d a t i n g o f t h i s p a s s a g e s e e
S . H e r b e r t , T h e P l a c e o f M a n i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f D a r w i n ' s T h e o r y o f T r a n s -
m u t a t i o n , P a r t I , t o J u l y 1 8 3 7 , Z
Hist. Biol., 7
( 1 9 7 4 ) , 2 1 7 - 2 5 8 ; G . G r i n n e l l ,
T h e R i se a n d F a l l o f D a r w i n ' s F i r s t T h e o r y o f T r a n s m u t a t i o n , Z
Hist. Biol., 7
( 1 9 7 4 ) , 2 5 9 - 2 7 3 ; R . C o l p , C h a r l e s D a r w i n a n d t h e G a l ~ p a g o s , N . Y . J.
Med. , 77
( 1 9 7 7 ) , 2 6 2 - 2 6 7 .
8 2 . E , p . 5 7 : E v e r y s t r u c t u r e i s c a p a b l e o f i n n u m e r a b l e v a r i a t io n s , a s l o n g a s
e a c h s h a l l b e
per f ec t l y
a d a p t e d t o c i r c u m s ta n c e s o f
t i m es
f r o m p e r s i s t in g o w i n g
t o t h e i r s l ow f o r m a t i o n t h e s e v a r i a ti o n s t e n d t o a c c u m u l a t e o n a n y s tr u c t u r e . I t
i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g t h e t i m e s c a l e f o r v a r i a t i o n h a s m e a n i n g
o n l y f o r a p o p u l a t i o n .
8 3 . D a r w i n t o H o o k e r , S u n d a y , 1 8 4 4 . T h e c o n c l u si o n , w h i c h I h a v e c o m e
a t i s t h a t t h o s e a r e a s, in w h i c h s p e c i e s a r e m o s t n u m e r o u s , h a v e o f t e n e s t b e e n
d i v i d e d a n d i s o l a t e d f r o m o t h e r a re a s , u n i t e d a n d a g a i n d i v i d e d ; a p r o c e s s im p l y i n g
a n t i q u i t y a n d s o m e c h a n g e s i n t h e e x t e r n a l c o n d i t io n s . T h i s w il l j u s t ly s o u n d v e r y
h y p o t h e t i c a l . I c a n n o t g iv e m y r e a s o n s i n d e t a il ; b u t t h e m o s t g e n e r a l e o n c h i s lo n ,
w h i c h t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a l l o r g a n i c b e in g s , a p p e a r s t o m e t o i n d i c a t e
is t h a t i s o l a ti o n is t h e c h i e f c o n c o m i t a n t , o r c a u s e o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f n e w f o r m s
( I w e l l k n o w t h e r e a r e s o m e s t a r r in g e x c e p ti o n s ) . S e c o n d l y f r o m s e ei ng h o w o f t e n
2 2 4
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 31/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i s t s
I n t h e p e r i o d o f i n t o x i c a t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e M a l t h u s i a n i n s i g h t D a r w i n
m u s t h a v e h o p e d t h a t h e c o u l d s h o w h o w n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n m i g h t
a c c o u n t f o r t h e v a r i o u s t i m e s ca le s l iv i n g f o r m s e x h i b i t e d , b e c a u s e " t h e
g r e a t e n d m u s t b e t h e l a w & c a u se s o f c h a n g e s " ( E , p . 5 2 ). N a t u r a l
s e l e c t io n w a s t o b e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g a n d e x p l a i n e v e r y t h i n g f o u n d
i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l w o r l d . O f c o u r s e , t h e g e o l o g i ca l , g e o g r a p h i c , a n d
c l i m a t i c s t a g e u p o n W h i c h t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s u n f o l d e d h a d t o b e
c o n s i d e r e d , b u t t h e se i n o r g a n i c p ro c e s s e s w o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y
t h e l a w s o f p h y s i c s a n d c h e m i s t r y . ~
B u t i t m u s t q u i c k l y h a v e b e c o m e a p p a r e n t t o D a r w i n t h a t h i s d r e a m
w a s a n i m p o s s i b l e o n e , f o r i t m e a n t g o i n g b a c k t o a n in i t i a l o r i g in o f
e v e r y t h i n g o n e a r t h a n d h a v i n g t o c o n s i d e r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f e v e r y t h in g
w i t h e v e r y t h i n g e ls e a n d t o s p e c i fy p r e c i s e ly t h e e v o l u t i o n o f e v e r y
t h e p l a n t s a n d a n im a l s s w a r m i n c o u n t r y , w h e n i n t r o d u c e d i n i t , a n d f r o m s e e in g
w h a t a v a s t n u m b e r o f p l a n t s w i l l l iv e , f o r i n s t a n c e i n E n g l a n d f f k e p t free from
weeds and native plants
I have been l ed t o cons ide r t ha t t he sp read ing and
n u m b e r o f t h e o r g a n i c b ei n g s o f a n y c o u n t r y d e p e n d l es s o n i t s e x t e r n a l f e a t u re s ,
t h a n o n t h e n u m b e r o f f o r m s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n t h e r e o r ig i n a ll y c r e a t e d o r p r o -
d u c e d . I m u c h d o u b t w h e t h e r y o u w i l l f i n d it p o s s ib l e t o e x p l a i n t h e n u m b e r o f
f o r m s b y p r o p o r t i o n a l d i f fe r e n c e s o f e x p o s u r e ; a n d I c a n n o t d o u b t i f h a l f t h e
s p e c i e s i n a n y c o u n t r y w e r e d e s t r o y e d o r h a d n o t b e e n c r e a t e d y e t t h a t c o u n t r y
w o u l d a p p e a r t o u s f u l l y p e o p l e d . W i th re s p e c t t o o r ig i n a l c r e a t i o n o r p r o d u c t i o n
o f n e w f o r m s , I h a v e s a id t h a t i s o l a t io n a p p e ar s t h e c h i e f e le m e n t . H e n c e , w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t e r re s t ri a l p r o d u c t i o n s a t r a c t o f c o u n t r y , w h i c h h a d o f t e n e s t w i t h i n
the l a t e r geo log i ca l pe r iods subs ided and b een co nve r t ed i n to i s lands and r eu n i t ed ,
I s h o u l d e x p e c t t o c o n t a i n m o s t f o rm s .
" B u t such specu l a t i ons a r e am us ing o n ly t o one s e l f and i n t h i s ca se u se le s s a s
t h e y d o n o t s h o w a n y d i r e c t l i n e o f o b s e r v a ti o n .
" Your geog raph ica l - l aw- l e t t e r s r equ i r e be ing r ead and r e r ead , and I have on ly
r e a d y o u r l a s t t w i c e , a n d s o w i l l h a z a r d n o r e m a r k s o n i t . Y o u s e e m h o w e v e r t o
h a v e p u t t h e c a se o f ' t y p i c a l f o r m s ' i n a c l e a r e r p o i n t o f v ie w , t h a n I e v e r s a w i t
a n d s t r ip p e d t h e w o r d o f h a l f , ff n o t a l l i ts m y s t e r y : I h a v e l o n g s u s p e c te d , t h a t
t y p i c a l a n d a b n o r m a l f o r m s c o n s i s t o n l y o f t h o s e , o f w h i c h a g r e a t e r o r l es s v a r i e t y
h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d o r m o d i f i e d - w i t h t h i s e x c e l l e n t y e x p r e s se d s e n t e n c e , I w i l l
c o n c l u d e . "
T h i s l e t t e r i s in t h e H o o k e r - D a r w i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s it y
L i b r a ry . I t h a n k P e t e r G a u t r e y a n d t h e L i b r a r i a n o f t h e L i b r a r y f o r p e r m i s si o n t o
q u o t e i t . P a r t o f t h e l e t t e r is in c l u d e d i n LLD I , 388 -389 .
8 4 . J . F . W . H e rs c h e l, " O n t h e A s t r o n o m i c a l C a u s es W h i c h M a y I n f lu e n c e
G e o l o g ic a l P h e n o m e n a , " Trans. Geol. Soc. London 3 (1932) , 293 -299 . See a l so
W . F . C a n n o n , " J o h n H e r s c h e l a n d t h e I d e a o f S c i e n c e , " J . Hist. Ideas 22 (1961) ,
2 1 5 - 2 3 9 ; R u d w i c k , Meaning of Fossils p . 1 8 7 ; D o v O s p o v a t , " L y e l l ' s T h e o r y o f
C l i m a t e , " £ Hist. Biol. 10 (1977) , 317 -399 .
2 2 5
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 32/95
S ~ L V A N S : S C U W E B E R
v a r ie t y, e x t a n t a n d e x t in c t, as A m o r e m o d e s t a p p r o a c h h a d t o b e
a c c e p t e d . H e n e e d n o t t r y t o a c c o u n t f o r e v e r y t h in g . H e c o u ld in s te a d
a c c e p t a p h e n 0 m e n o l 0 g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f o r m s o f l i f e and t he
g e o l o g i c a l , g e o g r a p h i c , a n d c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s o n e a r t h a t s o m e g i v e n
t i m e a n d t h e n a ll o w " s e c o n d a r y c a u s e s" t o t a k e h i m f r o m t h a t s ta g e t o
s o m e l a t e r st ag e . n w o r k i n g o u t t h is p r o g r a m , h e w o u l d f ir s e s t a b li s h
p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l a w s ( e .g ., c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w s o f su b s i d e n c e a n d
e l e v a t i o n o f l a n d m a s s e s , t h e l a w o f c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s p e c i e s , l a w s o f
c l i m a t e , l a w s o f v a r i a t io n , l a w s o f c o r r e l a ti o n o f p a r t s ) a n d th e r e a f t e r
l o o k f o r c a u s e s ,
verae causae.
86 T h i s w a s p a r t o f t h e C o m t e a n m e s s a g e
t h a t D a r w i n h a d r e a d i n A u g u s t 1 8 38 a n d t h a t r e s o n a te d so s tr o n g ly
w i t h h i s o w n p r i o r v ie w s , in s p i r ed b y h is r e a d i n g o f H e r s c h e l a n d L y e l l.
D a r w i n r e a li z e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e s e v e ra l w a y s o f l o o k i n g a t t h e
p h e n o m e n a . H e c o u l d c o n s i d e r g lo b a l e v o l u t i o n o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f
t i m e , o r h e c o u l d l o o k a t th e d i f f e r e n ti a l l o ca l d e s c r ip t io n . I n t h i s s e c o n d
a p p r o a c h , h e c o u l d t r y t o l i m i t th e i n q u i r y t o h o w n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n
o p e r a t e d o v e r s h o r t t i m e i n t e r v a l s i n f a i r y l o c a l i z e d g e o g r a p h i c a l
r e g i o n s . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a n i n q u i r y i n t o h o w n a t u r a l
s e l e c t i o n a c c o u n t s f o r t h e o b s e r v e d d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r i u m . I n f a c t ,
Lye l l i n h i s
Principles of Geology
h a d a l r e a d y a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o t h e
q u e s t i o n o f w h y a g iv e n l o c a l i ty " w i l l b e o c c u p i e d b y a f e w [ sp e c ie s ] t o
t h e e x c l u s io n o f m a n y , a n d th e s e f e w a r e e n a b l e d , t h r o u g h o u t l o n g
p e r i o d s , t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r g r o u n d s u c c e s s f u l l y a g a in s t e v e r y in t r u d e r ,
n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e f a c il it ie s w h i c h s p e c ie s e n j o y , b y v i rt u e o f th e i r
p o w e r s o f d i f fu s i o n , o f i n v a d in g a d j a c e n t t e r r i to r i e s . " 87 L y e l l ' s e x p l a n a -
t i o n a p p e a l e d t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s among species , and i t was in th i s
c o n t e x t t h a t h e r e f e r r e d t o C a n d o U e ' s " s p i r i t e d " s t a t e m e n t : " A l l t h e
p l a n t s o f a g iv e n c o u n t r y a r e a t w a r w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . "
F r o m 1 8 3 8 t o 1 8 3 9 , w h e n D a r w i n w a s p r i n c i p a l ly c o n c e r n e d w i t h
t h e h i g h e r a n i m a l f o r m s , h e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i n h is i n v e s ti g a t io n o f h o w
na tu ra l s e l ec t i on exp l a ined l oc a l equ i l i b ri a , im po r t an t s imp l i f ica t i ons
c o u l d b e m a d e . F i r s t, h e c o u l d a s s u m e t h a t t h e g e o l o g i ca l a n d g e o g r a p h i c
85. E, p. 52: "I fr om looking at all facts as inducing toward law of transmuta-
tion, cannot see the deductions w hich are possible."
86. Se e, e.g., E, p. 5 1: "Thinking o f effects of my theory, laws will probably
be discovered of correlation of parts, from the law s of variation of one part
affecting another." See als o E, pp. 53 -54 and p. 59: "H urrah - 'intermediate
cause. '" In connection with the vera causa principle, see M. J. S. H od ge , '"The
Structure and Strategy of Darwin's
Long Argument, Brit. J. Hist. Science, 10
(1977), 237-246.
87. Lyell, Principles of Geology, II, 130.
2 2 6
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 33/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e : P o li t ic a l E e o n o m i s tg
p r o c e ss e s w e r e c h a n g i n g e x t r e m e l y s l o w l y in t i m e , w e r e lo c a U y u n -
a f fec ted b y th e b io log ica l phe nom ena , t ak ing p la 'ee, and thus to a J f ir s t
a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t c o u l d b e a s s U m e d - c o n s t a n t . S e c o n d ,
h e c o u l d a s su m e t h a t t h e r a t es f o r r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d f e r t i li t y , a s w e l l a s
g e n e r a t i o n a l t i m e s , w e r e c o n s t a n t : D o i n g s o , D a r w i n t h e n i n f e r r e d t h a t
t h e a v e ra g e e f f e c t o f in t e r sp e c i f ic c o m p e t i t i o n a n d s h o r t - t e rm c l im a t i c
e f fec t s r e su lt ed , in a fo od Supp ly fo r an y spec ies tha t on the~ave tage was
c o n s ta n t .: T h a t i s, D a r w i n e o u l d m a k e p l au s ib l e ( a n d i n t h i s s en s e d e r i v e )
w h y t h e a v e ra g e p e r c e n ta g e o f e v e r y o n e ' o f t h e in h a b i ta n t s o f a c o u n t r y
will :ordinan ly
r e m a i n c o n s t a n t : ~ I n O t h e r w o r d s , g i ve n t h e e n O r m o u s
m u l t i p l y i n g p o w e r
inherent an d annually in
ac t ion in a l I an imals ;, ' as
n a t u ra l s e l e c ti o n c o u l d a c c o u n t f o r . t h ~ d y n a m i c e q u i li b ri u m :
on the
average the f o o d s u p p l y w as c o n s t a n t a n d t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e v a ri ou s
spec ies r em ained cons tan t~
T h e t h i r d p o i n t i n th e f a m o u s e n t r y o n p a g e 5 8 O f t h e E n o t e b o o k -
T hre e p r inc ip les w i l l ac co un t fo r a l l . .. ..
1 ) g randch i ld ren l ike g randfa the r s .
2 ) t e n d e n c y t o s m a l l c h a n g e . . , e s p e ci a ll y .w i t h p h y si ca l c h a ng e
3 ) g r e a t f e r ti l i t y i n p r o p o r t i o n t o s u p p o r t o f p a r e n t s -
m a k e s e x p l ic i t m y i n f e r e n c e : t h e r e is o n l y o n e M a lt hu si an s t a t e m e n t ,
a n d t h e s e c o n d M a lt h u si an l a w f o l l o w s f r o m t h e f ir s t. A s D a r w i n h i m s e l f
e m p h a s i z e d , a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f th e s o l u t i o n o f h i s p r o b l e m W as t h e
a p p l i c a t io n o f t h e M a l t h u s i a n th e s i s t o a ll o f n a t u r e . F o r D a r w i n t h i s
m e a n t t h a t : t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e M a l t h u si a n l a w , w h i c h s t a t e d t h a t w h e n
u n c h e c k e d , t h e r a te o f i n c r e a se ' o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a n y o n e s pe ci es
is e x p o n e n t i a l . ( B u t d i f f e r e n t s p e c ie s m a y h a v e d i f f e r e n t re p r o d u c t i v e
t ime ScaleS .) I t was th i s expo nen t ia l g row th th a t gave r i s e to po pu la t io n
pres su re , the vera causa of na tu ra l s e lec t ion , and the ensu ing in te r spe -
c i f l c a n d i n t r a s p e c i f i e c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e r e W a s o n e o b v i o u s c o n s t r a i n t
t h a t h a d t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n c o n si d er in g t h e e q u i li b ri u m o f t h e
e n t i r e s y s t e m : t h e f m i t u d e ' o f t h e' s u r f a c e o f t h e e a i t h . T h e a r ea s t h a t
c o u l d b e o c c u p i e d b y li vi n g o r g an i sm s i m p o s e d a n a b s o lu t e l i m i t o n t h e
b i o m a ss t h e e a r t h c o u l d ; su p p o r t. ' . . . . ' '
:B u t a s use fu l a s the M al thusian S ta tem en t was ' in th i s ana lys is , i t
w a s n o n e t h e l e s s o n l y / a n ~ i m p o r t a t i t
phenomenological
s t a t e m e n t t h a t
e v e n t u a l l y s h o u l d b e s u bs u m e d, u n d e r . a m o r e g e n e r a l a n d u n i v e rs a l
88. Essayof 1844, p . 118. . . . .
2 2 7
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 34/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
s t a t e m e n t , s9 T h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e c o n d M a l t h u s i a n l a w , r e l at iv e t o
t h e f o o d s u p p l y , c o u l d b e s h o w n t o b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e l a w o f
g e o m e t r i c a l p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h w h e n t h is l a w w a s a p p l i e d t o a ll o f n a tu r e
s u g g e s te d h o w t h e p r o c e s s w a s t o o p e r a t e . 9° D a r w i n w a s g r a p p l i n g w i t h
t h es e p r o b l e m s w h e n i n J a n u a r y 1 8 3 9 h e w r o t e :
T h e e n o r m o u s number o f a n im a l s i n t h e w o r l d d e p e n d s o n t h e i r
v a r i e d s t r u c t u r e & c o m p l e x i t y . - h e n c e a s t h e f o r m s b e c a m e c o m -
p l i c a t e d , t h e y o p e n e d fresh m e a n s o f a d d in g t o t h e i r c o m p l e x i t y .
- b u t y e t th e r e is n o
necess ry
t e n d e n c y i n t h e s i m p l e a n i m a l s t o
b e c o m e c o m p l i c a t e d a l th o u g h a ll p e r h a p s w i ll h a v e d o n e s o f r o m t h e
n e w r e l a t i o n s c a u s e d b y t h e a d v a n c i n g c o m p l e x i t y o f o t h e rs . - I t
m a y w e l l b e sa id , w h y s h o u l d t h e r e n o t b e a t a n y t im e a s m a n y
species t e n d in g t o d i s - d e v e l o p m e n t . . , m y a n sw e r is b e c au s e , i f w e
b e g i n w i t h t h e s i m p l e s t f o r m s & s u p p o s e t h e m t o h av e c h a n g e d t h e i r
v e r y c h a n g e s t e n d t o g iv e r is e t o o t h e r s - . . . I d o u b t n o t i f t h e
s i m p l e s t a n i m a ls c o u l d b e d e s t r o y e d , t h e m o r e h i g h l y o r g a n iz e d
w o u l d b e s o o n d i s o r g a n i z e d t o f i l l t h e i r p l ac e s . -
T h e g e o l o g ic o - g e o g ra p h i c o c h a ng e s m u s t t e n d s o m e t i m e s t o
a u g m e n t & s o m e t i m e s to s i m p l i f y s t ru c t u r es . W i t h o u t e n o r m o u s
c o m p l e x i t y i t i s i m p o s s i b le t o c o v e r
whole
s u rf a ce o f w o r l d w i t h
l if e . - f o r o t h e r w i s e a f r o s t i f k i l l i n g t h e v e g e t a b l e o f o n e q u a r t e r o f
t h e w o r l d w o u l d k i l l a l l . . , i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t a l a rg e p a r t o f th e
c o m p l e x i t y o f s t r u c tu r e i s a d a p t a t i o n . . .
C o n s i d e ri n g th e k i n g d o m o f n a t u r e a s i t n o w i s, i t w o u l d n o t b e
p o s s i b l e t o s i m p l i f y t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t b e in g s , ( a l l
f is h es t o t h e st a t e o f th e A m m o c o e t u s , C r u s t a c e a t o - ? & c ) w i t h o u t
r e d u c i n g t h e n u m b e r o f li v in g b e i n g s - b u t t h e r e i s t h e s t r o n g e s t
p o s s i b l e [ t e n d e n c y ? ] t o i n c r e a s e t h e m , h e n c e t h e d eg r e e o f d e v e l o p -
m e n t is e i t h e r s t a t i o n a r y o r p r o b a b l y in c r e as e s . ( E , p p . 9 5 - 9 7 ) 91
I f m d t h i s e n t r y s t a g g e r in g . T h e r e a r e s e v e ra l s t r a n d s i n it . O n e c o n -
c e r ns t h e p r o b l e m o f h o w t o r e c o n c i le t h e e v o l u t i o n f r o m s im p l e t o
c o m p l e x f o r m s a n d i ts as s o c ia t e d t im e a r r ow w i t h L y e l l ' s s t e a d y -s t a te
89. In o th er word s , the ques t ions why d o organisms repro duc e so as to g ive
r ise to a geo me tr ica l ra te of increase , and wh at the t im e co ns tan t i s , a re meaningful
and m us t be answered by the theo ry o f na tu ra l s e l ec t ion .
90 . See Schweber , The Young Darw in , on the re l a t ion be tween how na tu ra l
s e lec tion ope ra ted and ho w the New ton ian desc r ip t ion worked .
91 . The word tendency does n ot occur in Darw in ' s or ig ina l MS. De Beer
inser ted i t .
2 2 8
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 35/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
u n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m a n d i ts e x p l i c i t r e j e c t i o n o f d i r e c t i o n a l it y i n t i m e . 9 :
D o e s t h e n e c e s s a r y t e n d e n c y . . . t o b e c o m e c o m p l i c a t e d v i o la t e
L y e l l ' s i d e a s ? D o e s i t i m p l y t h a t p r e s e n t - d a y p r o c e s s e s a r e d i f f e r e n t i n
k i n d t h a n e a r li e r o n e s ? C o n f l a t e d w i t h th i s i s t h e q u e s t io n : I f t h e r e
i s e v o l u t i o n f r o m l o w e r t o h i g h e r f o r m s w h y a r e t h e r e s ti ll so m a n y
b e i n g s o f t h e s i m p l e s t s t r u c t u r e ? L y e l l h a d p o s e d t h i s q u e s t i o n i n h i s
P r i n c i p l e s o f G e o l o g y , a n d D a r w i n e n t e r e d a n a n s w e r i n t h e m a r g i n a l i a
t o t h e f i f t h e d i t i o n , w h i c h h e r e a d in 1 8 3 7 : B e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e l o c a l-
i ti e s f i t t e r f o r s i m p l e s t a n im a l s a s w e l l a s th e m o s t c o m p l e x , t h e r e f o r e
s o m e r e m a i n e d s im p l e i f n o t c r e a te d . '9 3 N o t e , h o w e v e r , t h e c h a n g e
t h a t o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 3 7 a n d 1 8 3 9. In 1 8 3 7 D a r w i n s p o k e o f
adap t a t i on t oward l oca l i t i e s~ t ha t i s , geograph i ca l l oca l i t i e s . In J anuary
1 8 3 9 a d a p t a t io n s w e r e t o w a r d p l a c e . A n d f o r D a r w i n t h e n o t i o n o f
p lace i s ecolog ical : i t i s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e. 94
M o r e o v e r , i t i s c l e a r f r o m t h e s e n t e n c e i n t h e E n o t e b o o k e n t r y i n
w h i c h D a r w i n s t a te s t h a t h e d o e s n o t d o u b t t h a t i f t h e s i m p l e s t a n i m a l s
w e r e d e s t r o y e d t h e m o r e h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d w o u l d s o o n b e d is o r g a n iz e d
t o f il l t h e i r p l a c e s t h a t f o r D a r w i n i n 1 8 3 9 a d a p t a t i o n c o u l d b e
p r o g r e s s i v e a s w e l l a s r e t r o g r e s s i v e a n d n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n c o u l d
a c c o u n t f o r b o t h k i n d s o f c h a n g e s .
T h e e n t r y a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n v i e w i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f e v o l u t i o n ,
D a r w i n c o n s i d e r e d o r g a n i s m s a s e n t i ti e s t h a t h a d a h i s t o r y a n d a m e m o r y
( a p r o g r a m , in m o d e m t e r m i n o l o g y ) . 9s O n l y b y v i rt u e o f h a v in g ob -
t a in e d a d e g re e o f c o m p l e x i t y c a n o r g a n is m s a d d f u r t h e r c o m p l e x i t y
( c h a n g e t h e i r p r o g r a m ) . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o n e c e s s a r y t e n d e n c y in th e
s i m p l e a n i m a l s t o b e c o m e c o m p l i c a t e d , D a r w i n s u g ge s ts t h a t t h e n e w
r e la t io n s c a u s e d b y t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f o t h e r s w i ll i n d u c e c o m p l e x i t y
t o e v o lv e . C o m p l e x i t y n o t o n l y m e a n t t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f a d d in g
f u r t h e r c o m p l e x i t y , it a ls o m e a n t d i v e r si ty . '9 6 W i t h o u t e n o r m o u s
c o m p l e x i t y - [ r e a d d i v e r s i t y ] i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c o v e r w h o l e s u r f a c e
o f w o r l d w i t h li f e . S i n ce th e r e i s t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s s ib l e t e n d e n c y f o r
e a c h o r g a n is m t o i n c r e a se i ts n u m b e r s , t h e 'd e g re e o f d e v e l o p m e n t
p r o b a b l y i n c re a s e s. D a r w i n ' s s t a t e m e n t s t r o n g e s t p o s s ib l e t e n d e n c y
92. I thank J. Hod ge fo r a discussion o f this point.
93. Quo ted in Stauffer, Ecology in the Long M anuscript Version o f Darw in's
Origin o f Species, p. 237.
94. See ibid., p. 238, for the use of the world place.
95. See M ayr's st imulating 1974 essa y, 'q 'h e Evolution o f Living Systems,
reprinted in Evolution an d the Diversity o f Life, pp. 16-25.
96. In C, p. 147e Darwin says that the quan t i ty o f l ife on a planet depends on
subdivisions of stations & diversity.
2 2 9
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 36/95
S I L V A N S ; S C I - t W E B E R ....
t o i n c r e a s e i s t h e : f i rs t s t e p i n : th e g e n e ra l iz a ~ O n o f t h e M a l t hu s ia n
prin cip le.: _ . ' : ~
T h e t r a n s it i o n f r o m t h e s p e c i fi c M a l t h u s ia n s t a t e m e n t - t h a t p op u la ÷
t io n s , i f u n c h e c k e d , i n c re a s e g e o m e t r ic a l l y o n a ~ fix ed t i m e s c a l e - t o : a
• a a 1
o r m u l a t i o n m t e r m s o f t h e ~ t ro n g e st p o s s i b e t e n d e n c y t o in c r e a se
m arks an im po r tan t l sh i f in~ :Darwin . W hereas the speci f ic M al thus ian
s t a te m e n t : a l l o w e d o n e t o ~ ex pto re t h e e q u i l i b r i u m a t a g i v en t i m e , t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n in: t e r m s o f t h e m a x i m u m t e n d e n c y t o i nc r ea s e a l lo w e d
o n e t o l o o k ~' a t t h e i n it ia l a n d . t h e f in a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a n d t h e n ~ r y ~ t o
i n t e rp o l a t e b e tw e e n t h e s e i n te r m s o f a m o s t p r o b a b le h i s t o r y , : :~
s t a t e d m o re : s u c c i n c t ly ; t h e l o c a l t h e o r y f o r m u l a t e d i n t e r m s t h e
M a l t h u s i a n l a w s m i m i c k e d t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l N e w t o n i a n d e s c r i p t io n o f
p h y s ic a l p h e n o m e n a , w her~ e t h e k n o w I e d g e o f t h e c o n ~ t i o n s a t a g iv e n
t i m e a n d o f t h e la w s O f f o r c e a U o w e d o n e t o d e t e rm i n e :th e h is t o r y o f
t h e s y st e m f o r t h e n e x t i n st a n t, T h e s t a t e m e n t i n: te rm S o f a m ~ u m
t e n d e n c y t o in cre ase ~' w a s t h e a n a l o g u e o f a v ar ia t io n a I p ~ c i p l e W h ic h
s t a te d t h a t : t he a ct u al t r a j e c t o r y o f a s y s te m ( g i v e n t h e f o r c e l aw s )W a s
t h e o n e t h a t m a x i m iz e d a c e r t ~ : e x p r e s s i o n ~ I n t hi s g l o b a l w a y o f
l o o k i n g a t t h e p r o b l e m , t h e i n it ia l a n d ffm a l'( spa t i a l ) conf igu ra t ions o f
the sys tem a re p resc r ibed ( as co m pa re d t o th e spee if iCa tio rt o f the in i t i a l
p o s i t i o n a n d v e l o c it ie s in : t h e d i f f e r e n t ia l a p p r a o c h ) , a n d t h e t r a j e c t o r y
t h a t c o n n e c t s i ni ti al ~ d f m a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s t h e n d e te r m in e d ,: : :
I a m n o t s u gg e st in g t h a t : D a r w i n k n e w o f t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m u l a -
t i o n s o f N e w t o n i a n :m e c h a n i cs . 97 B u t I d o b e li ev e t h a t ~ h e : re c o g n i z e d
t h e i n h er e n t: , u s e fu l n es s o f t h e . s e c o n d a p p r o a c h , I t ~ : a l l o w e d h i m t o
c o n s i d e r b o t h t h e i n i t i a l a n d t h e f i n a l s t a t e a n d t o g iv e a p la us ib le
h is tory o f t h e e v o l u t i o n f r o m t h e i n it ia l t o ,t h e f i n a l st a t e . T h e g eo to gi~
c a l a n d c l i m a t i c c o n d it io n s a t e a c h p e r i o d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c o m p e t i .
t i o n e x e r t e d b y O t h e r sp e ei es a n d b y m e m b e r s o f t h e s am e s pe ci es i? ar e
t h e ' , f o r o e s ', t h a t s e le c t' ~ t h e p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r y .
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f : h i s t o r y i n t o b i o l o g y i s a f a c e t o f t h e l ar g er
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f ~ t h e i n te l le c t u al w o r l d t h a t b e g a n d u ri n g t h e . s e c o n d
h a l f o f t h e . e i g h t e e n t h c e n ~ r y ( a n d w i ll : b e d is c u s s e d l a t er o n); : O n e
a s p e c t o f t h is t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e c h a n g e f r o m a d e s c r ip t iv e t o a
d ev elo pm e nta l w a y o f ~ g , D arw in ,s a t t ra c t i o n t o th is m o d e o f
e x p l a n a t i o n i s o f c o u r s e n o t s u rp r is in g . T o b e l i e v e i n e v o l u t i o n i m p l ie s a
c o m m i t m e n t t o t h a t m o d e . T h u s B u f f o n 's e x p l a n a ti o n o f t h e d if f er e n c es
97. Neither Herschel in:hisPreliminary D iseoursenorW hew ellinhisHistory
of the lndueHveSeienee~ deals w ith these variational formulationS:o f mechanics.
I ha ve not established whether Darwin kn ew :abo ut S uch principles in 0pries.
2 3 0
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 37/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
i n sp e c ie s w a s h i s t o r i c a l . B y t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
a l s o , t h e a i m o f t h e s c ie n c e o f g e o l o g y w a s t o d i sc o v e r t h e p a t h b y
w h i c h o n e s t a t e o f t h e e a r t h h a d c h a n g e d i n t o a n o t h e r ; a n d D a r w i n ' s
in i t ia l t ra in ing w as as a geolog is t .
T h e r e is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f e a t u re o f t h e g l o b a l a p p r o a c h . E v e n
t h o u g h o n e c o n s i d e r s i n i t i a l a n d final c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , t h e a p p r o a c h i s
n o t t e le o l o g ic a l . T h e r e a r e t w o s o u r c e s w h i c h D a r w i n r e a d in t h e 1 8 3 9 -
1 8 41 p e r i o d - a p a r t f r o m t h e p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y l i te r a t u r e , w h i c h I
sha ll cons ide r l a t e r o n - t ha t ad res s s c i en ti f ic que s t i ons i n t h i s s ame
w a y : B r o u g h a m ' s
Dissertations on Sub/ects o f Science 9s
and L ieh ig ' s
Organic Chemis try. 99 B o t h t h e s e b o o k s u s e t h e m a x i m a l i z a t i o n - m i n i -
r e a l i z a ti o n a p p r o a c h .
D a r w i n s t u d i e d B r o u g h a m ' s Dissertations in 1 8 3 9 w h e n w o r k i n g o n
q u e s t io n s r e l a t in g t o i n s t i n c t, a n d t h e M a n d N n o t e b o o k s c o n t a i n
s e v e ra l r e f e r e n c e s t o i t. V o l u m e I o f t h e Dissertations a l so c o n t a i n e d a
l e n g t h y e n t r y t i tl e d O b s e r v a t i o n s , d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , a n d e x p e r i m e n t s
u p o n t h e s t ru c t u r e o f t h e c e lls o f b e e s . I n it , B r o u g h a m a s k e d w h a t t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s ib l e s a vi ng s h o u l d b e m a d e b o t h o f
s p a ce , o f w a x , a n d l a b o u r i m p l y fo r t h e g e o m e t r y o f t h e ce lls . H o w
s h o u l d t h e c e ll s b e m a d e s o a s t o p l a c e t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r in e a c h s e t
o r c o m b , w h e n t h e f u r t h e r c o n s t r a in t w a s a p p l ie d t h a t t h e f o r m o f a ll
• . . g iv e th e l a r g e s t p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e w a ll s, a n d t h e s m a l le s t o f t h e
r h o m b o i d a l b a s e ? B r o u g h a m c o n s i d e re d a ll a s p e c ts o f t h e p r o b l e m :
t h e p h y s i o l o g y o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f th e w a x b y t h e b e e s , t h e l a b o r
i n v o lv e d , t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m o f m i n i m i z i n g t h e s u r f a c e s ( s o a s
t o s a v e w a x ) b u t m a x i m i z i n g t h e a v a i l ab l e s p a c e ( s o a s t o m a x i m i z e
p o p u l a t i o n ) - i n d e e d a c a r e f u l a n a ly s i s o f th e n a t u r a l e c o n o m y o f b e e s .
D a r w i n c a r e f u l l y r e a d a n d a n n o t a t e d t h i s l e n g t h y a r t i c l e , a n d f o l l o w e d
a l l t he s t eps i n t he a lgeb ra i c and geo m et r i ca l ca l cu l a t ions . (Th e pages o f
t h e A p p e n d i x o f D e m o n s t r a t i o n s , w h i c h i n v o lv e d c a lc u lu s , w e r e ,
h o w e v e r , le f t u n c u t . )
D a r w i n 's e n t r y o n p a g e 9 5 o f th e E n o t e b o o k , B r o u g h a m ' s f o r m u l a -
t i o n a n d s o l u ti o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t io n o f t h e g e o m e t r y
o f h o n e y c o m b s , a n d L i e b i g 's a p p r o a c h , w h i c h I s h al l c o n s i d e r l a te r , ar e
a ll in d i c a ti v e o f a w a y a t l o o k i n g a t b i o lo g i c a l p r o b l e m s q u a n t i t i v e l y
98. Henry, Lord Brougham,
Dissertations on Subjects of Sciences Connected
with Natural Theology 2 vols. (London : C. Knight, 1839).
99. Justus Liebig, Organic Chemistry in Its Application to Agriculture and
Physiology
ed. L yon P layfair (London: Ta ylor and W alton, 1840)• Darwin's
copy is at C ambridge University Library and is signed Charles Da rw in 1841
inside the fron t cover.
231
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 38/95
SILVAN S. SCHW BER
tha t de r ives f ro m Ut i l i t a r ian po l i t i ca l ec on om y. I be li eve i t i s an exp res -
s i on wi th in t he b io log i ca l s c i ences - t he u se o f s t a t i s t i c s i n b iogeo-
g r a p h y i s a n o t h e r - o f s im i l a r t e n d e n c i e s w i t h i n p o li ti c a l e c o n o m y .
T h e r e t h e q u a n t i t a t iv e a p p r o a c h f o u n d m o r e f e r ti le f i el d s a n d i ts
i n f lu e n c e w a s m o r e p e r v a s iv e . m °
I f y o u c o u p l e t h e M a l th u s ia n s t a t e m e n t e x p r e s se d i n t e r m s o f t h e
s t r o n g e s t p o s s i b le [ t e n d e n c y ? ] t o i n c re a s e t h e n u m b e r o f l iv in g
b e i n g s w i t h D a r w i n ' s e a rl ie r s t a t e m e n t s th a t t h e e n d o f f o r m a t i o n o f
s p e c ie s & g e n e r a is p r o b a b l y t o a d d t o q u a n t u m o f l if e p o s s ib l e w i t h
c e r t a i n p r e - e x is t in g l aw s . - I f o n l y o n e k i n d o f p l a n t n o t s o m a n y
( C , p . 1 4 6 ) ; a n d t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y o f l if e o n p l a n e t a t d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s
d e p e n d s o n r e l a ti o n s o f d e s e r t , o p e n o c e a n , & c . T h i s p r o b a b l y o n l o n g
a v e ra g e e q u a l q u a n t i t y , 2 ° o n r e l a t io n o f h e a t a n d c o l d , t h e r e f o r e f e w e r
n o w t h a n f o r m e r l y . T h e n u m b e r o f f o r m s d e p e n d s o n t h e e x t e r n a l
r e l a t i ons ( a f i xe d q uan t i t y ) & o n subd iv i si ons o f s t a t i ons & d ive r s i t y ,
t h i s pe rh aps on l ong average equ a l (C , p . 147e) , i t i s bu t a smal l s t ep
t o t h e B e n t h a m i t e -l i k e i n q u i r y o f th e B i g S p e c ie s B o o k : h o w w i ll
t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r o r g a n i c b e i n g s o r m o r e s t r i c t l y t h e g r e a t e s t
a m o u n t o f li f e b e s u p p o r t e d i n a n y a r e a ? A n d i t is n o t su r p ri si n g t h a t
t h e a n s w e r is: b y t h e g r e a te s t a m o u n t o f th e i r d iv e r s i fi c a t io n .
I s u b m i t t h a t p a g e s 9 5 - 9 7 o f t h e E n o t e b o o k s , t o g e t h e r w i t h p a g e s
1 4 6 - 14 7 o f t h e C n o t e b o o k , c o n t a i n t h e k e y i ns i g h t o f e c o l o gi c a l d iv e r-
g e n c e : w i t h o u t e n o r m o u s c o m p l e x i t y ( d i v e r si ty ) i t is im p o s s i b le t o c o v e r
t h e w h o l e s u r fa c e o f t h e w o r l d w i t h l i fe . T h o u g h t h e e a r t h i s f i n it e ,
d i v e r si ty i s in f i n it e . B y b e c o m i n g m o r e c o m p l e x , m o r e a n d m o r e o r g a n -
i sm s c a n b e a d a p t e d t o m o r e a n d m o r e p l a c es i n t h e e c o n o m y o f n a tu r e .
The c l as s i f i ca to ry i n s igh t s o f t r ee -o f - li f e d i ag rams i n t he B no t eb oo ks
a r e , h o w e v e r , n o t c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e i n s i g h t s r e c o r d e d i n t h e C a n d
E n o t e b o o k s . O n e c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e s a y t h a t t h e d y n a m i c p r o b l e m
of d ive rgence was exp l ic i t l y so lved i n t he 1837-39 pe r i od . A l l the
i n g r ed i e n ts f o r a s o l u t i o n w e r e t h e r e , h o w e v e r , a n d D a r w i n m a y w e l l
h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m h a d b e e n s o lv e d.
D I V E R G E N C E D U R I N G T H E 1 8 40 S
T h e S k e t c h o f 1 8 4 2 c le a r ly a d u m b r a t e s D a r w i n ' s v i ew o f t h e
100. I sh all discuss later the attempts to q uantify and m athematize political
econom y. H ere I remark only that W hewell was involved in such a project while
Darw in was at C amb ridge. See W. W hewell, M athematical Exposition of Some
Doctrines of Political Ec ono m y, Trans. Cam b. Ph il. Soc . 3 (1830), 191-230, and
4 (1833), 155-198.
2 3 2
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 39/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
m e c h a n i s m o f s p e c i a t i o n i n t h e p e r i o d i m m e d i a t e l y f o ll o w i n g h i s m a j o r
in s igh t s . I t a l so , however , r e f l ec t s Darwin ' s concern wi th zoo log i ca l
q u e s t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n b o t a n i c a l o n e s u p t o 1 8 4 0 , a p r e f e r e n c e t h a t w a s
g r a d u a l ly s u p p l a n t e d a f t e r 1 8 4 0 o r s o.
T h e S k e t c h o p e n s w i t h a d i sc u s s io n o f v a r ia t io n s : t h e f r e q u e n c y o f
v a r i a ti o n s i n c r ea s e s w h e n a n o r g a n i s m is p l a c e d u n d e r n e w c o n d i t i o n s
d u r i n g s e ve r al g e n e r a t io n s . A l t h o u g h ' ~ f l d a n i m a l s v a r y e x c e e d i n g l y
l i tt le - y e t t h e y a r e k n o w n a s i n d i v id u a l s ( S k e t c h , p . 4 3 ) , a n d t h e i r
v a r i a t i o n s [ a r e] a n a l o g o u s in k i n d , b u t l es s i n d e g r e e w i t h d o m e s t i c a t e d
a n i m a l s ( p . 4 4 ) . B r e e d i n g u n d e r d o m e s t i c a t i o n c a n b e v i e w e d a s a
l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t w h e r e in t h e o p e r a t io n s t h a t o c c u r in n a t u r e a re
a m p l i fi e d a n d m a g n i f ie d : t h e c u m m u l a t iv e v a r i a t io n s a r e la r g e r, t h e
o p e r a t i o n o f a r ti fi c ia l s e l e c t io n o n t h e s e v a r i a t io n s m o r e t a n g ib l e a n d
v i si b le . Bu t a l t hou gh N a tu re ' s va r i a t i on [is ] f a r l e s s , na tu ra l s e l ec t i on
i s f a r m o r e ri gi d a n d sc r u t in i z i n g ( S k e t c h , p . 4 8 ) , a n d , m o r e o v e r , i t
ac t s on a l l va r i a t i ons , i nc lud ing t he i nv i s i b l e cons t i t u t i ona l d i f f e rences .
D a r w i n t r e a t s s p e c i a t io n at l e n g t h i n t h e S k e t c h ( p p . 6 6 - 7 2 ) a n d
desc r i bes t he p roces s a s depend ing es sen t i a l l y on geograph i c i so l a t i on :
c h a n g e o f e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s , a n d i s o l a t i o n e i t h e r b y c h a n c e l a n d i n g
of a fo rm on an i s l and , o r subs idence d iv id ing a con t i nen t , o r g rea t
c h a in o f m o u n t a i n s , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f i nd iv id u a ls n o t b e i n g n u m e r o u s
w i ll b e s t f a v o u r v a r i a ti o n a n d s e l e c t i o n ( S k e t c h , p . 6 8 ) . T h e f a c t o f
t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r ib u t i o n o f o r g a n i s m s t h e n a l l fo l lo w i n a s i m p l e
m a n n e r o n t h e t h e o r y o f o c c u rr e n c e o f sp e ci es b y . . . a n d be i n g a d a p t e d
b y s e l e c ti o n to . . . c o n j o i n e d w i t h t h e i r p o w e r o f d i sp e r sa l , a n d t h e
s t ead y geograph i co -geo log i ca l changes whic l~ a re now in p rog res s and
w h i c h u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e t a k e n p l a c e ( S k e t c h , p . 7 0 ) . I n o t h e r
w o r d s , t h e p r e s e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r g a n i s m s c a n b e e x -
p l a ined by cons ide r i ng spec ies a s c rea t e d i n single ce n t e r s and m ig ra t i ng
t h e r e f r o m . T h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r t h i s i n v o k e d t o a c c o u n t
f o r p o s s i b le m i g r a t i o n r o u t e s a s w e l l a s f o r p a s t a n d p r e s e n t - d a y b a r ri e rs .
I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e S k e t c h c o n t a i n s D a r w i n ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e g e o -
g r a p h i c d i s t r ib u t i o n o f a l p i ne p l a n t s , a n d t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n i s a p a r a d i g m
for h i s ap p ro ac h t o b iogeo graph i ca l ques t i ons . 1°1
I n h is d i sc u s s io n o f A f f ' m i t ie s a n d C l a s s if i c a ti o n s i n t h e S k e t c h
Darw in sum ma r i zes h i s v i ews :
101. Darw in's discussion o f alpine plants in the Sk etc h is on pp. 65-67. o r
an interesting discussion o f biogeography written som ewha t after the Essay, see
Darwin's review of Natural History of the Mammalia by G. R . W aterhouse,Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist. Including Zool. Bot. Geol. 19
(1847), 53-56 w hich is reprinted
in The Collected papers of Charles Darwin ed. Paul Barrett, p. 214-217.
2 3 3
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 40/95
SILVAN S. SCHW EBER
T h e o r ig i n o f s u b - g e n e ra , g e n e r a , e t c ., is n o t d i f fi c u l t o n n o t i o n o f
g e n e a lo g i ca l s u c c e ss io n , a n d a c c o r d s w i t h w h a t w e k n o w o f s im i la r
g r a d a t i o n s o f a f f m i t y i n d o m e s t i c a t e d o r g a n is m s . I n th e s a m e re g i o n
t h e o r g a n i c b e i n g s a r e . . . r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e e x t e r n a l
c o n d i t i o n s i n m a n y p h y s i c a l r e sp e c t s a r e a ll ie d . . . a n d t h e r e f o r e
w h e n a n e w s p ec ie s h a s b e e n s e l e c t e d a n d h a s o b t a i n e d a p l ac e i n th e
e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e , w e m a y s u p p o s e t h a t g e n e r al ly it w ill t e n d t o
e x t e n d i ts r a n g e d u r in g g e o g r a p h i ca l c h a n g e s , a n d t h u s , b e c o m i n g
i s o l a t e d a n d e x p o s e d t o n e w c o n d i t i o n s , w i l l s l i g h t l y a l t e r a n d i t s
s t r u c t u r e b y s e le c t io n b e c o m e s s l ig h t ly r e m o d i f i e d , th u s w e g e t
s p e c ie s o f a s u b - g e n u s a n d g e n u s - a s v a r i et ie s o f m e r i n o s h e e p -
v a r ie t ie s o f B r i t is h a n d I n d i a n c a t t l e . F r e s h s p e c ie s m i g h t g o o n
f o r m i n g a n d o t h e r s ,b e c o m e e x t i n c t ( j u s t a s i t is n o t l ik e l y e v e r y
p r e s e n t b r e e d o f f a n c y b i rd s a n d c a t t le w i ll p r o p a g a t e , o n l y s o m e o f
t h e b e s t ) a n d a ll m i g h t b e c o m e e x t i n c t a n d t h e n w e s h o u l d h a v e
e x t i n c t g e n u s . . . B u t m o r e o f t e n t h e s a m e a d v an t ag e s w h i c h c a u s e d
t h e n e w s p ec ie s t o s p r e a d a n d b e c o m e m o d i f i e d i n t o s ev e ra l s p ec ie s
w o u l d f a v o u r s o m e o f t h e s p e ci es b e i n g p r e s er v e d : a n d i f tw o o f
t h e s p e c ie s , c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t , e a c h g a v e ri se t o g r o u p o f n e w
s p e c i e s , y o u w o u l d h a v e t w o g e n e r a t h e s a m e t h i n g w i l l g o o n .
( S k e t c h , p p . 7 3 - 7 4 )
W h a t i s s tr i k i n g i n t h e p a s sa g e i s D a r w i n ' s c o n s t a n t r e l ia n c e o n t h e
m o d e l p r e s e n t e d b y b r e e d i n g u n d e r d o m e s t i c a t i o n a n d a rt if ic i al s el ec -
t i o n . T h e s p e c i a t i o n m e c h a n i s m i s d r iv e n b y v a r ia t io n s w h o s e f r e q u e n c y
i s i n c r e a s e d b y c h a n g e s i n e n v i r o n m e n t . M i g r a t i o n i s a n e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r .
I t e x p o s e s p o p u l a t i o n s t o n e w e n v i r o n m e n t s , t h u s i n d u c i n g v a r ia t io n s
a n d g i vi ng ris e t o c o m p e t i t i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n t h r o u g h n a t u r a l s e l e ct io n .
A s i n t h e c a se o f a r ti f ic i a l b r e e d i n g , o n l y s o m e o f t h e b e s t s u rv i ve .
A n d I u n d e r s t a n d t h is t o m e a n t h a t n a t u r a l s e l e ct io n w i ll t e n d t o f a v o r
t h o s e v a r i a ti o n s t h a t d i ff e r m o s t f r o m t h 6 p ~ r e n ta l t y p e a n d f r o m e a c h
o t h e r ; c o m p e t i t i o n w i ll e l i m i n a t e a ll t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e f o r m s . 1°2
N o t e a l s o t h a t D a r w i n i s q u i t e e x p l i c i t t h a t a d a p t a t i o n i s t o a place
in the economy of nature The
s t r u g g l e f o r e x i s t e n c e i s , t o u s e m o d e r n
t e r m i n o l o g y , f o r a n e c o l o g ic a l n i c h e . E a r l ie r , in 1 8 4 1 , w h e n d i sc u s si n g
102. In the Ske tch, p . 74, Darwin fur ther noted : Accozding to mere
chance every species m ay generate another, bu t if any species A, in changing gets
an advantage and that advantage (whatever it may be, intellect, etc., or some
particular structure or constitution) is inherited, A w ill be the progenitor o f
several genera or even families in the ha rd struggle o f nature. A will go o n beating
ou t other forms, i t might com e that A wo uld people ear th.
2 3 4
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 41/95
Darwin and the Political Economists
the mockingbirds of the Gal~pagos, Darwin had noted that the habits
of these three species are similar and they evidently replace each other
in the natural economy of the different islands. loa Similarly, in 1842
in his discussion o f coral reefs he had written that no s tation capable of
supporting life is l o s t there is a struggle for each station between the
different orders of nature. 104 Although adaptations are to stations in
the economy of nature, the requirement of
g e o g r a p h i c
isolation in
species format ion mutes the overall ecological approach inherent in
Darwin's approach in the Sketch. In the Essay of 1844 the role of
niche is further clarified in the comparison of speciation on islands and
large land masses:
As the number of the in_habitants are supposed to be few, and as all
these cannot be so well adapted to their new and varying conditions
as they were in their native country and habitat; we cannot believe
that e v e r y p l a c e o r o f f i c e i n t h e economy of the island would be as
well f'flied as on a continent where
t h e n u m b e r o f a b o ri g in a l s p e c ie s
is f a r g re a te r a n d w h e r e t h e y c o n s e q u e n t l y h o M a m o r e st ri ct ly
l i m i t e d p l ac e , lo s
This passage shows clearly that by 1844 Darwin believed that adapta-
tion is toward a
p l a c e o r o f f i c e i n t h e
economy of nature. One can only
infer from the addition of the word
o f f i c e
that Darwin intended to
make it unmistakably clear that he had the ecological and not the
geographic meaning of place in mind. An ecological understanding
of place is also explicit in Darwin's discussion of extinct ion in the
V o y a g e o f t h e B e a g l e ,
dating from 1845. There Darwin indicated that
we often do not know when and where the checks to the Malthusian
increase in population occur; hence probably it is that we feel so little
surprise at one, o f two species closely allied in habits, being rare and the
103. Quoted in Stauffer, Darwin, Linnaeus, and Ecology, from Charles
Darwin, ed., The Zoology o f The Voyage o f H .M.S . Beagle , under the Com mand
o f Captain Fi tz Ro y, R. iV., dur ing the Years 183 2 to 183 6
(London: Smith,
Elder).
104. Quoted in Stauffer, Darwin, Linnaeus and Ecology, from C. Darwin,
ed., The Structure an d Distribution o f C oral Re efs , B eing the First Part o f the
Geology o f the Voyage o f the 'Beagle
(London: Smith, Elder 1842), p. 63.
105. Essay of 1844, p. 142;my italics. In the Fair Copy Annoted by C.D. ,
w h i h is in the Cambridge University Library, this entry occurs on pp. 154-155.
The last line reads: where they consequently hold a more strictly limited place
against a far severer struggle, with against a far severer struggle crossed out.
235
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 42/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
oth er a bun dan t in ou r d i s t r i c t , and ano the r , f 'fi ling the s ame p lace in
t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e , s h o u l d b e a b u n d a n t i n a n e i g h b o r i n g d i s t r i c t ,
d i f fer ing ve ry l i t t le in i t s con di t i on s . ~o~
I n t h e S k e t c h , D a r w i n i s e x p l i c i t a b o u t d i ff ic u l ti e s: H o w d o es
spec ia t ion occur on l a rge l and masses w i th l a rge popu la t ions? Th is
p r o b l e m m u s t b e c o n f r o n t e d b e c au s e th e p r o c e s s o f s p e c i a ti o n o n sm a l l
i sl ands s tops onc e a dap ta t ion r esu l ts and no fu r the r geo log ica l change
o c c u rs . F u r t h e r m o r e , s p e c i a ti o n o n a la r ge l a n d m a s s a n d i n t h e o c e a n s
- w h e r e la rg e p o p u l a t io n s a n d m a n y d i f fe r e n t f o rm s o f l if e o c c u r -
m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d i n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e d i v e rs i ty o b s e r v e d i n t h e
wor ld .
I h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1 8 3 8 t o 1 8 4 4 D a r w i n
a t t e m p t e d t o s ol ve p ro b l e m s i n t e r m s o f a d y n a m i c s i n w h i c h i n d iv i d ua l s
w e r e t h e p r i m a r y u n i t s. T h i s i s m o s t s u c c i n c t l y e x p r e s s e d i n t h e E s s a y
o f 1 8 4 4 w h e r e D a r w i n o u t l i n e s t h e r e a so n i n g f o r h i s c o n c l u s io n s
regard ing na tu ra l s e lec t ion :
l e t i t b e b o r n e i n m i n d t h a t t h i s av e ra g e n u m b e r o f i n d iv i du a ls ( t h e
e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s r e m a i n i n g t h e s a m e ) i n e a c h c o u n t r y i s k e p t u p
by r ecu r ren t st rugg les aga ins t o the r spec ies o r aga ins t ex te rna l na tu re
( as o n t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e a r t ic r e g i on s , w h e r e t h e c o l d c h e c k s l if e ) ;
a n d t h a t o r d i n a r il y e a c h i n d i v id u a l o f e a c h s p ec i es h o l d s i ts p l a c e
e i t h e r b y i ts o w n s tr ug g le a n d c a p a c i t y o f a c q u i ri n g n o u r i s h m e n t
in som e p er iod ( f ro m the egg upw ards ) o f i t s l i f e , o r by the s trugg le
o f i t s p a r e n t s ( i n s h o r t l i v e d o r g an i sm s , w h e n t h e m a i n c h e c k o c c u r s
a t long in te rva l s) aga inst the com pa red w i th o the r ind iv idua ls o f the
s a m e
o r
d i f f e r e n t
species . l°7
T h e o r ig i n o f n e w s p e ci e s w a s t o b e e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f i n h e r it a b l e
var ia t ions tha t a rose among the ind iv idua l s o f a popu la t ion . Any ad -
van tage acc ru ed by such va r ia t ions ( such as access to new fo od supp l ies ,
a v o i d an c e o f p r e y , o r b e t t e r f it n e s s i n th e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t ) w o u l d
i m p l y t h e e v e n t u a l , r i g o ro u s , a n d t o t a l e x t i r p a t i o n o f t h e p a r e n t p o p u l a -
t ion b y the o f f sp r ing . Th is l a s t a s sumpt ion , inc iden ta l ly , cou ld be t e s ted
by b iogeo graph y : w ere the re cases o f c lose ly r e la ted species l iv ing in the
s am e l o c a l i ty ? W r it in g t o H o o k e r i n 1 8 4 4 , D a r w i n o b s e r v e d ,
106. Darwin, Journal of Researches 2nd ed., 2 vo ls. (Ne w York: Harpers,
1871), I, 225.
1 0 7 . E s s a y o f 1 8 4 4 , p p . 1 1 8 - 1 1 9 .
2 3 6
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 43/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i s t s
I a m p a r t i c u l a r ly i n t e r e s t e d b y y o u r r e m a r k s o n I n s u l a r F l o r a s . A
g e n u s h a v i n g several g o o d s p e ci e s i n t h e s m a ll is l an d is n e w t o m e
a n d v e r y r e m a r k a b l e a n d a s y o u w i l l o b s e r v e h o s t i l e t o d e s c e n t : c a n
y o u e n la r g e I s h o u l d p a r t i c u l a r l y b e o b l i g e d o n t h i s s o m e t i m e t o m e :
a r e s uc h ge ne r a pe c u l i a r t o i s la nds ? 1o8
B u t t h e r e w e r e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h t h a t c o u l d
n o t e a si ly b e e l i m i n a t e d . T h e s e w e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e b l e n d i n g
m e c h a n i s m o f in h e r it a n c e D a r w i n w a s c o m m i t t e d t o . D a r w i n c o u l d
a r g u e t h a t d i l u t io n a n d b l e n d i n g c o u l d b e o v e r c o m e o n i sl a nd s b e c a u s e
t h e i n i t i a l p o p u l a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e f a v o r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r r e d w a s
v e r y s m a ll . I s o l a t i o n o f a s m a ll p o p u l a t i o n c o u l d p r e v e n t b l e n d i n g a n d
p r e s e r v e v a r i a t i o n s a n d m a k e v a r i e t i e s . B u t i n a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n ,
b l e n d i n g w o u l d r a p i d l y s w a m p f a v o r a b l e v a r i at io n s . I g n o r a n c e o f t h e
d y n a m i c s o f i n h e r i t a n c e 1o9 f o r c e d D a r w i n w h e n d e a li n g w i t h v a r i a t io n s
i n l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n s t o a m o r e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a n d c o a r s e r d e s c r i p -
t i o n w i t h v a r i e ti e s a n d s p e c i e s as t h e u n i t s . H is t h e o r y o f s p e c i a t i o n
w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y h a v e t o r e s t o n t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h o s e s p e c i e s
w h i c h p r e s e n t t h e m o s t v a ri e ti e s a r e th e m o s t l i k e ly t o p r o d u c e n e w
s p e c ie s , a n d t h a t o n l y s p e ci e s w i t h l a rg e a n d i n c r e a si n g p o p u l a t i o n s -
i .e ., t h o s e w h i c h a r e c l e a rl y n o t o n t h e i r w a y t o e x t i n c t i o n - n e e d b e
c o n s i d e r e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , p o p u l o u s s p e c i e s t h a t h a v e w i d e r a n g e s a r e
m o s t l ik e l y t o f m d t h e m s e lv e s i n d i f f e re n t g e o g r a p h i c re g i o ns so t h a t
n e w v a r i at io n s a re e n v i r o n m e n t a b l y i n d u c e d . T h e h y p o t h e s i s t h u s
b e c o m e s se l f cons i s tent f o r p o p u l o u s , w i d e - r a n g in g s p e ci es . (A s a b o n u s ,
i s o l a ti o n c o u l d b e i n v o k e d t o e x p l a i n h o w t h e v a r ie t ie s o f w i d e l y r a n g i n g
s p e c ie s t u r n i n t o s p e c ie s ) .
I b e l ie v e i t w a s D a r w i n ' s a t t e m p t t o ju s t i f y t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s ( a n d
h i s c o n c o m i t a n t a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f w o r k i n g a t t h e sp e ci es -
108. Darw in-Hooker correspondence, C amb ridge University Library, bo x 150.
109. See Kotf ler , Darw in 's Biological Species Co ncept and Theor y of Geo-
graphic Speciation . N ote th at D arwin had suggested an individualistic m echanism
o f inheritance several t imes befo re 184 2 (e.g. , bloo d theories in the early note-
books) and that his gemm ule theory was formu lated in the 1840-1842 period.
Mayr has noted that Darwin o f ten used the term '~ar ie ty in two different
senses: deviating individuals and dev iating populations. I{ w ou ld be interesting
to see whether on e can correlate his usage with his beliefs in mechanisms of
inheritance; tha t is , whether wh en he believed tha t he had an explanation o f
inheritance ba sed o n an individualistic m echanism, such as, gemm ules, variety
refers to deviating individuals, an d w hethe r w hen h e ha d less faith in an individ-
ualistic m echanism, varieties refer t o deviating populations.
2 3 7
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 44/95
SIL VA N S. SCI-IWEBER
v a r i e t y le v e l, r a th e r t h a n a t t h e i n d iv i d u a l le v e l) t h a t p r o m p t e d h is
ex t ens ive b iogeograph i ca l i nves t i ga t i ons i n t he 1840s and 1850s . He
r e c o g n i z e d t h a t p h y t o g e o g r a p h y , w i t h i ts m a n y q u a n t i t a t iv e f a c t s ,
w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e r i g h t v e h i c l e t o t e s t a n d , h e h o p e d , c o n f i r m h i s
h y p o t h e s e s . M o r e o v e r, in 1 8 43 H o o k e r , th a t m o s t k n o w l e d g ea b l e
b o t a n i s t , h a d j u s t r e t u r n e d f r o m h is A n t a r c t i c e x p e d i t i o n a n d w a s
t h e r e f o r e a v a i l a b l e t o a n s w e r b o t a n i c a l a n d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , p h y t o -
geograph i c ques t i ons .
T h e f ir s t e x c h a n g e s b e tw e e n D a r w i n a n d H o o k e r e x h i b i t D a r w i n 's
i n t e r e s t i n q u e s t io n s r e l a t in g t o t h e c o m m o n n e s s a n d r a n g e o f sp e c ie s ,
a n d t h e n u m b e r o f s p e ci es i n b o t a n ic a l g e n e ra p re s e n t. Y o u a sk m e
w h e t h e r I s u p p o s e t h e s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n s o f s p [ e ci es ] t o g e n e r a in C o r a l
I s le t s a r is e s f r o m c h a n c e o f se e d ? I c a n n o t a n s w e r t h i s , H o o k e r w r o t e
D a r w i n i n o n J a n u a r y 2 9 , 1 8 4 4 ; b u t n o n e t h e le s s H o o k e r v e n t u r e d t h e
a n s w e r : I s h o u l d sa y p e r h a p s n o t : i f g e n e r a o r s m a ll g r o u p s a r e t r u l y
n a t u r a l t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d t o c o n t a i n m a n y c h a r a c t e r s i n c o m m o n , i t is
b u t r i g h t t o a s s u m e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t r a n s p o r t a b l e s e e d s s h o u l d h e n c e
b e c o m m o n t o s o m e g r o u p s a b o v e o th e r s , th e i n f e r e n c e o f w h i c h n e e d
n o t s t at e . ' n ° T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d i f fe r e n ce s i n th e n u m b e r o f
s p e ci es i n g e n e r a o n i sl a n ds a s c o m p a r e d to t h e n u m b e r o n n e ig h b o r i n g
c o n t i n e n t a l l a n d m a s s e s , a n d f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h i s r a ti o o n c o n t i n e n t s
a s a f u n c t i o n o f l a t i tu d e , w e r e lo n g - s ta n d i n g b i o g e o g r a p h ic a l p r o b l e m s
i n 1 8 44 . V o n H u m b o l d t h a d a l re a d y p o i n te d o u t , i n 1 8 0 7 , th a t t h e
n u m b e r o f s p e c ie s p e r g e n u s f o r m a n y p l a n ts i n L a p l a n d w a s l o w e r b y
a f a c t o r o f m o r e t h a n t w o a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n u m b e r in F ra n c e . n~
I n d e e d , i t w a s t h e n e e d t o e x p l a in t h e d i sp a r it y b e t w e e n t h e n u m b e r o f
p l a n t s p e c ie s p e r g e n e r a o n t h e C a n a r ie s a n d S t . H e l e n a as c o m p a r e d
w i t h t h e n u m b e r i n c o n t i n e n t a l N o r t h A f r i c a t h a t h a d l e d V o n B u c h to
a d v a n c e i s o l a ti o n a s t h e m e c h a n i s m f o r s p e c i a ti o n , n z
A f t e r r e a d in g H o o k e r ' s l e t te r o f J a n u a r y 1 8 4 4 , D a r w i n w r o t e h i m s e l f
a l i tt l e n o t e : E x p l a n a t i o n o f fe w n e s s o f s p e c ie s a n d d i v e r s i ty o f g e n e r a ,
I t h i n k m u s t b e p a r t l y a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e p l a n t s g r o u p s c o u l d su b s i st
i n g r e a t e r n u m b e r s , a n d i n t e r f e r e l e s s w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h i s m u s t b e
110. Darwin-Hooker correspondence at the Cambridge University Library,
box 150. See also Browne, '~ narles Darwin-Joseph Hooker Correspondence.
l l l . Hu mb oldt De Dis tr ibut ione Geographica Plantarum.
l l 2 . Von Buch , Description ph ysiq ues des is les Canaries. On p. 147 , Von
Buell quotes the following ratios of species to genera: continental N orth A frica,
1:4.2; Canaries, 1:1.46; St. H elen a, l : l .5 . He a lso compares the num bers of
orders on continents w ith those on islands.
238
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 45/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
exp l ana t i on o f Ar t i c R eg ions - H ow a re a lp ine P l an t s . S evera l genera? 11 s
T h i s n o t e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s ti n g b e c a u s e i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l r e a d y i n
1 8 4 4 D a r w i n b a s e d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p h y t o g e o -
g r a p h i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t i n a n y l o c a l i t y t h e l a r g e s t
a m o u n t o f p l a n t l i fe w i ll b e s u p p o r t e d i f th e r e i s d i v e rg e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r ,
f o r t h e n t h e p l a n t s g r o u p s w i ll i n t e r f e r e l e ss w i t h e a c h o t h e r . A s
D a r w i n w a s t o n o t e i n t h e O r i g i n
t h e m o s t c l o s e ly a ll ie d f o r m s - v a r ie t ie s o f t h e s a m e s p e c ie s , a n d
s p e c ie s o f t h e s a m e g e n u s o r o f r e l a te d g e n e r a - f r o m h a v i n g n e a r l y
t h e S a m e s t r u c t u r e , c o n s t i t u t i o n , a n d h a b i t s , g e n e r a l ly c o m e i n t o t h e
s e v er e st c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , e a c h n e w v a r i e ty
o r spec i es , du~ ing t he p rog res s o f i t s fo rm at io n , w i l l gene ra l l y p res s
h a r d e s t o n i t s n e a r e s t k i n d r e d , a n d t e n d t o e x t e r m i n a t e t h e m . 1~4
D a r w i n ' s i n i t i a l i n q u i r i e s t o H o o k e r w e r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f s p e c ie s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r a n g e a s a n
i n h e r i t a b l e c h a r a c t e r . I t w a s e v i d e n t l y H o o k e r w h o i n e a r l y 1 8 4 4 l e d
D a r w i n t o c o n s i d e r s i m il a r q u e s t i o n s a b o u t h i g h e r t a x a : I w i ll n o w
o b s e r v e t h a t y o u h a v e e x t e n d e d m y r e m a r k s o n t h e r a n g e o f s p e c i e s o f
she l l s i n to t he r ange o f g e n e ra o r g r o u p s . ' u s O n M a r c h 1 1 , 1 8 4 4 , D a r -
w i n q u e s t i o n e d H o o k e r o n t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n t h e r a ng e o f m u n d a n e
g e n e r a a n d t h e r a n g e o f t h e i r s p ec i es . I n h is r e p l y , H o o k e r a s k e d w h e t h e r
t h e r e i s a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r a n g e o f g e n e r a a n d t h e r a n g e o f t h e i r
s p e c ie s , a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s iz e o f t h e g e n u s , u s
A l l t h i s i n d ic a t e s t h a t b y t h e m i d 1 8 4 0 s D a r w i n w a s i n v o l v e d i n
b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s b e a r i n g o n t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o p o s i -
t i o n , w h i c h b e c o m e s f u l l y a r t i c u la t e d i n t h e 1 8 5 0 s , t h a t i t i s t h e
d o m i n a n t s p e c ie s - t h o s e w h i c h ra n g e w i d e l y o v e r t h e w o r l d , a r e
t h e m o s t d i f fu s e d i n t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y , a n d a re m o s t n u m e r o u s in
i n d iv i d u al s , w h i c h o f t e n e s t p r o d u c e w e l l m a r k e d v a r i e ti e s, o r a s I c o n -
s id e r t h e m , i n c i p i e n t s p e c i e s . 117 T h e d i c h o t o m y i n D a r w i n ' s a p p r o a c h
s h o u l d b e n o t e d . P r o b l e m s r e l a ti n g t o v a r i a t i o n s a n d h e r e d i t y a r e
a n s w e r e d w i t h v a r ie t ie s a n d s p e c ie s a s th e u n i t s o f d e s c r i p t io n ; t h o s e
113. Darw in-Hooker correspondence, Camb ridge University Library, bo x 150.
114. Darwin, Origin p. 112.
115 . Darwin-Hooker correspondence, Cambridge University Library, b ox 150;
undated letter, early 1844.
116. Some of these letters are reprinted in L L D pp. 382-389, and in More
Le t t e r s
II, 402-422.
117. Darwin, Origin pp. 5 3-54; see also pp. 326 ff.
2 3 9
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 46/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
r e la t in g t o c o m p e t i t i o n , a d a p t a t i o n , e x t i n c t i o n - t h a t is , t h o s e t h a t
n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n e x p l a i n s - a r e a n s w e r e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e u n i t s
o f d e s c r i p t i o n . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e u n i t s u s e d i s i m p o r t a n t . I t
a c c o u n t s f o r t h e f a c t t h a t a t t i m e s l e v el s o f d e s c r i p t i o n w e r e in t e r -
c h a n g e d a n d s o m e c o n f u s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y c r e p t in . I t a ls o e x p l a i n s w h y
t h e p r i n c i p le o f m a x i m i z a t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f l if e p e r u n i t a r e a s h o u l d
p r o v e s o a t t ra c t i v e t o D a r w i n : i t i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r t h e d i f f e r e n t le v e l s
o f d e s c r i p t i o n s .
T h e r e w e r e , o f c o u r s e , m a n y o t h e r p r o b l e m s t o b e ad d r e s se d f r o m
t h e m i d 1 8 4 0s t o t h e m i d 1 8 5 0 s b e f o r e t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f th e p r in c i p le
o f d i v e r g e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r a s i t a p p e a r s i n N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n a n d t h e
O r i g i n e m e r g e d - t h e h i g h e r t a x a a n d t h e i r b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l r e l a t i o n -
s h ip s , th e b i o g e o g r a p h y o f t h e f o ss i l r e c o r d , a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e
c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n ti m e o f f o s si l t a x a a n d t h e i r
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s p a c e . B u t t h e f o r m i n w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p l e w a s t o b e
f o r m u l a t e d i s a l r e a d y a p p a r e n t i n 1 8 4 4.
D a r w i n ' s b i o s t a t i s t ic a l i n q u i r ie s f r o m 1 8 3 7 o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e
a f t e r 1 8 4 4 , d e s e rv e c a r e f u l s t u d y , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e c e n t r a l t o t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i v e r g e n c e. 11a S i m i l a r l y , D a r w i n ' s
c h a n g i n g v i e w s o n s p e c i a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s a f t e r 1 8 4 4 m e r i t d e t a i l e d
i n q u i l T . 119 S u c h s t u d i e s w i ll u n d o u b t e d l y f u r t h e r
c l r i f y
t h e p r o c e s s
a n d s h a rp e n t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f D a r w i n ' s f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r in c i p le o f
d i v e r g en c e o f c h a r a c t e r a s i t a p p e a r s i n N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n . I n t h e n e x t
s e c t i o n , I d i sc u s s D a r w i n ' s w o r k o n c i r r ip e d e s i n a n e f f o r t to s h o w t h a t
t h e b a r n ac le s c o n f r o n t e d h i m w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f h o w t o fo r m u l a t e
a u n i v e r s a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n d i v e r s it y o v e r t i m e o f a l l
o r g a n i c f o r m s .
118. J ane t B rowne has inves t iga ted the b ios ta t i s ti c a l ma te r i a l s in bo xes 15
and 16 o f the Darwin pape rs a t Cambr idge Unive rs ity L ib ra ry . Inc luded the re a re
m ater ia ls on Co m m on and Large Ge nera Present ing M ost Va rie t ies , misce llane-
ous tab les of spec ies , e tc . , a l l im po rtan t for unders tanding Darw in ' s v iews on
va r i a t ions , b iogeography in the mid 1850s , and h i s f ina l fo rmula t ion o f the
pr inc ip le of d ivergence. See Browne, D arw in ' s Bo tanica l A ri thm et ic and the
Princ ip le of Divergence , 185 4-185 8, J . Hist. BioL 13 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 5 3 - 8 9 ; I t h a n k
Dr. Browne for a llowing m e to rea d th is pap er befo re pub l ica t ion . In th is connec-
t ion s ee a l so Fred Som kin , ' ° l ' he Con t r ibu t ions o f S i r John Lub bock , F . R . S ., t o
t h e Origin o f Species: S o m e A n n o t a t io n s t o D a r w i n , No tes Rec . Ro y . Soc . 17
(1962.), 183-191.
119. In b road ou t l ine the changes have been ske tched in L imoges ' La sJ lec t ion
naturelle and in Mayr ' s Evo lu t ion and the Diver s i ty o f L i f e b u t i t w o u l d b e
in te re st ing to know the spec i fi c way in wh ich D arwin ' s bo tan ica l r e s ea rch du r ing
the 1840s a ffec ted h is v iews on sp ee ia t ion .
2 4 0
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 47/95
Darwin and the Political Economists
THE RELATION OF THE CIRRIPEDES TO DIVERGENCE
If we are to take Darwin at his word - and I have found no evidence
to the contrary - his later insights into the principle of divergence
occurred while he was immersed in his work on barnacles. It is thus of
interest to understand why Darwin undertook this long and arduous
task. An outline of the history of this research will also verify Darwin's
intimate acquaintance with Milne-Edwards' work and his familiarity
with Milne-Edwards' principle of the physiological division of labor
before 1852.
Many suggestions have been put forward to explain Darwin's work on
cirripedes. 12° The most convincing case has been made by Ghiselin. 121
To appreciate Ghiselin's suggestions one must stress, as he has, that
the period from 1837 to 1844 was the most creative of Darwin's life.
Essentially,
a l l
his great biological ideas and insights were generated
then: natural selection, details of the process of speciation (such as the
role of geographic isolation), pangenesis, the place of man in nature, the
nature and evolution of instinct and mind, the nature o f variations, the
role o f sex in giving rise to variations, and so on.
This creative period culminated with Darwin's writing the Essay
of 1844, which is the first self-contained and not altogether private
statement of his theory of the mechanism of evolution. In order to
make the theory more acceptable, Darwin had to try to verify em-
pirically his assumptions concerning variations, extinction, etc., and to
show that some of his conclusions were correct in specific cases. To do
this, he needed an abundant widely distributed class of flora or fauna
with a sufficient fossil record that he could use to test key explanatory
features of his theory of descent - the process of adaptation, geographic
distribution, taxonomy based on phylogeny, etc.
The cirripedes offered all these advantages and certain additional
120. See, e.g., Thomas H. Huxley's comments on pp. 347-348 of his L i f e a n d
L e t t e r s
and p. 315
o f L L D
for Hooker's thoughts.
121. Ghiselin, The
T r i u m p h o f t h e D a rw i ni an M e t h o d ,
pp. 103-105, 111,117,
128-129. See also De Beer, E v o l u t i o n b y N a t u r a l S e l e c t io n , pp. 135-156; Sydney
Smith, The Darwin Collection at Cambridge with One Example of Its Use:
Charles Darwin and Cirdpedes, A c t e s d u X I e C o n g r~ s I n t e r n a t i o n a l d ' H i s t o i r e
d e s S c i e n c e s , 1 5 (1964), 96-100; Thaddeus J. Trenn, '~harles Darwin, Fossil
Cirtipedes and Robert Fitch, Presenting Sixteen Hitherto Unpublished Darwin
Letters of 1849 to 1851,
P roc . A m er . P h i l . Soc . , 118
(1974), 471-491; A. E.
Gunther, J. E. Gray, Charles Darwin, and
O r r e p e d e s , ' N o t e s R e c . R o y . S o c . , 3 4
(1979), 53-63.
241
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 48/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
c h a l l e n g e s , s u c h a s d e v i s i n g a c o r r e c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e m . 122 T h e y
w e r e p a r t i c u l a r ly w e l l s u i t e d f o r s t u d y i n g t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e c o n g r u e n c e
b e t w e e n c l a s si f ic a t i o n s b a s e d o n l a rv a e a n d t h o s e b a s e d o n a d u l t s , a n d
f o r c l a r if y i n g th e s ig n i fi ca n c e o f h o m o l o g o u s a s o p p o s e d t o a n a l o g o u s
c h a r a c t e r s J 23 B a r n a c l e s w e r e a l so a d m i r a b l y s u i t e d f o r s t u d y i n g t h e
p r o b l e m o f o r g an i c d i v e rs i ty a n d t h e p r o b l e m t h a t h a d c o n c e r n e d D a r w i n
o n p a g e s 9 5 - 9 8 o f th e E n o t e b o o k : t h e r e l a t io n b e t w e e n c o m p l e x i f i c a -
t i o n a n d p r o g r e s s i o n ( a n d / o r r e g r es s io n ) . S o m e b a r n a c l e s d e v e l o p e d
f r o m f a i r ly n o r m a l c r u s t a c e o u s l a r v ae i n t o s es si le a d u l t s , l o s in g i n t h e
p r o c e ss m a n y o f t h e f u n c t i o n s a n d o r g an s a ss o c i a t e d w i t h a m o b i l e ,
f r e e - s w i m m i n g l if e . T h i s se e m i n g r e g r e s s i o n w a s , h o w e v e r , a c l e a r
c as e o f s u cc e ss fu l a d a p t a t i o n a n d i n d i c at iv e o f t h e e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r
o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n . B a r n a c l e s a l so p r e s e n t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o b t a i n i n g
a n i n s ig h t i n t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s e x a n d h e r m a p h r o d i s m , 124 a n d t h u s
p o s s i b ly a n i n s ig h t i n t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p l a n t a n d a n i m a l k i n g d o m s .
T h e r e w e r e p r o b a b l y o t h e r , m o r e p e r s o n a l, r e a so n s f o r D a r w i n t o
u n d e r t a k e h i s c i r ri p e d e s w o r k . B y 1 8 4 6 h e h a d m a d e h i s m a r k a s a
g e o l o g i s t a n d a s a n a t u r a l h i s t o r i a n . T h e r e c e p t i o n o f h i s t h e o r y o f
t h e o r ig i n o f s p e ci es b y m e a n s o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n w o u l d b e p a r t l y
d e t e r m i n e d b y h i s s t an d i n g i n th e z o o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y . D a r w i n ' s
b o o k s o n t h e C i r r ip e d i a c l e ar l y p l a c e d h i m a m o n g t h e o u t s t a n d i n g
122 . For the p lace o f ba rnac le s in n ine teen th -cen tu ry t axonomy, s ee Mary
P. Winsor, Barnac le Larvae in the Nin e teenth Ce ntur y: A Case Stu dy in Tax o-
n o m i c T h e o r y , J . His t. Med . A l l i ed Sc i . 29 (19 69 ), 294-309, an d W insor, Starfish
Je l ly f ish and t he Order o f L i f e .
123. R. Ow en,
L e c t u r e s o n t h e C o m p a r a t iv e A n a t o m y a n d P h y s i o lo g y o f t h e
Inver t e rbra t e An ima l s (Lon don , 1843) . See also Ow en 's repo r t to the 1846 me et-
ing of the BAAS and i t s enlarged vers ion , O n t h e A r c h e t y p e a n d H o m o l o gi e s o f
the Ver terbrate Ske le ton (London, 1848); Merz , H i s t o r y o f E u r o p e an T h o u g h t
I I , 258-259 ; and Roy M. MaeL eod , Evo lu t ion i sm and R icha rd Owen, 1830-1868 :
An E p i sode in D arwin 's Cen tu ry , Isis 56 (1965), 259-280.
124. The a s soc iat ion o f c i r r ipedes wi th the p rob lem o f the evo lu t ion o f s ex
da te s a t l e a s t to the 1838 pe r iod : ' q ' h e s exua l sys tem o f the C i r r ipedes i s the
mo re rema rkab le f rom the i r a l li ance to Ar t i cu la ta wh ich a re t ru ly b i s exua l (E ,
p . 60) . See also E, pp . 71 , 80 , and espe c ia l ly 155: M y theo ry only requires tha t
o rgan ic beings p ropaga ted b y g em mat ion do no t u nde rgo me tam orphos i s , bu t
to a r r ive a t the i r p re sen t s t ruc tu re they m us t have been p ropaga ted by s exua l
c o m m e r c e . . . T h e r e l a ti o n o f t h e i n fe r en c e f r o m s o m e p lan t s & som e mol lusca
be ing he rm aphrod i t e is , t ha t in t e rcourse eve ry t ime i s o f no consequence in tha t
degree of development . I t i s s ingular there i s not t rue hermaphrodi te on be ings
which have f lu id sperm a. Darwin be l ieved tha t herm aph rodi t ic spec ies eventua l ly
evolve into bisex ual ones.
2 4 2
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 49/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it i c a l E c o n o m i s t s
a n a t o m i s t s a n d z o o l o g i s t s o f t h e d a y , a n d e s t a b l i s h e d h i m a s t h e p e e r o f
s u c h n o t e d f i g u r e s a s O w e n a n d M i l n e -E d w a r d s .
F i n a l ly , D a r w i n ' s c o m p e t i t i v e n a t u r e s h o u l d n o t b e e x c l u d e d a s a
f a c t o r i n h i s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e c i r r i p e d e s . T h e
O r r i p e d i a
i s b o t h a n
a t t a c k o n a n d a t e s t i m o n i a l t o C u v i e r a s a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a t o m i s t , x2s
L a m a r c k i n 1 8 0 9 h a d p l a c e d t h e C i r r ip e d i a i n a c la ss b y t h e m s e l v e s , a n d
h e v i e w e d t h i s c la s s a s a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e A n n e l i d a t o t h e M o ll us c a. 12 6
C u v i e r w a s q u i c k t o d e n y ~ t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a n y i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n
t h e a r t i c u la t e a n d m o l l u s k e m b r a n c h m e n t s a n d p l a c e d t h e c i rr ip e d e s
i n t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y . 127 T h e r e i s a n o t e o f p r i d e w h e n D a r w i n s t a t e s in
t h e O r / g / n : e v e n t h e i l lu s t r io u s C u v i e r d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t a b a r n a c l e
w a s , a s i t c e r t a i n l y i s, a c r u s t a c e a n , b u t a g l a n c e a t t h e l a r v a s h o w s t h i s
t o b e t h e c a s e i n an u n m i s t a k a b l e m a n n e r . 128 D a r w i n w a s w e l l a w a r e
125 . W ha t W. S . M acLeay had sa id o f Cu v ie r i n h i s Horae Ea tomolog ica l ;o r ,
E s s a ys o n t h e A n n u l o s e A n i m a l s
( L o n d o n : A . B a g s t er 1 8 1 9 - 1 8 2 1 ) - F o r s k il l i n
a n a t o m i c a l d i s se c t io n , f o r a c c u r a c y o f o b s e r v a t io n , a n d r e f e r e n c e o f m e a n s t o
t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e e n d s , p e r h a p s n o m a n l i vi n g c a n b e p l a c e d i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h M .
C u v i e r . . . i t h a s b e e n t o o o f t e n a n d t o o j u s t ly r e m a r k e d , t h a t n o p er s o n o f s u ch
t r a n s c e n d e n t t a l e n t s a n d i n g e n u i t y e v e r m a d e s o l i t t le u s e o f h is o b s e r v at i o n s
towa rds a na tu r a l a r r ange me n t a s M. Cu v ie r ( p . 326 ) - m ay we l l have s t ruck a
r e s o n a n t c h o r d i n D a r w i n . D a r w i n h a d c a r e f u ll y s t u d i e d M a c L e a y i n t h e 1 8 3 7 -
1 8 3 9 p e r i o d , a n d f r o m a le t t e r t o H e n s l o w i n 1 8 3 2 i t is e v id e n t th a t h e k n e w o f
M a c L e a y 's w o r k w h i l e o n t h e Beagle• See D a r w i n a n d H e n s l o w , p . 62 , pa r t i en l a r ly
B a r l o w ' s n o t e 2 .
F o r t h e r e l e v a n c e o f M a c L e a y ' s w o r k t o D a r w i n ' s e i r r i p e d e s r e s e a r c h , s e e
S m i t h , D a r w i n a n d C i r r i p e d e s ; b a r n a c le s h e l d a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n M a c L e a y ' s
c l a ss i fi c a ti o n s y s t e m . H o w i n f l u e n t ia l M a c L e a y w a s i s i n d i c a t e d b y J a m e s D w i g h t
Dana , Crus taeea : US Exp lor ing Exp ed i t i on under t he C om m and o f Charl es Wi lkes ,
U S N , 2 vo l s . (Ph i l ade lph i a , 1852-1853) • D a rwin r ead t h i s bo ok on Sep t . 20 , 18 53 ,
a n d m u s t h a v e c o m e a c ro s s o n p . 5 4 D a n a ' s c o m m e n t s : ' q ' h e r e a r e n e i t h e r s t ra i g h t
l i ne s no r c i r c l e s i n na tu r e , bu t ma in b r anch ing l i ne s , w i th subo rd ina t e b r anches ,
and a lmos t end l e s s r e t i cu l a t i ons o r anas tomoses , by cu rves o f a l l k inds and a l l
g r ad e s o f d iv e r g e n c e a n d c o n v e r g e n c e . D a n a w a s c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e n u m e r i c al
c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e c i r c u l a r c l a s s i f i c a t o r y s y s t e m o f M a c L e a y , S w a i u s o n , a n d
o t h e r s, a n d i n d i c a te d t h a t i t w a s a b r i l l ia n t sc h e m e w h e n f i r s t b r o u g h t f o r w a r d
•
b u t a s t h e f i rs t g l ar e h a s n o w p a s se d , w e c a n p e r c ei v e t h a t w h i l e i t a t te m p t e d
to r i d s c i ence o f t he s t r a igh t an d r i g id ba r s o f a r t i f i c i a l sy s t ems , i t on ly m od i f i e d
t h e m o d e o f c o e r c i o n b y b e n d i n g b a r s i n t o ci r c l es . S e e a l so W i n s o r, S t a r f is h ,
J e l ly f i s h , a n d t h e O r d e r o f L i f e ; a n d P . L . H e i l b r o n e r , C i r c u l a r L o g i c : T h e
C o n t e x t , S t r u c t u r e , a n d I n f l u e n c e o f W i l li a m S h a r p M a c L e a y ' s Q u i n a r i s m , t h e si s ,
D e p t . o f t h e H i s t o r y o f S c i e n c e , H a r v a r d U n i v e r si t y , 1 97 6 .
126• J . B . Lam arck , Phi lo soph ie zoo log ique ou expo s i t i ons des cons idera t ions
relat ives ~ I 7~istoire natur el le d es a nim au x (Par i s , 1809) .
127 . G . Cuv ie r , L e rbgne anim al d aprbs so n organisation, 4 vols. (Paris , 1817).
128 . Da rwin , Origin, p . 440 .
2 4 3
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 50/95
SILVA N S. SCHWEBER
t h a t t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l c h a ll en g e t o h i s e v o l u ti o n a r y v ie w s c a m e f r o m
C u v i e r's w o r k a n d t h a t s t ro n g o p p o s i t i o n w o u l d c o m e f r o m th e s c h o o l
o f c o m p a r a t i v e a n a t o m i s t s C u v i e r h a d t r a in e d : O w e n i n E n g la n d ; A g a s si z
in t he Un i t ed S t a t es , F lou re ns , Mi lne -Edwards , and t he i r a s soc i a t es i n
F r a n c e .
T h u s i t w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r D a r w i n t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f
C u v i e r 's c l a s s if i c a to r y s c h e m e , b a s e d o n t h e p r i n c ip l e o f t h e c o r r e l a t io n
o f pa r t s . Va r i a t i ons w ere cen t ra l i n Cuv i e r ' s a s we l l a s D arw in ' s s chem e.
C u v i e r, o f c o u r s e , d i d n o t d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f v a r i a ti o n s , b u t h e
ins i s ted t ha t va r i a t i ons ex i s t on ly w i th in ce r t a i n w eU-def ined l im i t s
( t h u s g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e r e a l i ty a n d f i x i t y o f s p e c i es ) . T h e s e l i m i ts w e r e
v e r y n a r r o w f o r t h e c e n t r a l o r g a n s , b u t . w e r e q u i t e w i d e f o r t h e p e r ip h -
e ra l , ex t e rna l f ea tu res :
T h u s w e f r e d m o r e n u m e r o u s v a r ie ti es i n m e a s u r e a s w e d e p a r t f r o m
t h e p r i n c i p a l o r g a n s a n d a s w e a p p r o a c h t h o s e o f l es s i m p o r t a n c e ;
a n d w h e n w e a r ri v e a t t h e s u r f a c e w h e r e t h e n a t u r e o f t h in g s p l a c e s
the l eas t e s sen t ia l pa r t s - wh ose l e s ion w ou ld b e leas t dangerous -
t h e n u m b e r o f v a r ie t ie s b e c o m e s s o c o n s i d e r a b le t h a t a ll t h e w o r d s
o f t h e n a tu r a li st s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n a b l e t o f o r m a n y so u n d id e a o f
it .
2 9
F o r D a r w i n , h o w e v e r , i t w a s e s s e n t i a l t o s h o w t h a t i n h e r i t b a l e
v a r i a ti o n s e x i s t n o t o n l y f o r t h e e x t e r n a l v i s ib le p a r t s , b u t a l so f o r t h e
i n t e r n a l o r g a n s , t h a t s u c h v a r i a t i o n s e x i s t a t a n y s ta g e o f t h e o r g a n i s m ' s
l if e , a n d t h a t t h e y a r e a d d i t iv e , s o t h a t g i v e n e n o u g h t i m e t h e o b s e r v e d
p h y l o g e n e t i c i n t e r n a l c h a n g e s c o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d f o r a s a r e s u l t o f
na tu ra l s e l ec t i on opera t i ng on t hese va r i a t i ons .
I n th e E s s a y o f 1 8 4 4 D a r w i n , w h e n tr y i n g t o e x p l a in h o w n a t u r al
s e l e c ti o n o p e r a t e d , i n t r o d u c e d a B e in g w i t h p e n e t r a t i o n s u f f ic i e n t t o
p e r c e i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e o u t e r a n d i n n e r m o s t o r g a n i z a t i o n q u i t e
i m p e r c e p t i b l e t o m a n . 13o B u t D a r w i n h a d t o s h o w t h a t t h is a s s u m p t i o n
o f v a r i a b i li t y i n n a t u r e ( a s d i s ti n c t f r o m v a r i a ti o n u n d e r d o m e s t i c i t y )
w a s c o r r e c t . O n e o f t h e f u n c t i o n s t h e l o n g b a r n a c l e p r o j e c t s e r v ed w a s
t o p r o v e t h a t s m a l l v a r i a t io n s i n d e e d o c c u r i n e v e r y p a r t o f a p l a n t o r
a n i m a l a n d a p p e a r d u r in g a ll p e r i o d s o f l i f e . 131 S u c h a p r o o f a ls o
129. Quoted in W. Coleman, Georges Cuvier Zoologist: A St ud y in the
His tory o f Evo lu t ion Theory (Cam bridge, Mass.: Harvard U niversity Press, 1964),
p. 143.
130. Essay of 1844, p. 114.
131. Ibid., p. 247.
2 4 4
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 51/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d i s p r o v e d C u v i e r' s t h e o r e t i c a l s c h e m e : t h e p a r t s w e r e
n o t p e r f e c t l y c o r r e l a t e d , t h e p r i n c i p a l o r g a n s w e r e n o t i n v a r ia b l e o r
a b s o l u t e l y s t a b le . S u f f i c i e n t v a r i a t io n s c o u l d b e s h o w n t o o c c u r n o t
o n l y t o p r o d u c e s p e c i a t i o n , b u t g i ve n e n o u g h t i m e a ls o t o b r id g e th e
e m b r a n c h e m e n t s .
I n a r e v ea l in g l e t t e r t o H o o k e r in 1 8 4 9 D a r w i n w r o t e t h a t h e w a s
s t r u c k w i t h t h e v a r i a b i li t y o f e v e r y p a r t i n s o m e s li g ht d e g r e e o f e v e r y
s p e c i e s . W h e n t h e s a m e o r g a n i s r i gor ous l y c o m p a r e d i n m a n y i n d i v i d -
ua l s , I a lways t 'md some s l i gh t va r i ab i l i t y . 132 Darwin i s even more
exp l i c i t i n h i s
Cirr ipedia:
N o t o n l y d o e s e v e r y e x t e r n a l c h a r a c te r v a r y g r e a t ly in m o s t o f th e
s p e c ie s , b u t t h e i n t e r n a l p a r t s v e r y o f t e n v a r y t o a s u rp r is i ng d e g r e e;
a n d t o a d d t o t h e d i f f i c u l ty , g r o u p s o f s p e c i m e n s n o t r a r e l y v a r y i n
t h e s a m e m a n n e r . . . I m u s t ex p r e ss m y d e l ib e r a te c o n v i c ti o n t h a t
i t i s h o p e l e s s t o f i n d a n y s p e c i e s , w h i c h h a s a w i d e r a n g e , a n d o f
w h i c h n u m e r o u s s p e c i m e n s f r o m d i f f e r e n t d is tr ic ts a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r
e x a m i n a t i o n a n y o n e p a r t o r o r g a n , - . . . - a b s o l u t e ly i nv a r ia b le i n
f o r m o r s t ru c t u re . ia 3
I n h i s p r e f a c e t o h i s b o o k o n t h e L e p a d i d a e , D a r w i n s u c c i n c t l y s t a t e d
w h a t t h is i m p l i e d f o r s y s t e m a t i c s - o n e o f t h e c h al le n g e s w h i c h a t t r a c t e d
h im to t he c i r f i pedes o r ig ina l l y -
T h e L e p a d i d a e , o r p e d u n c u l a t e d C i r r i p e d e s , h a v e b e e n n e g l e c t e d
u n d e r a s y s t e m a t i c p o i n t o f v i e w , t o a d e g re e w h i c h I c a n n o t q u i t e
u n d e r s t a n d ; n o d o u b t t h e y a r e s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t io n ,
a n d a s l o n g a s t h e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e o f t h e v a l v e s a n d t h e o r g a n s o f t h e
a n i m a l ' s b o d y a r e p a s s e d o v e r a s u n i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e w i l l o c c a s i o n a l ly
b e s o m e d i f f i c u l ty i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e s e v e ra l f o r m s , a n d s ti ll
m ore i n s e t t i ng t he l im i t s o f t he va r i ab i l i ty o f t he spec i es . Bu t I
s u s p e c t t h e p e d u n c u l a t e d C i r r i p e d e s h a v e , i n f a c t , b e e n n e g l e c t e d ,
o w i n g t o t h e i r c lo s e a f f in i t y , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t n e c e s s i t y o f t h e i r
be ing i nc lud ed i n t he s ame w ork w i th t he Sess ile C i r r i pedes ; fo r
t hese l a t t e r w i l l eve r p resen t , I am fu l l y conv inced , i n superab l e
d i f f i cu l ti e s i n t he i r i d en t i f i ca t i on by ex t e rna l cha rac t e r a l one . 134
132. L L D I, 397.
133. Charles Darw in,A Mo nograph on the Sub-Class Cirripedia : The Balanidae
(London Ra y Society, 1854), p. 155.
134. Darwin, Orripedia: The Lepadidae p. XI.
2 4 5
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 52/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
Darwin started his work on the cirripedes in October 1846. In his
Autobiography he said that he had become interested in them because
on the Beagle he had discovered a most curious form, which burrowed
into the shells of Concholepas and which differed so much from all
other Cirripedes that I had to form a new sub-order for its sole re-
ceptio n. 13s An atte mpt to u nder stan d an allied burrowing genus that
had been found in Portugal made Darwin examine and dissect many
of the com mon forms, which in turn led him - according to the Auto-
biography - to take up t he whole group. Availing himse lf of all the
collections of barnacles exta nt at the time, he began his long study of
the geographical distribution, comparative anatom y, and t axo nom y of
the cirripedes. He requested specimens of barnacles from naturalists
all over the world, from Peach, Gray, and Henslow in England, W.
Tho mso n in Ireland, J. Mtiller in Germ any , Milne-Edwards in Franc e, 136
Syms Covin gton in Australia, 137 and Augustus Ad diso n Gould a nd J. D.
Dana in the Uni ted States. In a letter to Gould ~as in Septe mber 1848,
Darwin wrote:
I have been em ployed for nearly two years on an anatomical and
systematic mon ogr apnh on Cirripedia. It is my i nte nti on to describe
the animal of every species, which by soaking I am enabled to do
even with dry specimens. All the descriptions, without exception
135. Autobiography, LLD, p. 66.
136. See the Preface in Darwin's Cirripedia: The Lepadidae, where he thanks
those who had sent him specimens. Some of the letters requesting barnacle
specimens are at the American Philosophical Society. See, e.g., letters 71 and 72
to Gray and no. 76 to Milne-Edwards, as quoted in P. T. Carroll, ed., An Annotated
Calendar of the Letters of Charles Darwin in the Library of the American Phi-
losophical Soeiety (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1976).
137. Covington became Darwin's attendant on the voyage of theBeagle, and
his clerk and anamuensis after their return to England. Covington later settled in
New South Wales, Australia, and sent Darwin one of the best collections of barna-
cles. I have received a vast number of collections from different places, but never
one so rich from one locality, Darwin wrote Covington; see Gavin de Beer, ed.,
Some Unpublished Letters of Charles Darwin, ~Notes Rec. Roy. Soc. London,
13 (1958), 19.
138. Darwin was familiar with Gould's book the Cicindelidae of Massachusetts
(Boston, 1833) and his impressive conchological work Results of an Examina-
tion of the Species of Shells of Mass. and Their Geographical Distribution,
Boston J. Nat. Hist., 3 (1840), 483-494. Darwin had studied vols. I to IV ( entire )
of the Boston Journal on May 30, 1847, and earlier (on May 31, 1845) had read
vol. IV p. 377 to end. See P. J. Vorzimmer, The Darwin Reading Notebooks,
J. Hist. Biol., 10 (1977), 107-153.
246
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 53/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
w h i c h I h a v e h i t h e r t o s e e n a r e t o o i m p e r f e c t f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f s p e ci e s: e x t e r n a l f o r m s , p r o p e r t i e s & s t a t e o f su r f a c e a r e n e a r l y
va lue l ess a s cha rac t e r s -
T h e s p e c ie s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e re s t in g
t o m e f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h E u r o p e a n o n a c c o u n t o f g e o g ra p h ic a l
r a n g e. I a m a w a r e t h a t y o u h a v e d e s c r ib e d s o m e s p e c i es & I a m m o s t
a n x i o u s t o a v o i d g i v i n g a s e c o n d n a m e , w h i c h c a n n o t d o w i t h o u t
s e e in g s p e c i m e n s o f s a m e & b e i n g a l lo w e d t o d i s a rt ic u l a te o n e o r t w o
o f e a c h k i n d .l a 9
T h e p h r a s i n g ' t h e a n i m a l o f e v e r y sp e c i e s ( m y i ta l ic s ) s h o u l d n o t g o
u n n o t i c e d . T h e l e t t e r w a s w r i t t e n t e n y e a r s a f t e r D a r w i n f o r m u l a t e d
t h e t h e o r y o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n , a n d i s t o b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h a n e n t r y h e
m a d e in t h e E n o t e b o o k i n 1 83 8 : ' n am i n g m e r e s in g le s p e c i m e n s . . .
w o r s e t h a n u s e le s s - I m a y s a y a ll th i s , h a v i n g m y s e l f a i d e d i n s u c h
s ins (E , p . 52 ) . S imi l a r l y , i n a l e t t e r t o Mi lne -Edwards i n 1848 , Da rwin
w r o t e h e w i s h e d t o o b t a i n a s in gle s p e c i m e n o f s o m e o f t h e s pe c ie s
[ f r o m t h e g e n u s A l e p a ] f i g u re d i n t h e v o y a g e o f t h e A s t r o l o b e . 14o
G o u l d a n d M i l n e - E d w a r d s w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , h a v e f o u n d D a r w i n ' s
r e q u e s t f o r a s in g le s p e c i m e n p e r f e c t l y n o r m a l : a t a x o n o m i s t c o u l d
c a t e g o r i z e a s p e c i e s f r o m o n e s p e c i m e n a l o n e ( t h i s i s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f
w h a t M a y r h a s c a l le d t y p o l o g i c a l t h i n k in g ) . D a r w i n , h o w e v e r , w a s
f i r m l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t s e v e r a l o r g a n i s m s m u s t b e e x a m i n e d , a n d a c c o m -
p l is h e d t h is b y r e q u e s t in g s p e c i m e n s o f t h e s a m e s p e c ie s f r o m d i f f e r e n t
sou rces .
T h e l e t t e r s t o G o u l d a n d M i ln e - E d w a r d s i n d i c a te h o w c a r e f u l D a r w i n
w a s i n h i s a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o f e ss i o n al c o m m u n i t y o f z o o lo g is ts . G o u l d
was a f r i end and as soc i a t e o f Lou i s Agass i z , and Mi lne -Edwards and
A g a s si z w e r e l e a d in g d e f e n d e r s o f C u v i e r 's v i e w o n t h e f i x i t y o f s p e c ie s .
I n a le t t e r t o A g a s si z t h a n k i n g h i m a n d G o u l d f o r t h e i r as s is ta n c e ,
D a r w i n w r o t e o n O c t o b e r 2 2 , 1 8 4 8 , I h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r ly g r a t if i e d
i n r e c e i v in g s p e c i m e n s f r o m y o u r s e l f in a s m u c h a s , w h e n d o u b t i n g
w h e t h e r t o u n d e r t a k e a m o n o g r a p h o f th e c la ss , o r t o c o n f in e m y s e l f
t o t h e ir a n a t o m y , Y o u r se n t e n c e t h a t ' a m o n o g r a p h o n C i r ri p ed i a w a s
a pr e ss in g d e s i d e r a tu m i n z o o l o g y ' m u c h h e l p e d t o d e c id e m e . I n t h e
s a m e le t t e r , a n s w e r in g a re q u e s t b y A g a s si z t o h e a r w h a t re s u lt s h e
139. This un published letter is in the H oughton L ibrary o f Harvard University,
and is quoted here by permission ofW . H. Bond, the librarian.
140. This letter, dated Sept. 1, 1 84 8, is no. 76 in t h e A n n o t a t e d C a l e n d a r o f
the Le t ters o f Char les Darwin.
2 4 7
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 54/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
had obtaine d thus far, Darwin indicated that it would give him
r e a l
pleasure to do so, as far as the limits of a letter go. But Darwin
added: I should be glad if you would not men tio n my present results,
partly because I should like to have the satisfaction of publishing
myself what few new points I have found out and partly because one
is more free t o alter one's own view when they are confined to on e's
ow n breast . 141
Darwin does in this letter give Agassiz a fairly complete account of
his work on the cirripedes up to that time. The summary begins with
his reasons for placing the cirripedes as a subclass of the crustaceans:
The Cirripedia are tru e Crustaceans with no affinities to other classes;
Mr. St. Ange curiously mis took a strong epithe lium for an inn er sort of
stomach hence the af•mity with the Annelides disappears, Darwin
wrote, and con tin ued for three pages. What Darwin did no t divulge was
the relation of this work to his evolutionary theorizing. This remained
conf ined to [his] own breast.
This same relu ctance to set the work in its larger con tex t also appears
in the monographs on the cirripedes. In fact, Darwin inten ded to have
his presentati on seem as objective and neut ral as possible, and thus
to avoid any controversy. 142 There are no hin ts of his evolution ary
views. Darwin did not wish to offend.
Ghiselin, however, has given a thoroug h a nd convincing accou nt of
the relation of the cirripedes investigation to Darwin's evolutionary
interpretation of the chain of nature, the relation of adaptation to
funct ion, and the relation o f adaptatio n to natural selection. 14a And
141. This letter is in the Houghton Library of Harvard University, and is
quoted here by permission.
142. Contrast Darwin's restrained presentation (admittedly for a profes-
sional audience) with Huxley's and Owen's presentation of their views to lay
audiences. T. H. Huxley, in his famous lecture On the Method of Studying
Zoology, delivered to the science classes at the South Kensighton Museum in
the early 1850s, said, 'Unity of plan everywhere lies hidden under the mask of
diversity of structure - the complex is everywhere evolved of the simple. Richard
Owen, answering questions in 1851 before the English Public School Commission,
which was seeking advice on curricular changes, said that the fundamental
principles of classification in natural history are as certain [as those of mathe-
matics] . . . There is neither fluctuation nor speculation [in natural history]. The
principles of natural history are already as settled and fixed as can be needed for
its use as a disciplinary science. Both these presentations are reprinted in E. L.
Youmans, ed., The C u l t u re D e m a n d e d b y M o d e r n L i f e : A S e ri es o f A d d r e s s e s a n d
A r g u m e n t s o n t h e C l a im s o f S c i e n t if i c E d u c a t i o n (New York: Appelton, 1897).
143. Ghiselin, The T r i u m p h o f t h e D a r w i n ia n M e t h o d , pp. 103-130.
248
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 55/95
Darwin and the Political Economists
Ghiselin and Jaffe have shown that Darwin's taxo nom y of the cirripedes
in his two monographs actually reflects his phylogenetic restructuring
of that science. 144
What is important here is that Darwin's work on the cirdpedes
proves his thorough familiarity with Milne-Edwards' work before 1852.
Fro m the time of the noteb ooks 14s Da rw in had carefully followed
Milne-Edwards' writing and researches. He had studied Milne-Edwards'
1844 seminal pape r on na tural classification 146 and the several volumes
of his classic wor k on the crustaceans as they appeared. 147 Milne-
Edwards had sent Darwin barnacle specimen; the two had first met in
1847 at the O xfor d meeting of the British Association for the Advance-
me nt of Science, 14a and had m et again in 1849 at the B AAS meet ing in
Birmingham. At that meetirtg the y discussed thei r differing views on the
cemen ting apparatus of the cirripedes. 149 Darwin makes n umer ous
references to Milne-Edwards' important researches in both volumes of
144. M. T. Ghiselin and Linda Jaffee, Phylogenetic Classification in Darwin's
Monograph on the Sub-Class Cirdpedia,
S y s t . Z o o l . 2 2
(1973), 132-140.
145. Barrett in his Concordance to the notebooks lists entries for Milne-
Edwards. For an early entry see B, p. 112; for one after Darwin read Malthus, see
E, p. 25.
146. H. Mllne-Edwards, Considerations sur quelques principes relatifs ~ la
classification naturelle des anirnaux, A n n . S c i. N a t . 3 r d s e t . (1844), 1, 66-69.
See also H. Milne-Edwards, Rapport sur une serie de memoires de M. A. de
Quatrefages relatffs/t l'organisation des animaux sans vertebres, A n n . S c i . N a t .
3rd. ser. (1844), 5-9.
147. In Vorzimmer, The Darwin Reading Notebooks, the following readings
are indicated: Jan. 30, 1847 - M. Edwards Geog. Distribution o f Crustaceae,
3d Tom of Suite [?] de Buffon; Nov. 26, 1852 - M. Edwards Introduct. Zoolog.
Gener. 1851. Both monographs on the Cirripedia give ample further proof of
Darwin's careful study of Milne-Edwards' published works.
148. In a letter to Milne-Edwards dated Sept. 1, 1848, Darwin thanks him
for his kindness at the Oxford BAAS meeting in June 1847. See letter 76 in
A n n o t a t e d C a le n da r o f t h e L e t t e r s o f C h a rle s D a r w i n .
149. See the A t h e n a e u m 1143 (22 Sept. 22, 1849), 966. This exchange is
reprinted in P. H. Barrett, ed., The C o l l e c t e d P a p e r s o f C h a r le s D a r w i n 2 vols.
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), I, 250-251. The standing of Milne-
Edwards in the scientific community is indicated by the following passage in the
Transactions of Section D, Natural History, Including Physiology, of the
BAAS report for 1849: The comments made by the emminent naturalist H.
Milne-Edwards, Member of the Academic des Sciences in Paris on this com-
munication [M. Barrandi's paper on the metamorphosis of certain recently
discovered trilobites] must have so much weight, that a deviation is made from
the ordinary practice in giving this abstract of them in a note - Miine-Edwards'
comments are then given.
249
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 56/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
hi s Ci r r ipedia .
A n d D a r w i n ' s 1 8 5 4 m o n o g r a p h o n t h e L e p a d i d a e i s
d e d i c a t e d t o M i ln e - E d w a r d s w i t h t h e m o s t s i n ce r e r e s p e c t, a s t h e o n l y ,
t h o u g h v e ry i n ad e q u a t e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t w h i c h t h e a u t h o r c an m a d e
o f h i s g r e a t a n d c o n t i n u e d o b l i g a t i o n s t o t h e H i s t o i r e n a t u r e U e d e s
c r us t ac e e s , a n d t o t h e o t h e r m e m o i r s a n d w o r k s o n N a t u r a l H i s t o r y
p u b l i s h e d b y t h i s i l l u s tr i o u s n a t u r a l i s t .
M I L N E - E D W A R D S O N T H E D I V I S IO N O F L A B O R
M i l n e -E d w a r d s f i r s t p u t f o r t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e d i v i si o n o f l a b o r in
h i s e n t r i e s O r g a n i s a t i o n a n d N e r f s i n t h e
D i c t i o n n a i r e c l a s s i q u e
dT~is to i re na ture l l e . 1so The D i c t i o n n a i r e c l a s s i q u e w a s o n b o a r d t h e
B e a g l e
a n d D a r w i n o w n e d a c o p y o f i t . 1sl V e r y p r o b a b l y h e r e a d t h es e
e n t r i e s d u r i n g t h e v o y a g e , f o r t h e y d e a l t e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h t h e i n v e r te -
b r a t e s , c e n t r a l t o D a r w i n ' s z o o l o g i c a l i n v e s t ig a t i o n s o n t h e Bea gle . i s2
I n O r g a n i s a t i o n M i l n e - E d w a r d s w r i t e s
T h e b o d y o f t h e se a n im a l s [ p o l y p s ] c a n b e c o m p a r e d t o a w o r k s h o p
w h e r e e a c h w o r k e r i s e m p l o y e d i n e x e c u t in g s i m i l a r l a b o u r s , a n d
w h e r e , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i r n u m b e r i n f lu e n c e t h e s u m t o t a l , b u t
n o t t h e n a t u r e o f th e r e s u lt . I n e f f ec t , e a c h p o r t i o n o f t h e b o d y
c a n s m e l l , c o n t r a c t , m o v e , n o u r i s h i ts e l f a n d r e p r o d u c e i n t o a n e w
b o d y . . .
W h e n , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , l i f e b e g in s t o m a n i f e s t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d
p h e n o m e n a , a n d t h e f in a l r e s u lt p r o d u c e d b y t h e i n t e r p l a y o f t h e
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e b o d y b e c o m e s m o r e p e r f e c t , c e r t a i n o rg a n s
p r e s e n t p a r t i c u l ar s t r u c t u r e . . . T h e l if e o f t h e i n d iv i d u a l , i n s t e a d o f
b e i n g t h e s u m o f a l ar g e r o r s m a l le r n u m b e r o f id e n t i c a l d e m e n t s ,
r e s u lt s f r o m e s s e n t ia l l y d i f f e r e n t a c t s p r o d u c e d b y d i s t i n c t o rg a n s .
150. Dictionnaire classique d?~istoire naturelle; Org anisa t ion is in vol. XII
(1827 ) , pp . 332-344; N erfs i s in vol. X I (1827) , pp . 529-534.
151. Da rw in 's copy o f the Dictionnaire classique i s now a t Do wn House . Mr.
Ti the radge , the cu ra to r o f Dow n House , in fo rms me tha t the en t r ie s Organ is a-
t ion and Ner f s bea r no anno ta t ions .
152. That Darwin was reading the
Dictionnaire classique
i s c lear f rom his
le t te rs to Hens low. On May 18, 1832, for ins tance , he wro te : I am we l l of f in
hooks. The Die. Class . is mo s t use fu l (Barlow, ed. , Darwin an d Henslow, p. 54;
s ee a l so l e t t e r no . 22 , f rom Hens low to Darwin ). Da rw in 's D ia ry o f Obse rva tions
on Zoo logy o f the P laces Vis i t ed du r ing the Voyage o f the H .M.S .
Beagle
i s kep t
in boxes 30 , 31 , an d 32 o f D a rwin ' s Pape rs a t the Cambr idge Unive rs i ty L ib ra ry .
The ea r ly obse rva t ions a re p r imar i ly on inve r t eb ra te s .
2 5 0
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 57/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i s t s
T h e d iv e rs e p a rt s o f t h e a n i m a l e c o n o m y a ll
compete
t o w a r d s t h e
s a m e g o a l , b u t e a c h i n a m a n n e r a p p r o p r i a t e t o i t , a n d t h e m o r e t h e
f a c u l t i e s o f t h e o r g a n i s m a r e n u m e r o u s a n d d e v e l o p e d , t h e g r e a t e r
t h e d i v e rs i ty o f s t r u c t u r e a n d the division o f labor ... . a r e f u r t h e r e d
( m y i ta l ic s )
S u b s t a n t i a ll y t h e s a m e e x p l a n a t i o n a p p e a r s i n M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' in f l u e n t ia l
Elem ens de zoologie: Legons sur l anatomie, la physiologie, la classifica-
tion des moeurs des animaux, the f ir st v o l u m e o f w h i c h w a s p u b l i s h e d
in 1834: lSa
I n a n im a l s w h o s e f a c u lt ie s a re m o s t li m i t e d a n d w h o s e li fe a re
s im p l e s t, t h e b o d y p r e s e n t s e v e r y w h e r e t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r e . T h e p a r t s
a r e a ll s im i l ar ; a n d t h is i d e n t i t y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n b r i n g s a b o u t a n
a n a l o g o u s m o d e o f a c t i o n , th e i n t e r i o r o f t h e se o r g a n i s m s c a n b e
c o m p a r e d t o a w o r k s h o p w h e r e a ll th e w o r k e r s a re e m p l o y e d i n t h e
e x e c u t i o n o f s im i la r la b o r s, a n d w h e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e ir n u m b e r
i n fl u en c e t h e q u a n t i t y b u t n o t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o d u c t s. E v e r y
p a r t o f t h e b o d y p e r f o r m s t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n s a s t h e n e i g h b o r in g
p a r ts , a n d t h e l i fe o f t h e i n d i v i d u al is m a d e u p o f t h o s e p h e n o m e n a
w h i c h c h a r a c t e ri s e t h e l if e o f o n e o r t h e o t h e r o f th e s e p a r t s.
B u t a s o n e r is e s i n t h e s e ri e s o f b e i n g s , a s o n e c o m e s n e a r e r t o
m a n , o n e s e es o r g a n iz a t io n b e c o m i n g m o r e c o m p l i c a te d ; t h e b o d y
o f e a ch a n i m a l b e co m e s c o m p o s e d o f pa r ts w h i c h a r e m o r e a n d m o r e
d is si m il ar t o o n e a n o t h e r , a s m u c h i n t h e ir m o r p h o l o g y , f o r m a n d
s t r u c t u r e , a s i n t h e i r f u n c t i o n s ; a n d t h e l if e o f t h e in d i v i d u a l re s u l ts
f r o m t h e c o m p e t i t i o n o f an e ve r g r ea te r n u m b e r o f i n s t r u m e n t s
e n d o w e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t f a c u lt ie s . A t f i rs t i t i s t h e s a m e o r g a n t h a t
s m e ll s, t h a t m o v e s , t h a t a b s o r b s f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t h e n e e d e d
n u t r i e n t s a n d t h e g u a r a n t e e s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s p e c ie s ; b u t
l i t t l e - b y - l i t t l e t h e d i v e r s e f u n c t i o n s l o c a l i z e t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e y a l l
a c q u i r e i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t a r e p r o p e r t o t h e m s e lv e s . T h u s , th e m o r e
t h e l if e o f a n a n i m a l b e c o m e s i n v o lv e d i n a v a r ie t y o f p h e n o m e n a ,
a n d t h e m o r e i t s f a c u l t ie s a r e d e l i n e a t e d , o r t h e h i g h e r t h e d e g r e e t o
153. H. Milne-Edwards:
Elemens de zoologie: leqons sur l anatomie, la phy-
siologie, la classification des moeurs des animaux
(Pads: Crochard, 1834). Darwin
did n ot ow n this boo k. I t is no t l is ted in Rutherfo rd 's Catalogue of the Library of
Charles Darwin in the Botany School (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1908). In a catalogue of the Victor Masson Books (Ancibnne Maison Crochard)
tha t Darwin ow ned , wh ich now is at Cambridge University Library, Darwin check-
ed off the Milne-Edwards book which he owned, but not Elemens de zoologie.
2 5 1
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 58/95
SILVANS. SCHWEBER
which division of labor is carried out in the interior o f the organism,
the more its structure is complicated.
The principle which seems to have guided nature in the perfectibi-
lity of beings, is as one sees, precisely one of those which have had
the greatest influence on the progress of human industry technology:
t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r . 1s4
Milne-Edwards concluded Organisation by saying that the senses
(vision, smell, hearing, etc.) furnish new examples of the division
of labor, and the same is true for the reproductive apparatus: this
function, which initially could be executed indifferently by all the parts
of the body, localizes itself and becomes the appendage of a series of
more and more complicated organs; also the sexes become distinct
and the concourse of two individuals necessary to accomplish the
procreative act . In the ent ry Nerfs, Milne-Edwards introduces the
thesis he will later elaborate in his I n t r o d u c t i o n b l a z o o l o g i e gb n b ra l e of
1851:
Nature, which is always economical in the means she employs to
arrive at a given goal, has followed in the perfectioning of organisms
the principle so well developed by the modern economists, and it is
in these works as well as in the productions of the [mechanical] arts,
that one sees the immense advantage that results from the division of
labor.
Even if Darwin did no t read the Mllne-Edwards entries aboard the
B e a g l e ,
it is almost certain that he read them in the early 1840s before
undertaking his barnacle work. This is indicated by Darwin's notes to
Milne-Edwards' H i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e d e s c r u s ta c b e s , l ss On page 6 of
Volume I of this work is a paragraph that is essentially the same as the
one quoted above from the Nerfs entry in the
D i c t i o n n a i r e c l a ss i q u e.
Darwin drew a broad line to the left of the paragraph and the footnote
Milne-Edwards had appended: See the articles O r g a n i sa t io n , N e r f s , etc.
of the D i c t i o n n a i r e C l a s si q u e d h i s t o i r e N a t u r e l l e and our E l e m e n s d e
Z o o l o g i e where we have developed this principle. ls6 That Darwin read
154. Milne-Edwards,Elem ens de zoologie , I, 8.
155. H. Milne-Edwards,Histoire naturelle des crustac~es co m pre na nt l anato-
rnie, la physiologie, e t la classification d e ce s an im au x, 3 vols. (Paris: Librairie
Encyclopedique de Roret, 1834-1840). Vol I appeared in 1834, vol. II in 1837,
and vol. III in 1840. Darwin's annoted copies are at Cambridge University Library.
156. Ibid., I, 6.
252
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 59/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
v e r y c a r e f u l M i ln e - E d w a r d s' v o l u m e s o n t h e c r u s ta c e a n s is c l e a r f r o m
t h e l ar ge n u m b e r o f a n n o t a t i o n s h e m a d e in t h e t e x t . H e sc a n n e d t h e s e
vo lum es once aga in , p ro bab ly in 1856 , be fo re beg inn ing h i s long ve r sion
o f N a t u r a l S e l e c t io n a n d p i n n e d o n t h e b a c k c o v e r s r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e
m o s t u s e f u l p a r t s o f t h e b o o k s . T h e v o l u m e s d e a l t w i t h a l l t h e s u b j e c ts
t h a t w e r e o f p a r a m o u n t i n t e r e s t t o D a r w i n i n h i s b a r n a c l e w o r k :
phys io logy , compara t ive ana tomy, genera l p r inc ip les o f c l a s s i f i ca t ion ,
geograph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion . Pa r t i cu la r ly r evea l ing a re Darwin ' s comments
on Mi lne -Edwards ' d i s cus s ion o f the geograph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f
c rus taceans . Mi lne -Edwards had ind ica ted tha t in a ll l ike l ih oo d the
f a c t s d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h e e m a n a t i o n o f t h e se a n im a l s f r o m a sin gle
c e n t e r o f c r e a t i o n a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t d i s p er sa l t o d i s ta n t o c e a n s :
one s ees tha t the a rea occup ied by each spec ies has more o r l e s s
n a r r o w l i m i t s, a n d o n e d o e s n o t t a r r y t o c o n v i n c e o n s e l f t h a t t h e r e
ex i s t fo r these ma r ine an im als, ju s t a s fo r the p lan t s an d the t e r res -
t r ia l an imals , a ce r t a in n um ber o f d i s t inc t r eg ions charac te r i zed
b y p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n s . T h e f a u n a o f e a c h o f t h e s e r eg i o ns i s
c o m p o s e d i n p a r t o f s p ec ie s t h a t a r e n o t e n c o u n t e r e d e l s ew h e r e , a n d
in p a r t o f c om m on species.IS7
O n t h e t o p o f t h e p a g e , D a r w i n w r o t e , H o w e x p l ai n t h is , e x c e p t b y
sin gle c r e a t i o n , a n d o n t h e s i de o f t h i s p a g e D a r w i n c o m m e n t e d ,
w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o a n y t h i n g e l s e : m a k e a B a r r i e r & y o u w i l l h a v e
s p ec i es d i f f e r e n t o n d i f f e r e n t si d e . Y e t a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p a g e
D a r w i n a d d s , I d o n o t t h i n k r e a d w i t h su f f i c ie n t c a r e . H i s r e s p e c t f o r
Mi lne -Edwards was g rea t and we l l -dese rved , and the exp la na t ion o f the
g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r u s ta c e a n s w a s n o t w i t h o u t d i f f ic u l ti e s .
Darw in was a l so ind eb t ed to Mi lne -Edwards fo r r a is ing and c la r i fy ing
t a x o n o m i c q u e s t i o n s , a n d i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t D a r w i n s t u d i e d c a r e f u l l y
w h a t M i l n e - E d w a r d s h a d t o s a y o n t a x o n o m y t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 4 0 s
and 1850s and r ead a ll h i s wo rks as the y appe ared .
In Histoire naturelle des crustacbes Milne-Edward a l so succ inc t ly
s t a t e d h i s b i o l o g ic a l p h i l o s o p h y . T h e d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n s t h a t d e l in e a t e
the l i fe o f an o rgan i sm, he w ro te , can be r e la ted to th ree g rea t d ivis ions :
( 1 ) g e n e r a t i o n ( r e p r o d u c t i o n ) , w h o s e f u n c t i o n i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n
o f t h e s p ec ie s ; ( 2 ) n u t r i t i o n ( a n d r e l a t e d f u n c t i o n s ) , w h o s e r o l e is
the surv ival o f the ind iv idua l o f the spec ies ; and (3 ) o th e r fu nc t ion s
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e l a t io n o f o r g a n is m t o i ts e n v i r o n m e n t . M i ln e -E d w a r d s
157. Ibid., p. 555.
2 5 3
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 60/95
SILVA N S. SCHWEBER
w a s c a r e f u l t o n o t e t h a t t h is s e p a r a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n s w a s n o t a b s o l u t e ,
bu t i t was ve ry use fu l , pa r t i cu l a r l y i n cons ide r ing t hose o rga n i sms t ha t
m a n i f e s t h e t e r e o g e n e o u s f u n c t i o n s . A g a i n h e s t a t e d h i s p r i n c ip l e o f t h e
d i vi si o n o f la b o r : i n a w o r d , t h e p r i n c ip l e fo l l o w e d b y n a t u r e i n t h e
p e r f e c t i b i l i ty o f o r g a n i s m s is t h e s a m e a s t h e o n e s o w e l l d e v e l o p e d b y
m o d e r n e c o n o m i s ts , a n d i n t h is w o r k s a s i n t h e p r o d u c t s o f i n d u s t r y o n e
s ee s th e i m m e n s e a d v a n t a g e s t h a t r e s u l t f r o m t h e d i v is io n o f l a b o r . ls8
M i l n e - E d w a r d s t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o e l a b o r a t e t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n m u c h t h e
s a m e w o r d s h e h a d u s e d i n
Elem ens d e zoo log ie .
B u t M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' m o s t e x t e n s i v e a n d p h i l o s o p h i c s t a t e m e n t s o n
t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r a p p e a r e d i n h i s In tro duc t ion ~t la
zoolo gie gbnbrale. I n t h e p r e f a c e h e s a y s t h a t i n t h e b o o k h e h a s t r i e d
t o f a t h o m t h e p l ar t w h i c h h a s p r e s id e d o v e r t h e a n im a l k i n g d o m .
A l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t b e l ie v e t h a t h e w a s a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p a t h
f o l lo w e d b y t h e A u t h o r o f e v e r y t h in g i n th e e x e c u t i o n o f h is w o r k ,
n o n e t h e l e s s h e b e l i e v e s t h a t i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e h a r m o n y o f
t h a t c r e a t i o n i t i s a w o r t h w h i l e h y p o t h e s i s t o s u p p o s e t h a t n a t u r e h a s
p r o c e e d e d a s w e w o u l d h a v e , w e r e w e t o p r o d u c e a n a n a l o g o u s r e s u l t .
B y s t u d y i n g l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s a s i f t h e y w e r e m a c h i n e s c r e a t e d b y
h u m a n t e c h n o l o g y , h e h a s t r i e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e m a n n e r th e y w o u l d
h a v e b e e n i n v e n t e d a n d t h e p r i n c i p le s w h i c h w o u l d h a v e l e d t o a s i m i la r
e n s e m b l e o f v a ri e d i n s t r u m e n t s . ls9 C h a p t e r I o f t h e Zo olog ie gbnbrale
g iv es a g l o b a l v i e w o f t h e a n i m a l k in g d o m . N o t i n g t h a t t h e r e is n e v e r
c o m p l e t e i d e n t i t y b e t w e e n i n d iv i d u al s o f a sp e c ie s i n t i m e n o r i n
s p a c e , M i l n e -E d w a r d s s u gg e st s t h a t d i v e r s i ty o f p r o d u c t s is t h e f ir s t
c o n d i t io n i m p o s e d b y n a t u r e i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f o r ga n is m s . A l t h o u g h
o b e y i n g a
l aw o f d i vers it y o f o rgan isms
n a t u r e n o n e t h e l e s s h a s n o t h a d
r e c o u r s e t o a l l t h e p h y s i o l o g ic a l c o m b i n a t i o n s t h a t w e r e p o s s ib l e ; a n d
a s p r o d ig a l [ a s n a t u r e i s] i n t h e v a r i e t y o f h e r c r e a t i o n s , a s e c o n o m i c a l
s h e a p p e a r s in t h e m e a n s o f d iv e r s if y in g h e r w o r k s . T h i s i s t h e l a w o f
eco no m y. As an i l lu s t r a t i on , M i lne -Edw ards c i t e s t he case o f t he b i rds ,
f o r w h i c h o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 s p e c ie s w e r e t h e n k n o w n . Y e t
i n t h e s e t h o u s a n d s o f s p e c ie s a n d u n t o l d n u m b e r s o f v a r ie t ie s w h a t i s
es sen t ia l is i nvar i ab le . . . In o rde r t o d ive r s i t y a l l t hese o rgan i sms ,
n a t u r e d i d n o t h a v e r e c o u r s e t o a n y n e w o r g a n ic c r e a t i o n ; s h e h a s
l i m i t e d h e r s e l f t o c h a n g e , w i t h i n n a r r o w l im i t s , t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f
c e r t a i n p a r t s a n d t o v a r y t h e d e c o r a t i o n s w i t h o u t t o u c h i n g t h e
es sen t i a l cha rac t e r .
158. Ibid., p. 6.
159. Mflne-Edwards,
Zoo logie gdndrale p. 6.
2 5 4
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 61/95
D a r w i n nd t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
T h e g e n e ra l t e n d e n c y o f n a t u r e , h e su gg es ts, h a s b e e n t o m u l t i p l y i n
g i g a n ti c p r o p o r t i o n s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s , w h i l e v a r y i n g m i n i m a l l y t h e
c o n s t i t u t e n t m a t e r i al s o f a n im a l s a n d t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e s e m a t e -
r ia ls h a v e b e e n p u t t o w o r k : S h e h as t h u s re c o n c i l e d t w o a p p a r e n t l y
c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r i n c i p le s , b e c a u s e s h e h a s s h o w n h e r s e l f s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
e c o n o m i c a l a n d p r o d i g a l . T o t h i s H e g e l ia n s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f
d i v e r si ty a n d f i x i t y , M i l n e -E d w a r d s a d ds t h e a n t i -L a m a r c k i a n s t a t e m e n t
t h a t n a t u r e h a s t e n d e d t o v a r y t h e d e g r e e o f p e r f e c t i b i l i t y a c h i e ve d
b y o r g a n i s m s . T h u s i n s e c t s a r e s u p e r i o r t o m o l l u s k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
l o c o m o t i o n , b u t t h e l a t t e r a r e s u p e r io r i n t h e i r d ig e st iv e o r g an s a n d
c i r cu la to ry appara tus . Th e s ame p r inc ip le a l so ope ra tes fo r o rgans
w i t h i n o r g a n i s m s : m a n ' s n e r v o u s s y s t e m i s m o r e p e r f e c t t h a n h i s
ske le ta l sys tem.
C h a p t e r s I II a n d I V o f t h e ntroduction b la zoologie gbnbrale are
d e v o t e d t o t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e d i v is io n o f p h y si o l o g ic a l l a b o r in t h e
p e r f e c t i n g o f o r g a ni sm s . I n t e r e s ti n g l y , C h a p t e r I I I, w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s t h e
n o t i o n , i s n o t e x t e n si v e ly a n n o t e d b y D a r w i n ( in c o n t r a s t t o t h e o t h e r
c h a p t e r s o f t h e b o o k ) ; a n d t h i s s ug ge sts t h a t t h e p r i n c i p le w a s i n d e e d
n o t n e w t o h i m . D a r w i n dr e w a l in e n e x t t o M i ln e -E d w a rd s ' i n t r o d u c t o r y
s t a t e m e n t - i n t h e c r e a t io n s o f n a t u r e , a s i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f m e n ,
i t is m o s t l y b y t h e division of labor tha t pe r fec t ib i l i ty i s ob ta i ne d 16o _
a n d t w o l i n es n e x t t o t h e c o n c l u d i n g s e n t e n c e o f t h e c h a p t e r : i t i s
p r i n c i p a ll y b y t h e d i v is io n o f la b o r t h a t n a t u r e t e n d s t o p e r f e c t th e
o r g an i sm . 161 T h e o n l y o t h e r a n n o t a t i o n s D a r w i n m a d e i n t h e c h a p t e r
w e r e t o d r a w a li n e n e x t t o M i ln e - E d w a r ds ' d e s c ri p t io n o f N i c o l e t 's
e x p e r i m e n t s o n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f th e s t o m a c h c a v i ty in l o w e r an im a l s
( t h e c a v i t y b e in g s o m e w h a t a c c i d e n t a l l y f o r m e d a n d h a v i ng b u t a
t e m p o r a r y e x i s te n c e ) , a n d t o w r it e b e a u t i f u l g r a d a t i o n n e x t t o t h e
p assa ge r e c a l li n g t h a t T r e m b l e y h a d s h o w n t h a t a h y d r a c o u l d b e t u r n e d
i n si d e o u t w i t h o u t a f f e c t in g a n y o f i ts p h y s io l o g i c al f u n c t i o n s . D a r-
w i n 's r e a c t i o n se e m s to b e t o t h e b e a u t y o f N i c h o l e t 's a n d T r e m b l e y ' s
obse rva t ions .
C h a p t e r I V , w h i c h d e a ls w i t h t h e m e a n s n a t u r e e m p l o y s t o e f f e c t
the d iv is ion o f l abo r in an imal o rgan i sms , i s, by c on t ras t , heav i ly
a n n o t e d . D a r w i n n o t e d t h e p assa ge w h e r e M i l n e- E d w a rd s r e m a r k e d t h a t
in an o rgan i sm
t h e g r e a t e r t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s p e c ia l iz a t io n o f f u n c t i o n s an d t h e
160. Ibid., p. 35.
161. Ibid., p. 57.
2 5 5
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 62/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
d iv is io n o f la b o r , t h e m o r e t h e n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t p a rt s a n d t h e
c o m p l i c a t io n o f th e m a c h i n e ha s t o i nc re a se . . . t h e n u m b e r o f
d is simi la r pa r t s th a t m ake up an o rgan i sm an d the ma gn i tude o f the
d i f f e rences tha t these pa r t s p resen t a re the ind ices o f the degree to
wh ich the d iv is ion o f l abor has been ca r r i ed ou t . 162
D a r w i n a ls o c a r e f u l l y n o t e d M i l n e -E d w a r d s' i l lu s t r a ti o n o f t h e e x t e n t
o f t h e se rie s o f s p ec ia l p h e n o m e n a t h a t r e s u lt f r o m t h e s p e c ia l iz a t io n o f
v a r i o u s o r g a n s ( u s u a l l y f o r m e d f r o m p r e e x i s t i n g p a r t s ) . D a r w i n w a s
c lea r ly r ecep t ive to M i lne -Edw ards ' sugges tion tha t inc reasing phy -
s io log ica l spec ia l i za t ion ( such as the p resence o f r e sp i r a to ry , d igest ive ,
r ep roduc t ive o rgans ) a l lowed one to c las s i fy o rgan i sms and
rank
t h e m
( thou gh fo r Mi lne -Edwards th i s r ank i s s ti ll t i ed to a Cuver ian - llke t ab le
o f o r g a n i z a ti o n ) .
Lim oges has argued con vincin gly 163 tha t reading Milne-Edw ards
w as a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f D a r w i n 's c o n c e p t o f
d ive rgence o f cha rac te r . Mi lne -Edwards ' p resen ta t ion and d i s cus s ion o f
such impor tan t top ics a s c las s i f i ca t ion and d ive r s i ty were su re ly use fu l
to Darwin . In pa r t i cu la r , Mi lne -Edwards ' emphas i s o n the ro le o f
func t iona l spec ia l i za t ion may we l l have been r espons ib le fo r Darwin ' s
ke y ins igh t tha t the p r im ary f ac to r o f d ive rgence in eco log ica l d i f f e r -
en t i a t ion i s func t iona l spec ia l i za t ion . The i s sue fo r Darwin , however ,
w a s h o w t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p r o c e s s o f f u n c t i o n a l s p e c ia l iz a t io n a n d h o w
t o f i t th e o t h e r p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l aw s M i ln e -E d w a r d s h a d a d v a n c e d
( s u c h a s l a w o f d i v e r s it y , t h e l a w o f e c o n o m y ) i n t o a n e x p l a n a t o r y
schem e based on d escen t v ia na tu ra l s e lec t ion .
Th e b io log ica l in s igh t tha t Darwin g o t f r om read ing Mi lne -Edwards '
Zoologie gbnbrale
w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y i m p o r t a n t . I w o u l d su gg est t h a t o f
e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e w a s t h e l ic e n s e D a r w i n o b t a i n e d f r o m i t t o u se t h e
m e t a p h o r o f th e i n d u s tr i a l e c o n o m y a n d i ts d ri vi ng f o r c e - c o m p e t i t i o n
a n d d i vi si on o f l a b o r - i n a b i o lo g i ca l c o n t e x t . T h e f r e e d o m w i t h w h i c h
Mi lne -Edwards was adduc ing indus t r i a l ana log ies ce r ta in ly ma de a
s t ro n g i m p a c t o n D a r w i n . I t a l l o w e d h i m t o a s cr ib e t h e p r in c i p le s o f
t h e p h y s io l o g ic a l d iv is io n o f l a b o r t o a n e m m i n e n t z o o l o g i s t a n d
p h i l o s o p h e r o f b i o l o g y , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m i s t s. T h i s
accords w i th the emphas i s D arwin p laces on M i lne -Edwards in h i s
d i s cus s ion o f d ive rgence o f cha rac te r in Natural Selection and in the
162. Ibid., p. 60.
163. Limoges,
a s~lection naturelle
and Da rwin , Milne-Edwards, et le
principle de divergence.
2 5 6
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 63/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
Origin.
( M o r e t h a n t h a t , t h e z o o l o g ic a l p h i l o s o p h y t h a t M i l n e -E d w a r d s
h a d p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Zoologie gbnbrale was e i t he r super f i c i a l o r t e l eo -
l o g i c a l , a n d D a r w i n w a s q u i c k t o p u n c t u r e h o l e s i n t h o s e a r g u m e n t s
w h i c h w e r e r e a d i ly u n d e r s t o o d i n a n e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n t e x t . ) B u t i n o r d e r
t o s u b s t a n t i a t e m y t h e si s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o l o o k m o r e c l o s e ly a t D a r w i n ' s
k n o w l e d g e o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y b e f o r e 1 8 52 .
D A R W I N A N D P O L I T I C A L EC O N O M Y
B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o n D a r w i n ,
we m us t f i r s t p l ace h im in h is soc i a l, i n t e l l ec tua l , po l i t i ca l , and eco no m ic
m i l ie u . W e k n o w t h a t h e v ~a s b r o u g h t u p i n a W h i g h o m e . H i s f a th e r ,
R o b e r t W a r i n g D a r w i n , w a s a U n i t a r i a n , a n d h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , E r a s m u s
D a r w i n , w a s a d e i s t a n d m a t e r i a l i s t . B o t h l e a n e d t o w a r d a g n o s t i c i s m ,
a n d h a d s t r o n g p r o c l iv i ti e s t o w a r d F r e n c h E n l i g h t m e n t v ie w s o n e d u c a -
t i on and po l i ti c s .
R o b e r t W a r i n g D a r w i n w a s v o l u b l e , v o l u m i n o u s , a n d o u t s p o k e n .
A s E r a s m u s D a r w i n ' s s o n , h e w a s c o n s i d e r e d a h e r e t i c a n d r a d ic a l i n
c o n s e r v a ti v e S h r e w s b u r y , w h e r e t h e f a m i l y l iv e d , m ¢ B u t s i n c e h e h a d
e a r n e d t h e r e s p e c t o f t h e l o c al p o p u l a t i o n b y h is m e d i c a l k n o w l e d g e
a n d h i s a b i l i t y t o e a r n t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e a n d t r u s t , h i s r e l i g i o u s a n d
p o l it i c al v i e w s d i d n o t i m p e d e h i s m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e . H e n e v e r g av e u p
h i s l i be ra l l ean ings , and i n 1823 o r 1824 h i s da ugh te r s , w i th h i s f'manc i a l
s u p p o r t , o p e n e d t h e f i rs t f r e e i n f a n t s c h o o l i n S h r e w s b u r y . T h e
s c h o o l w a s r u n o n t h e l in e o f R o u s s e a u ' s a n d P e s t a l o z z i' s e d u c a t i o n a l
p h i l o s o p h y a n d w a s e q u i p p e d w i t h b l a c k b o a r d s , a r it h m e t ic a l b e a d s
and f ram es , cons ide rab l e nove l t i e s i n t hose days . t6 s
T h e f a m i l y o f C h a r l e s D a r w i n ' s m o t h e r , th e W e d g w o o d s , w e r e c l o s e l y
a s s o c i a te d w i t h l ib e r a l t h o u g h t a n d i n i t ia l ly w e r e v e r y s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h
164. On Erasmus Darwin, see C. Darwin's introduction in Ernst Krause, ed.,
The Life of Erasmus Darwin Together with an Essay on His Scientific Works (New
York: D. Appelton, 188 0); see also Gruber's Essay on a Psychological Study of
Scien tific Crea tivity, in Darwin on Man; R. E. Colp, To Be an Invalid: The Illness
of Charles Darwin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 197 7), chap. 1 ; Desm ond
King-Hale,
Erasmus Darwin
(London: Macmillan, 1963); and Hesketh Pearson,
Doctor Darwin
(London : D ent, 1930). Fo r R ob ert W. Darw in, see Eliza M eteyard,
A Group of Englishmen 1895 to 1915), Being Records of the Younger Wedg-
woods and Their Friends (London: Longm ans, Green, 1871 ); where religious
creeds and political opinions were concerned, Meteyard wrote, the inhabitants
of Shrew sbury were Mike narrow and bigoted to excess (p. 257).
165. M eteyard, A Group ofEnglishmen, p. 265.
2 5 7
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 64/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
the aims of the Fre nch Revolu tion. 1~ The elder Josiah Wedgwood
was a close friend of Erasmus Darwin, of James Watt, and of Joseph
Priestley. He was on e of the few people who assisted Priesfley when he
fell victim to the poli tical upheavals in Birmingham in 1791.167 Two
of Wedgewood's sons, Thomas and Josiah (Uncle Jos), were close
friends of Godwin, Wordsworth, and Coleridge at the time they were
considered radical. Coleridge was offered a lifetime a nn un it y by Wedg-
wood 's sons, 168 and t he youn ger Josiah Wedgwood helped Godw in fi-
nanci ally when he fell on hard times in the first decade of the century.
The young er Josiah Wedgwood was on familiar terms with Henry
Brougham, James Mackintosh, and Sidney Smith, and was deeply
involved in the economic and political transfo~aation that took place
during his lifetime. He was a membe r o f Parliament during the turbule nt
years following Napoleon's downfall and participated in the attempt s to
repeal the Corn laws.
Darw in admired his Uncle Jos great ly 169 and visited his home , Maer,
ofte n while a youth. Sir James Mackintosh, Benth am' s close friend, was
Uncle Jos' brother-in- law and was of ten at Maer. In his Autobiography
Darwin described Mackintosh as the best converser I ever listen ed
to, t7o and recalled with ob vious pride that Mackintosh had said of
166. J. C. Wedgwood, A History of the Wedgwood Family (London: St.
Catherine Press, 1909); E. Meteyard, The
Life of Josiah Wedgwood,
2 vols.
(London, 1865-1866). For a brief introduction to this period, see Gruber and
Barrett,
Darwin on Man,
pp. 17-33; for another excellent study, see J. D. Y. Peel,
Herbert Spencer: The Evolution of a Sociologist (New York: Basic Books, 1971),
esp. chap. 2 on Erasmus Darwin.
167. Anthony Burton, Josiah Wedgwood - A Biography (New York: Stein
and Day, 1976), pp. 213-214.
168. See, e.g., W. J. Bate, Coleridge (New York: Macmillan, 1968), pp. 85-88,
126-127. Apparently, Darwin took a special interest in the group of radicals
who were close to the younger Josiah Wedgwood at the beginning of the century
Godwin, Southey, Wordsworth, Coleridge. Darwin was reading Godwin and
Shelley in 1841 and 1842; and his reading notebook for that period records:
1841 - July 23, Godwin's Answer to Malthus (Shelley says is victorious and
decisive). December 4, Godwin on Population. 1842 -September 26, Shelley's
Letters and Essays.
His liking of the poetry of Wordsworth is well known. In
1848 Darwin commented in his reading notebook: Cottle's Recollection of
Coleridge & Southey (very good).
169. Darwin, Autobiography, LLD, pp. 38-39: I was also attached to and
greatly revered my uncle Jos; he has silent and reserved . . . but he sometimes
talked openly with me. He was the very type of an upright man, with the clearest
judgment. I do not believe that any power on earth could have made him swerve
an inch from what he considered the right course.
170. Ibid., p. 38.
258
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 65/95
Darwin and the Political Economists
him, There is something in that young man that interests me, after
Mackintosh had met him at Maer in 1827. This, Darwin added,
must have been chiefly due to his perceiving that I listened with much
interest to everything he said, for I was as ignorant as a pig about his
subjects of history, politics and moral philosophy. '171 Mackintosh's
influence on Darwin was great. In 1839 Darwin carefully studied
Mackintosh's D i s s e r ta t i o n o n t h e P r o g re s s o f E t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y a n d
while at Maer during the summer of 1840 he r e r e a d Mackintosh's
M e m o i r s . In January 1846 he read Mackintosh's L i f e o f M o r e a n d i n
July of that year he was reading Mackintosh's Misc. Works 3 vol. 172
After his return from the B e a g l e voyage, as an outstanding member
of the British scientific elite and of the English upper class, Darwin was
thoroughly acquainted not only with the developments in all scientific
fields but also with the political and economic issues that were then
being debated in Great Britain. Discussion of the important historical,
literary, and philosophic works of the day were usual at the dinner
parties he attended when he lived in London from 1837 to 1841.
Darwin kept abreast of all intellectual advances by voraciously and
assiduously reading not only the British and Continental scientific
journals, but also influential periodicals such as the E d i nb u r gh R e v i e w
t h e Q u a r te r ly R e v i e w and the A t h e n a e u m . As G. M Young has noted,
these were the organs writ ten by and for the articulate classes, whose
writing and conversations make opinion. 173 Darwin was an enthusiastic
member of the exclusive Athenaeum Club, to which belonged the most
influential members of British society. 17a
171. Ibid.
172. Vorzimmer, The Darwin Reading Notebooks, pp. 125, 134, 136.
James Mackintosh, Disser ta t ion on the Progress o f Ethical Phi losop hy Chie f ly
dur ing the Seven teen th and Eigh teen th Cen tury 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: Black,
1836); R. J. Mackintosh, ed.,
M e m o i r s o f t h e L i f e o f S i r J a m e s M a c k i n t o sh 2
vols. (London: E. Maxon, 1835); R. J. Mackintosh, ed., TheMiscellaneous Works
o f S i r J a m e s M a c k i n t o s h 3 vols. (London: Longman, Brown, 1846). James
Mackintosh's
His tory o f England from Ear lies t Time s to the Year 1588
(Lardner's
Cabinet Encyclopedia 1830) may have been aboard the Beagle. Fitz Roy and
Darwin quote from it in The Moral State of Tahiti, South Afr ican Chr is t ian
Recorder 2
(1836), 221-238. See Barrett, ed.
Colleeted P apers o f C harles D arw in
I, 19-38. See also E. Manier, The You ng Darwin an dH is Cultural Circle (Dordreeht:
D. Reidel, 1978).
173. G. M. Young, Vic tor ian England: Por trai t o f an Age (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1953), p. 6.
174. Francis Gled Stanes Waugh,M e m b e r s o f th e A t h e n a e u m C lu b 1 8 2 4 t o
1 8 8 7 (privately printed).
259
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 66/95
SILVAN S. SCHW EBER
I n h i s p e r s o n a l w r i ti n g s L y e l l d e s c r ib e s t h e a t m o s p h e r e a t t h e A t h e -
n a e u m : T h e A t h e n a e u m w a s v e r y e n t e rt a in i n g l as t n i g h t, s o m a n y
m e m b e r s o f t h e h o n o u r a b l e H o u s e c o m i n g t h e r e, af te r t h e n e w R e f o r m
b i ll w a s m o v e d , a n d g i v i n g t h e i r o p i n i o n s p r o a n d c o n .' 17s O n a n o t h e r
o c c a s io n L y e ll w r o t e , F o u n d t h e t a b le o f A t h e n a e u m th i s e v e n in g
c o v e r e d w i t h n e w b o o k s - i n th i s r e s p e c t a c l u b i s a r ea l e c o n o m y -
W h a t e l y ' s n e w le c t u r e s o n P o li ti a l E c o n o m y . 176 D a r w i n w a s f u l l
o f a d m i r a t io n a t t h e A t h e n a e u m , ''1 7 7 a n d i n 1 8 3 8 , L y e U w r o t e t o
D a r w i n :
I a m v e r y g l ad t o h e a r t h a t y o u l ik e t h e A t h e n a e u m . I u s e t o m a k e
o n e m i s t a k e w h e n f i rs t I w e n t t h e r e . W h e n a n x i o u s t o p u s h o n w i t h
m y b o o k , a f te r a ' t w o h o u r s ' s pie l, I w e n t t h e re b y w a y o f a l o u n g e ,
a n d i n s te a d o f t h a t , w o r k e d m y h e a d v e r y h a r d , b e in g e x a l te d b y
m e e t i n g w i t h c le v er p e o p le , w h o w o u l d o f t e n t a lk t o m e , v e r y m u c h
t o m y p r o f i t o n t h e v e r y s u b j e c t o n w h i c h I w a s w r i ti n g . 178
T h e d e s c ri p ti o n t h a t L y e U g av e o f P o u l e t t S c r o p e , a m e m b e r o f t h e
A t h e n a e u m a n d a p r o f e ss o r o f g e o l o g y a t O x f o r d w h o l a te r b e c a m e
a n e m i n e n t p o l it ic a l e c o n o m i s t w o u l d a p p l y e q u a l l y w e ll t o all t h e
m e m b e r s o f D a r w i n ' s c u l t u r a l c ir c le : S c r o p e . . . h a s a m o s t a c ti v e
i n t e l le c t u a l m i n d - a li ve t o e v e r y t h i n g , p o l i t ic s , p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y ,
H u m e , B e r k e l e y a n d R e i d ' s m e t a p h y s i c s , g e o l o g y , I r v in g , t h e R o w e i t e s ,
a n d p r o g r e s s o f f a n a t i c i s m . 179 T h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n c e r t a i n l y a p p li e s
t o L y e l l , W h e w e U , B a b b a g e , H e n s l o w , S e d g w i c k , J o h n H e r s ch e l , h i s
b r o t h e r E r a s m u s , h i s c o u s i n H e n s le i g h W e d g w o o d , C a r l y le , H a r r i e t
M a r t i n e a u , a n d , l a t e r , H o o k e r .
D a r w in w a s als o a fe ll o w o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y , a n d in a d d i t io n
f r o m 1 8 3 8 t o 1 8 4 1 h e w a s s e c r e t a r y o f th e G e o l o g ic a l S o c i e t y . A t t h e
e x e c u t i v e m e e t i n g s o f t h e G e o l o g i ca l S o c i e t y , h e c a m e i n t o r e gu l ar
c o n t a c t w i t h W h e w e l l , L y e l l , B a b b a g e , d e l a B e c h e , a n d o t h e r s w h o s e
i n t e r e s t a n d i n f l u e n c e e x t e n d e d t o a l l t h e i m p o r t a n t s c i e n t if i c s o c i e ti e s :
t h e R o y a l , t h e S t a ti s ti c a l, t h e A s t r o n o m i c a l . T h e f r u it s o f D a r w i n ' s
z o o l o g i c a l a n d b o t a n i c a l w o r k a b o a r d t h e B e a g l e h a d b r o u g h t h i m i n t o
175.
L i f e o f L y e l l ,
I, 356.
176. Ibid., p. 322.
177. Ibid., p. 264.
178. Ibid., p. 44.
179. Ibid., p. 356. In this conn ection see also M. Rudw ick, Po ulett Scrope
on the Volcanoes of Auvergne: Lyell ian Time and Poli t ical Economy, Brit. J.
Hist. Sci., 7 (1974), 205-242.
2 6 0
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 67/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i s t s
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l e a d i n g B r i ti sh z o o l o g i s t s a n d b o t a n i s t s , a s w e l l as w i t h
t h e s c i e n ti f ic i n s t i t u t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e d i sc i p li n e s.
D u r i n g t h e 1 8 4 0 s , a l t h o u g h o f t e n i n c a p a c i t a t e d , D a r w i n fr e q u e n t l y
a t t e n d e d s c i e n t i f i c m e e t i n g s i n L o n d o n , a n d s t a y e d e i t h e r w i t h h i s
b r o t h e r E r a s m u s o r a t t h e A t h e n a e u m . H e al so w e n t t o s ev e ra l o f t h e
B A A S m e e t i n g s a n d w a s a v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e B A A S i n 1 8 49 .1 8 ° A t
t h e s e m e e t i n g s h e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s c i e n t i f i c a r i s t o c r a c y : H e r s c h e l ,
L y e l l , W h e w e l l , S y k e s , B a b b a g e , F i t t o n , S a b i n e , S t r ic k l a n d , P o r t e r -
m e n w h o w e r e i n f l u e n t ia l i n m a k i n g s c ie n ti fi c p o l i c y , a n d c e r t a in l y
i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e p o l i t ic a l a n d e c o n o m i c i ss u e s o f t h e d a y . 181
I t is n o a c c i d e n t t h a t w h e n S e d g w i c k , t h e d e a n o f B r i ti sh g e o l o g is ts ,
w a s u n a b l e t o a c c e p t t h e j o b o f w r i ti n g t h e g e o l o g ic a l s e c t i o n o f t h e
A d m i r a l t y ' s M a n u a l o f S c ie n tT f ic I n q u i r y , 182 J ohn H e r s c he l , i t s e d i t o r ,
t u r n e d , a t S e d g w i c k ' s s u g g e s t io n , t o D a r w i n f o r t h e t a s k . 183 T h e m a n u a l
is a f a s c i n a ti n g d o c u m e n t , a n d o n e o f i ts m o s t s t r i k in g f e a t u r e s is t h e
l i s t o f i t s c o n t r i b u t o r s : H e r s c h e l , A i r y , S a b i n e , W h e w e l l , D a r w i n , O w e n ,
H o o k e r , P r i c h a r d , P o r t e r , d e l a B e c h e - t h e m o s t ac t iv e , r e s p e c t e d , a n d
i n f l u e n t i a l E n g l i s h sc i e n t is t s o f t h e d a y .
D a r w i n ' s l i b e r a l - W h i g v i e w s a r e w e l l k n o w n . I n d e e d , h i s d i f f e r e n c e s
w i t h C a p t a i n F i t z R o y ' s T o r y v i e w s o f s la v e ry n e a r l y c o s t h i m h i s p l a c e
o n t h e B e a g l e . D a r w i n ' s v ie w s o n s l av e r y w e r e c o n s t a n t ) a4 A f t e r h e h a d
r e a d L y e l l ' s T r a ve l i n N o r t h A m e r i c a i n 1 8 4 5 , D a r w i n w r o t e L y e l l ,
Y o u r s la ve d i s c us s io n d i s tu r b e d m e m u c h ; b u t a s y o u w o u l d c a re n o
m o r e f o r m y o p i n i o n o n t h is h e a d I w i ll s a y n o t h i n g e x c e p t t h a t i t g av e
m e s o m e s le e pl es s, m o s t u n c o m f o r t a b l e h o u r s . 1as I n 1 8 4 5 , w h e n t h e
180. See Gavin de Bee r, ed., Darw in's
Journal, Bull. Brit. M us. (Nat. H ist.) ,
Hist . Set . , 2, no. 1 (1959), for a record of Darwin's at tendance at the various
BA AS m eetings.
181. See, e.g. , the let ter Darwin wro te fro m the 1849 Birmingham meeting
of the BAAS, L L D , I , 346-347.
182. John Herschel,
A Manual o f ScientTfic Inqu iry
(London: Jo hn Murray ,
1849).
183. J. W. Clark and T. M. Hughes,
L i f e a n d L e t t e r s o f t h e R e v e r e n d A d a m
S e d g w i c k
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1890), vol. I.
184. R. E. Colp, Charles D arwin: Slavery and the Am erican Civil W ar,
Harvard Lib. B ull. , 2 6,
no. 4 (1978), 471-489.
185.
L L D ,
I, 309-31 0. See also Darwin's imp assioned statement in the 2nd
edi t ion o f his Journal o f Researches, II , 302-304. Darwin's view o f the A merican
Civil W ar is recorded in Dupree,
Asa Gray .
By the end o f the conflict, Darwin was
the only Brit ish scientist to whom Gray could write about his antislavery views.
See also Colp, Charles Darw in: Slavery and the American Civil W ar, pp. 47 1-
489.
2 6 1
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 68/95
SILVANS. SCHWEBER
potato disease was coupled with a dismal corn harvest, Darwin followed
Henslow's suggestion that gentlefolk not buy potatoes. In the letter to
Henslow in which he approved of the latter's stand on this issue, Darwin
also noted that those infamous corn laws [would] be swept away if
one of u s . . . had to pay an additional 50 or 100£ for our bread. 186
Given Darwin's standing in the scientific community and his social
class, it is almost certain that he was familiar with the writings of
the major political economists of the day. Here I will consider at
length only Darwin's acquaintance with Benthamite-like statements of
Utilitarianism and his familiarity with the principle of division o f labor,
discussing much more briefly individualism, competition, and related
matters. I will furthermore limit myself to those sources for which
conclusive proof exists that Darwin read them, even though I believe
that sound, but more sweeping, inferences can be drawn from Darwin's
social standing and scientific status.
Mackintosh and Darwin's Uncle Jos had probably influenced Darwin
to be favorably disposed toward Utilitarianism as a philosophical
system and toward its deductive mode o f reasoning in addressing moral
and political issues. His father was Utilitarian in outlook and in practice.
These tendencies were certainly reinforced while Darwin an under-
graduate at Cambridge. For example, a knowledge of Paley's E v i d e n c e s
a n d M o r a l a n d P o l it ic a l E c o n o m y was required for passing the B.A.
examination, is7 Darwin said that his study of Paley was done in a
thorough manner and that the logic of these books and
o f h i s N a t u ra l
T h e o l o g y gave him as much delight as did Euclid. He added
The careful study of these works . . . was the only part o f the
academical course which, as I then felt, and as I still believe, was the
least use to me in the education of my mind. I did not at that time
trouble myself about Paley's premises; and taking these on trust,
I was charmed and convinced by the long line of argumentation, lss
186. Barlow, ed., Darwin andHens low , pp. 156-157.
187. Not until the early 1830s did Paley and his Utilitarianism fall into
disrepute among the clerics at Cambridge. See, e.g., the sharp attack on Paley in
Adam Sedgwick,
A Discourse on the S tudies o f the Universi ty
(Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1833). J. S. Mill's rebuttal is reprinted is Dissertations
and Discussions
(Boston: W. V. Spencer, 1864), pp. 121-185.
188. Darwin , Au tob iography , LLD, pp. 40-41. In 1859, writing to John
Lubbock, Darwin noted: I do not think I hardly ever admired a book more than
Paley's
Natural Theology.
I could almost formally have said it by heart
L L D ,
II,
219).
262
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 69/95
Darw in and the Po l i ti ca l Eco nom is t s
In C h a p t e r X I o f h is
M o r a l a n d P o l it ic a l E c o n o m y
Paley is succ inc t and
t o t h e p o i n t :
The f ina l v i ew o f a ll ra t iona l po l it i c s i s , t o p rom ote the g rea t es t
q u a n t i t y o f h a p pi ne s s i n a g iv en t r a c t o f c o u n t r y . . .
S e c o n d l y : A l t h o u g h w e sp e a k o f c o m m u n i t ie s a s o f s e n t i e n t
be ings ; a l thou gh w e asc ribe to the m happ iness and mise ry , desi res ,
in t e res t s and pass ions ; no th ing rea l ly ex i s t s o r fee l s bu t
i n d i v i d u a l s
[Pa ley 's i ta l i c s ] . T he happ iness o f a peo p le is m ade up o f t he happ i-
n e s s o f s in gle p e r so n s ; a n d t h e q u a n t i t y o f h a p p in e s s c a n o n l y b e
a u ~n e n t e d b y i n cre as in g t h e n u m b e r o f p e rc i p ie n t s, o r t h e p l ea su re
o f the i r pe rcep t ions .
Th i rd l y : N o t w i t h s ta n d i n g t h a t d i v er s it y o f c o n d i t io n , esp e c ia ll y
d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s o f p l e n t y , f r e e d o m , a n d s e c u r i ty , g r e a t ly v a ry th e
q u a n t i t y o f h a p p i n e ss e n j o y e d b y t h e s am e n u m b e r o f i n di v id u a ls
• . . y e t i t m a y b e a f fh a n e d , I th i n k , w i t h c e r ta i n t y t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y
o f happ iness p ro duc ed in any g iven d is t r ic t s o f a r d e p e n d s u p o n
t h e n u m b e r o f i n h a b i t a n ts t h a t , i n c o m p a r i n g a d j o in i n g p e r io d s i n
the same coun t ry , t he co l l ec t ive happ iness wi l l be nea r ly in exac t
p r o po r ti on o f th e n u m b e r s . . .
F ro m t h e se p r in c ip l es i t f o l lo w s , t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y o f h a p p i n es s
i n a g iv en d i s t r i c t . . , is c h ie f ly a n d m o s t n a tu r a l ly a f f e ct e d b y t h e
a l t e ra t i o n o f t h e n u m b e r s : t h a t , c o n se q u e n t l y t h e d e c a y o f p o p u la -
t ion is t he g rea t es t evil t ha t a s t a t e can su f fe r ; and the imp rovem ent
o f i t . . . t o b e a i m e d a t in p re f e r e n c e t o e v e ry o t h e r p o l it ic a l p u rp o se
w ha tso ev er. 189
S i nc e m a x i m u m h a p p i n e s s in a g iv en c o u n t ry fo l lo w s f ro m m a x i m u m
p o p u l a t i o n p e r u n i t a r e a, a n d sin ce i n t h e f e c u n d i t y o f t h e h u m a n , a s
o f eve ry o the r species o f an imal , na tu re has p rov ided fo r an indef 'mi t e
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . . , i n c o u n t ri e s , a n d u n d e r c i rc u m s t a n c e s v e ry fa v o u rab l e
to subs i s tence , t he po pu la t ion has been doub led every twen ty - f ive
yea rs , ~9o Pa ley inqu i res in to the checks p reven t ing m ax im um popu la -
t ion and p roceeds to g ive the M al thus ian ana lys is . F r om h i s p remises
regard ing happ iness a nd p opu la t ion , Pa ley p roceeds to deduce h i s
p o s i ti o n s o n t h e p ro d u c t i o n a n d d i s t ri b u t io n o f w e a l t h , e m p l o y m e n t ,
t rade - t he a reas o f conc ern to po l it i ca l eco no m y. Those po li c ies w h ich
189. The
Works o f Wil liam Paley Moral and Poli tical Phi loso phy
pp. 149-
150.
190. Ibid ., p. 150.
263
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 70/95
SILVA N S. SCHWEBER
i n c re a s e p o p u l a t i o n a r e v i e w e d f a v o r a b l y , a n d c o n v e r s e l y ; f o r e x a m p l e ,
c o l o n i z a ti o n t e n d s t o a u g m e n t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e p a r e n t s t a te a n d is
t h u s t o b e e n c o u r a g e d , p a r ti c u la r l y w h e r e t h e p a r e n t c o u n t r y w o r k s
up goo ds wh i l e t he co lon i es cu l t iva t e ne w t r ac t s o f l ands . ~91 In al l,
P a l e y ' s M o r a l a n d P o l i ti c a l P h i l o s o p h y i s a p a r a d i g m f o r t h e d e d u c t i v e
U t i li ta r i a n a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f m o r a l s , t h e o l o g y , a n d la w .
H a p p i n e s s i s d e f' m e d a s t h e e x c e s s o f a s u m o f p l e a s u r e s o v e r a s u m o f
pains .
T h e p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e c o u l d n o t b e t a k e n b y D a r w i n a s a f u n d a -
m e n t a l
b i o l o g i c a l
p r i n c ip l e t o e x p l a i n t h e m o r a l o r d e r , b e c a u s e t h o u g h
i t i s pos s ib ly a neces sa ry cond i t i on , i t i s no t a su f f i c i en t one . Bu t s i nce
t h e q u a n t i t y o f h u m a n h a p p i n e s s is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e s iz e o f th e
p o p u l a t i o n , ~ e p r in c ip l e o f m a x i m u m p o p u l a t i o n p e r s q ua r e a r e a
c o u l d b e t a k e n ( a n d i n f a c t w o u l d d o m u c h b e t t e r ) as t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
p r i nc ip l e under ly ing a b io log i ca l bas i s fo r t he o rde r found i n t he l i v ing
w o r l d , in c l u d in g t h e s o c ia l a n d m o r a l o r d e r .
D a r w i n ' s e x t e n s iv e r e ad i n g d u r in g t h e 1 8 3 8 - 1 8 4 0 p e r i o d b r o u g h t h i m
in co n t a c t w i th Ut i l i t a r ian t r ac t s o n m ora l and po l i t i ca l ph i l o so phy . 192
I t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d th a t a t t h a t t i m e m o r a l a n d p ol it ic a l e c o n o m y
w e r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e s u b je c t . A l t h o u g h h i s c o n c e r n d u r i n g th a t p e r i o d
w a s p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e
e v o l u t i o n
of t he m ora l sense , t hese r ead ings d id
a c q u a in t h im m o r e i n t im a t e l y w i t h t h e B e n t h a m i te a t t e m p t s t o
f o u n d a s o c ia l sc i en c e o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e e x a c t s c ie n c e s, t h e s c ie n c e
o f m e a s u r e m e n t , g e o m e t r y a n d m e c h a n i c s ; b u t . . . t h e eg o is ti ca l
p l e a s u re s a n d p a i n s w h i c h c o n c e r n t h e w e l l b e i n g o f o u r i n d i v id u a l i ty ,
a r e t h e o n l y o n e s w h i c h a d m i t o f o b j e c t i v e e q u i v a le n t s , a r e t h e o n l y
o n e s w h i c h c a n b e m e a s u r e d . M o r e o ve r , t h e B e n t h a m i t e s , m o r e o r
l e s s c o n s c i o u s l y , c o n c e i v e d o f e v e r y s c i e n c e a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n b y
r e d u c t i o n , b y d e c o m p o s i t i o n i n t o s i m p l e e l e m e n t s . W h e r e t h e n ,
e x c e p t i n i n di v id u a ls , w h o a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e e g o i s t ic m o t i v e ,
w e r e t h e j u r is t a n d e c o n o m i s t t o f r e d t h e s i m p l e e l e m e n t s w h i c h
we re ne ces sa ry fo r t he o rgan i za t i on o f t he i r knowledge.~93
P a l ey i n h i s M o r a l a n d P o l it ic a l P h i l o s o p h y h a d r e f l e c t e d A d a m
S m i t h 's v i e w o f t h e b e s t u s e t o b e m a d e o f t h e n a t u r a l w e a l th a n d o f
191. Ibid., p. 156.
192. See for exam ples the N an d the M notebooks, transcribed in Gruber and
Barrett, Darwin on Man. See also E. Manier, The You ng Darwin a nd His Cul tural
Orc le (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1978).
193. Hal~vy , The Growth o f Philosophical Radicalism p. 467.
2 6 4
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 71/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i s t s
t h e m e a n s n e c e s sa r y t o p r o d u c e t h e m a x i m u m o f h a p p i n e ss , i n s o
f a r a s t hi s m o r e g e n er al e n d is p r o m o t e d b y t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e
m a x i m u m o f w e a lt h a n d t h e m a x i m u m o f p o p ula tio n . 1 9 4 W e c a n
l e g i t i m a t e l y i n f e r t h a t D a r w i n r e a d S m i t h ' s W e a lt h o f N a t i o n s a t s o m e
s ta g e o f h i s s tu d i e s a t E d i n b u r g h , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o r e c o r d o f i t. T h a t
h e s t u d ie d D u g a l d S t e w a r t ' s L i f e o f A d a m S m i t h is n o t e d i n t h e
M a n d N n o t e b o o k s . T h e s e n o t e b o o k s a ls o r e c o r d D a r w i n ' s r e ad i n g
o f S m i t h ' s
E s s a y s o n P h i l o s o p h i c a l S u b j e c t s a n d h i s T h e o r y o f M o r a l
S e n t i m e n t s . 19s D a r w i n ' s R e a d i n g N o t e b o o k s i n d i c a t e t h a t o n J a n u a r y
1 5 , 1 8 4 2 , h e o n c e a g ai n s k i m m e d p a r t s o f S m i t h 's
M o r a l S e n t i m e n t s .
T h e r e i s h o w e v e r , o n e p i e c e o f c ir c u m s t a n t i a l e v id e n c e . O n l y A d a m
S m i t h s p e a k s o f d i v e rg e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r . I n T h e W e a lt h o f N a t i o n s h e
s a y s t h a t t h e d i f f er e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m o s t d i ss im i la r c h a r a c t e r s,
b e t w e e n a p h i l o s o p h e r a n d a c o m m o n s tr e e t p o r t e r f o r e x a m p l e , is n o t
s o m u c h t h e c a u s e a s t h e e f f e c t o f t h e d i v is io n o f la b o u r . 196 S m i t h ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h H u m e - w h o m D a r w in h a d re a d i n 1 8 3 9 - c o n s i d e re d
e a c h h u m a n b e i n g a s b e in g a t b i rt h a l m o s t e x a c t l y th e s a m e in c a p a c i t y
a s e v e r y o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g : i t is d i v is io n o f l a b o r t h a t a lt e rs c h a r a c t e r ,
n o t c h a r a c t e r t h a t d e t e r m i n e s a m a n ' s s e l e ct io n o f h i s p a r t i c u la r t a sk
i n t he d i v i s i on .
T h e r e a re t w o s o u rc e s f r o m w h i c h D a r w i n h a d d e f in i te l y b e c o m e
f a m i li a r w i t h S m i t h ' s d o c t r i n e o f t h e d i v is io n o f l a b o r , M c C u l i o c h ' s
P o l i ti ca l E c o n o m y a n d t h e w r i t in g s o f h i s w i f e ' s U n c l e S i s m o n d i - J e a n
C h a r le s L e o n a r d S i m o n S i s m o n d i , t h e e m i n e n t S w i ss p o l i ti c a l e c o n -
o m i s t. D a r w i n ' s re a d in g n o t e b o o k s i n d i c a te t h a t h e r e a d M c C u l lo c h ' s
P r in c ip l es o f P o l it ic a l E c o n o m y i n M a y 1 8 4 0 . 1 9 7
D a r w i n m u s t h a v e f o u n d M c C u l l o c h 's b o o k c o n g e n ia l , f o r i t t r e a te d
t h e s u b j e c t f r o m a h i st o r ic a l a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y p o i n t o f vi ew . P o li ti c al
e c o n o m y , M c C u l l o c h s ai d, r e a ll y a d m i t s o f as m u c h c e r t a i n ty i n i ts
194. The Works o f Wil liam Paley pp. 149 f.
195. Fo r Stewart 's Life o f Ad am Sm ith, see Stewart's edi t ion of Sm ith 's
Essays on Philosophic Subjects (Lo ndo n: T. CadeU and W. Davis , 1795); Sm ith 's
Theory o f Moral Sen t imen t s
was published in 1759 (Edinburgh, A. Millar).
196. Adam Smith, The Weal th o f Na t ions (New York: Modern Library,
1937), chap. 2.
197. J. R. McCulloch, The
Pr inc ip le s o f Po li ti ca l Eco nom y w i th a Ske tch o f
the R i s e and Progres s o f the Sc ience 2nd edi t ion (London: Longman's , 1830) .
The reading notebook indicates that Darwin also read Mandevil le 's
F a b l e o f t h e
Bees in May 18 40 and abstracted i t. F or a recen t assessment of McC ulloch,
see D. P. O'Brien, J . R. McCul loch: A S tu dy in Class ical Eco nom ics ( L ondon :
George Allen & Unw in, 1970). See also Louis D um on t, From M andevi lle to M arx
(Chicago: University o f Chicago Press, 197 7 ).
2 6 5
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 72/95
SILVA N S. SCHWEBER
c o n c l u s i o n a s a n y s c i e n c e f o u n d e d
o n f a c t a n d e x p e r i m e n t
c a n p o s s i b ly
do . 198 Bu t he s t r e s sed t ha t t he re i s how ev er a m a t e r i a l d i s t i nc t i on
b e t w e e n t h e p h y s i c a l a n d m o r a l a n d p o l i ti c a l s c ie n c e s. T h e c o n c l u s i o n s
o f t h e f o r m e r a p p l y i n e v e r y c a s e , w h i le t h o s e o f t h e l a t t e r a p p l y o n l y
in the ma jor i t y o f c a s e s . 199 I n o t h e r w o r d s , p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y h a s
o n l y s ta t is t ic a l c e r t a i n t y , b e c a u s e t h e p r i n c ip l e s o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y
e x e r t a p o w e r f u l , b u t n o t a l w a y s t h e same , d e g r e e o f i n f l u e n c e , o v e r
t h e c o n d u c t o f e v e r y i n d i v id u a l . M c C u l lo c h d e f in e s t h e o b j e c t o f
p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y in w h a t w a s b y t h e n t h e c a n o n i c a l f a s h io n :
t o p o i n t o u t t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h th e i n d u s tr y o f m a n m a y b e
r e n d e r e d m o s t p r o d u c t iv e . . . o f w e a l t h ; t o a s ce r ta i n t h e c i rc u m -
s t a n c e s m o s t f a v o u r a b l e f o r i t s a c c u m u l a t i o n ; t h e p r o p o r t i o n s i n
w h i c h i t i s d i v id e d a m o n g t h e d i f f e r e n t c l as se s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ;
a n d t h e m o d e i n w h i c h i t m a y b e m o s t a d v a n t a g e o u sl y c o n s u m e d .
T h e B e n t h a m i t e o p t i m a l p r i n c i p le f o r m u l a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c d o c t ri n e
i s c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f t h e b o o k : a c a p i ta l i st e m p l o y s h is s t o c k s o a s t o
y i e l d t h e
h ighes t
r a t e o f p ro f i t ; a w ork er spec i a li zes h i s sk il ls t o m ax i -
m i z e t h e e f f i c a c y o f h i s p o w e r s a n d t h u s h i s p r o f i t s , a n d s o o n .
M c C u U o c h ' s P r in c ip le o f P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y c o n t a i n e d a lo n g e x p o s i -
t io n o f t h e d i vi si o n o f e m p l o y m e n t a m o n g i n di v id u a ls . M c C u l lo c h
i n t r o d u c e d t h e p r i n c i p l e f i r s t f r o m a h i s t o r i c a l a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y p o i n t
o f v i ew , a n d t h e n f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i ew o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f th e f re e
m a r k e t . E a c h i n d iv i d u a l se r ve s h i s o w n i n t e r e s t b e s t b y d e v o t i n g h i m s e l f
t o a n o c c u p a t i o n th a t m a x i m i z e s t h e e ff i c a c y o f h is p o w e r s , a n d th u s
h i s g a in s . A d a m S m i t h ' s c l as si c th e s is w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f
t he d iv is i on o f l abo r - (1 ) t h a t i t inc reases t he sk i ll and d ex t e r i t y o f t he
w o r k m e n ; ( 2 ) t h a t i t s a v e s t i m e ; a n d (3 ) t h a t i t fa c i li ta t e s t h e i n v e n t i o n
o f m a c h i n e s a n d p r o c e s se s f o r a b r id g i n g a n d sa v in g l a b o r - i s e x p o u n d e d
a t l e n g t h . M c C u l l o c h t h e n p r o c e e d s , a g a i n f o l l o w i n g A d a m S m i t h , t o
o b s e r v e t h a t t h e a d v a n t a g e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e d iv i si on o f l a b o r c a n
o n l y b e c a r r i e d t o t h e f t f u l l e x t e n t w h e r e t h e r e i s a g r e a t p o w e r o f
e x c h a n g i n g , o f a n e x t e n s i v e m a r k e t ; a n d i n f a c t t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s a r e
d e p e n d e n t u p o n a n d re g u la te d b y , t h e e x t e n t o f th e m a r k e t .
Of pa r t i cu l a r i n t e res t i s McCul loch ' s d i s cus s ion o f t he t e r r i t o r i a l
d iv is i on o f l abo r :
Bes ides enab l i ng each i nd iv idua l i n a l im i t ed soc i e ty t o con f ine
198. McCulloch,Principles o f Political Econ omy , p. 15.
199. Ibid., p. 16.
2 6 6
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 73/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i s t s
h i m s e l f t o s o m e o n e e m p l o y m e n t , t h er e is a n o t h e r a n d m o s t im -
p o r t a n t b r a n c h o f t h e d i vi si on o f l a b o u r , w h i c h n o t o n l y e n a b le s
p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v id u a l s , b u t t h e i n h a b i t a n t o f e n t i r e d i s t ri c t s , a n d e v e n
n a t i o n s , t o a d d i c t t h e m s e lv e s , i n p r e f e r e n c e , t o c e r t a in b r a n c h e s o f
i n d u s t r y . I t i s o n t h i s territorial division of labour, a s i t h a s b e e n
a p p r o p r i a t e l y t e r m e d b y C o l o n e l T o r re n s , th a t t h e c o m m e r c e c a r ri e d
o n b e t w e e n d i f fe r e n t d i s tr ic ts o f th e s a m e c o u n t r y a n d b e tw e e n
d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , i s f o u n d e d . T h e v a r i o u s s o i l s , c l i m a t e s a n d
c a p a c i ti e s o f p r o d u c t i o n , p o s s e s se d b y d i f f e r e n t p r o v i n c e s o f a n
e x t e n s iv e c o u n t r y , f it t h e m f o r b e in g a p p r o p r i a t e d , i n p r e f e r e n c e to
c e r t a in s p ec ie s o f i n d u s t r y . ' ' 2 ° °
M c C u l l o c h , a f t e r d i s c u ss i n g t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s t e r r i t o r ia l d i v i s io n o f
l a b o r , a n d t h e c o m m e r c e t h a t c a n r e s u lt t h e r e f r o m , s t re s s ed t h e i m p o r -
t a n c e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a s e p a r te m e r c a n t i le c la ss t h a t i s r e s p o n s ib l e
f o r t h e p r o m o t i o n o f c o m m e r c e . ( I t is t h e y in f a ct w h o giv e a n u n -
i n te r r u p te d m o t i o n t o t h e p l o u g h a n d th e l o o m . ) F u r th e r m o r e , a n y
e a sy m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n d i f fe r e n t p a r ts o f a c o u n t r y
c o n t r i b u t e s p o w e r f u l l y t o f a c i li ta t e c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d is
i n t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e b e n e f i c i a l. F o r a d ec r e a se i n t h e e x p e n s e o f
c o n v e y a n c e h a s t h e s a m e e f f e c t o n p r i c e s a s a d e c r e a s e i n t h e e x p e n s e
o f p r o d u c t i o n . I n f a c t , it h a s a g re a t e f f e c t , b e c a u s e i n c re a s in g c o m m u -
n i c a t i o n w i ll s er ve m a n y d i f f e r e n t e n te r p r is e s a n d h e l p c e m e n t t h e
c o u n t r y t o g e t h e r b y e x c i ti n g a s p ir it o f e m u l a t io n a n d c o m p e t i t i o n
a m o n g s t t h e c i ti z e n s o f t h e r e m o t e s t d i st r ic t s a n d t h u s w i ll i m p a r t
n e w l i fe a n d v i g o u r t o s o c i e t y .
D a r w i n w a s d e a r l y c o n v i n c e d o f th i s a rg u m e n t , f o r h e i n v e st e d
h e a v i l y ( a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y ) i n r a i l r o a d s a n d c a n a l s .
T
T h e r e i s o n e
200. Ibid. , p. 137.
201. A. Keith, Darwin Revalued (L on do n: W atts, 1955), particularly chap. 18.
O f course oth er Englishmen did l ikewise with ou t having read McC ulloch. The point
is that McC ulloch reflected a viewpoint th at the elder and the y oun ger W edgwood
had acted upon earl ier in the century. See, e.g. , the Correspondence o f Josiah
Wedgwood, 1781-1794 with an appendix containing some letters on canals and
Bentley s pamphlet on island navigation, (Manchester: E. J. Molten, 1906). See
also G. R. Porter, The Progress o f the Nation, in Its Various Social and Economical
Relations
(Lo nd on : Charles Knight, 1838), sections III and V I in particular, fr om
which th e following is taken : The re is no t an y circumstance con nected with the
internal con dit ion o f England which more strongly excites the admiration and the
envy of fore igners than the degree of perfect ion to which we have brought our
means o f internal comm unication. Th e skill and labour that have bee n applied to
this object are amo ng the chief cause s of that high degree of activity which
characterizes an d pervades the productive classes in every part o f the co un try .
2 6 7
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 74/95
SILVA N S. SCHWEBER
f u r t h e r p o i n t t o b e s t re s s e d w i t h re s p e c t t o M c C u U o c h 's b o o k . T h e
w o r k w a s i m b u e d w i t h t h e s p i ri t o f in d i v id u a l is m 2 °2 t h a t w a s c h a r a c-
t e r i s t i c o f B r i t i s h p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i c t h o u g h t f r o m A d a m S m i t h u p t o
the 1830s :
e v e r y i n d iv i d u a l is c o n s t a n t l y e x e r t i n g h i m s e l f to f i n d o u t t h e m o s t
a d v a n t a g e o u s m e t h o d s o f e m p l o y i n g h i s c a p i t a l a n d l a b o r . I t is t r u e ,
t h a t i t i s h i s o w n a d v a n t a g e , a n d n o t t h a t o f t h e s o c i e t y , w h i c h h e
h a s i n v i e w ; b u t a s o c i e t y b e i n g n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a c o l l e c t i o n
o f i nd iv idua l s , i t i s p l a in t h a t each , i n s tead i l y pu rsu ing h i s ow n
a g g r a n d i s e m e n t , i s f o l l o w i n g t h a t p r e c i s e l i n e o f c o n d u c t w h i c h i s
m o s t f o r t h e p u b l i c a d v a n t a g e . 2 °3
I t i s t h i s i nex t i ngu i shab l e pas s ion fo r ga in wh ich l ed cap i t a l is t s t o
e m p l o y th e i r c a p i ta l i n th o s e i n d u s t r ie s t h a t w o u l d y i e l d , a l l t h in g s
c o n s i d e r e d , t h e h i g h e s t r a t e o f p r o f i t , a n d t h o s e [ i n d u s tr ie s ] w h i c h
y i e l d t h is h i g h e s t r a t e a r e t h o s e i n w h i c h i t is m o s t f o r t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t
t h a t t h e c a p i t a l sh o u l d b e i n v e s t e d . T h e b o o k e n d s w i t h t h e fo l lo w i n g
r e c a p i t u l a t i o n ' q ' h e t r u e l in e o f p o l i c y i s to l e a v e i n d iv i d ua l s t o p u r s u e
t h e i r o w n i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r o w n w a y , a n d n e v e r t o lo s e s ig h t o f t h e
maxim pas trop gouverner. I t i s b y t h e s p o n t a n e o u s a n d u n c o n s t ra i n e d
• . . e f f o rt s o f in d iv id u als t o i m p r o v e t h e ir c o n d i t i o n s . . , a n d b y t h e m
o n l y , t h a t n a t i o n s b e c o m e ri c h a n d p o w e r f u l . 2o 4
T h e o t h e r m e a n s b y w h i c h D a r w i n a l m o s t c e r t a in l y h a d b e c o m e
f a m i l ia r w i t h A d a m S m i t h ' s d o c t r i n e o f t h e d i vi si o n o f l a b o r is h i s
r e a d i n g o f S i s m o n d i . D a r w i n ' s w i f e ' s f a v o r i t e a u n t w a s J e s s i e A l l e n
W e d g w o o d . I n 1 8 1 6 , S i s m o n d i h a d p r o p o s e d t o J es s ie , b u t s h e r e f u s e d .
S i s m o n d i p e r s e v e r e d a n d t h e y w e r e m a r r i e d i n A p r i l 1 8 1 9 . I n 1 8 2 6 - 2 7 ,
E m m a , w i t h h e r s is te r F a n n y , s p e n t e ig h t m o n t h s i n G e n e v a w i t h t h e
S i sm o n d i s. S i sm o n d i b e c a m e v e ry f o n d o f E m m a a n d t h e S i s m o n d is
spen t s evera l we eks du r ing 1841 a t t he Darw in res idence i n G ow er
S t r e e t in L o n d o n , a l th o u g h D a r w i n h i m s e l f w a s n o t t h e re .
A f t e r S i s m o n d i ' s d e a t h i n 1 8 4 2 , t h e Quarterly Review in 1843
car r i ed a l eng thy a r t i c l e by P a lg rave on t he
Life and Works o f Sisrnondi
w h i c h D a r w i n u n d o u b t e d l y r e a d . T h i s a r t i c l e i n c l u d e d a n e x t e n s i v e
d i s c u s s i o n o f S i s m o n d i ' s w o r k s o n p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r
h i s d i f f e rences w i th A da m S m i th and t he Br i t ish schoo l o f c l as s ica l
202 . Hal6vy, The Rise of Philosophical Radicalism.
203• McCuUoch,
Principles of Political Economy
p. 149.
204• Ibid., pp. 536-537.
2 6 8
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 75/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
e c o n o m i c s . T h e o p p o s i n g v i e w s o f S i s m o n d i a n d A d a m S m i t h o v e r
d iv is i on o f l ab o r a re spe l l ed ou t :
D i v is io n o f l a b o u r , a c c o r d i n g t o A d a m S m i t h , is t h e g r e a t s o u r c e o f
n a t i o n a l , o f g e n e r a l p l e n t y , d if f u s in g i t s e lf
t h r o u g h a ll t h e
d i f f e r e n t
r a n k s o f s o c i e t y . S i s m o n d i s a y s , N o - D i v i si o n o f l a b o u r is a
s o u r c e o f n a t io n a l p o v e r t y : i f y o u m a k e m a n a m a c h i n e , a m a c h i n e
w i ll r e p l a c e h i m . H e w h o i s e m p l o y e d a ll d a y i n m a k i n g p i n s ' h e a d s ,
w i ll n o t h a v e a h e a d w i t h a p i n a t t h e c l o s e o f h i s c a r e e r. B y t h is
d i vi si o n m a n l o s es m e n t a l a n d b o d i l y v i g o u r, h e a l t h , c h e e r f u l n e s s, a ll
t h a t r e n d e rs l i fe d e s i r a b l e . . .
U n l i m i t e d c o m p e t i t i o n , a c c o r d in g t o t h e p o p u l a r t h e o r y , i s t h e
g rea t sou rce o f ~aa tiona l f i ches . S i sm ond i s ays N o - U n l im i t ed
c o m p e t i t i o n r e n d e r s t h e w h o l e s y s t e m o f c o m m e r c e a v a s t g a m e
o f b e g g a r - m y - n e i g h b o r . . .
P e r m i t e a c h p e r s o n - q u o t h t h e p o li ti c a l e c o n o m i s t c a ll h i m
A d a m S m i t h , c a ll h i m M c C u l lo c h , c a ll h i m C h a l m e r s , it i s a ll th e
s a m e - t o s e e k h i s o w n i n t e r e s t i n t h e w a y w h i c h s u it s h i m b e s t ,
a n d y o u m u s t b e , si nc e s o c i e t y c o n s i s ts o n l y o f in d i v id u a l s, p r o m o t i n g
t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t o f s o c i e t y . S i s m o n d i c o n t r a d i c t s t h i s d o c t r i n e
b y t h e r e m a r k , th a t a t h i e f s ee k s h is o w n i n te r e st w h e n h e r o b s . . .
M e r c h a n t s o v e r r e a c h , m a s t e r s ty r a n n i z e - t h e p o s it iv e i n t e r v e n t i o n
o f t h e l a w i s n e e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p r e v e n t i n g i n j u s t i c e . T h i s w a s
[ S i s m o n d i ' s ] d o c t r i n e i n t h e N o u v e a u x P r i n ci p e s. 2 0s
I n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 4 7 D a r w i n r e a d S i s m o n d i 's P o li ti ca l E c o n o m y a
c o l l e c t i o n o f S i s m o n d i ' s e s s a y s t h a t h a d b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h .
T h e n o t e s b y M A g ne t t h a t r e v ie w S i s m o n d i ' s w o r k s t r es s S i s m o n d i ' s
d i f f e re n c e s w i t h B r it is h p o l it i c a l e c o n o m y :
W a s it n o t S i s m o n d i w h o w a s f i r s t i n d i g n a n t a t t h e l a i s sez fa i re
l a i s s e z pas s e r o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y ? . . . I t w a s S i sm o n d i w h o w a s
i n d ig n a n t a t t h e s y s t e m b y w h i c h s o m e l a b o r , t h a t o t h e r s m a y e n j o y
• . . h e , w h o c r i e d t h a t t h e a d v a n t a g e o f a ll o u g h t t o l i m i t t h e f ig h t s
o f a l l; t h a t p r o p e r t y i s t h e r i g h t to u s e , n o t t o a b u s e . . . T h e r e i s
s p o l i a ti o n , w h e n [ t h e ] r i ch m a n d r a w s f r o m a fe r t il e a n d e a s il y
205. Francis Palgrave, Life and W orks of Sismondi,
Quart. Rev. 72
(1843),
299-356. See also E. Hal6vy, Si smondi (Paris: Librairie Felix Alcan, 1935).
2 6 9
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 76/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
cultivated soft his idle opulence, while he who has raised this income
• dies of hunger without being able to touch it. 2°6
One of the essays included in the collection was Sismondi's preface
to his
N e w P n n c ip le s o f P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m y . T h e
preface was written in
1826, when the crisis England was then experiencing was in Sismondi's
mind, and in Sismondi: inv oked . . . the interference of social power to
regulate the progress of wealth, instead of reducing Political Economy,
to that most simple and apparently most liberal maxim, to l e t a l o n e ( d e
l a i ss e z f a i r e e t l a i z z e z p a s s e r ) . 2 ° 7
Commenting on the content of the
book to which the essay is the preface, Sismondi wrote:
I have shown that territorial wealth is more productive in proportion
to the greater share which the cultivator has in the property of the
soil . . . that, although the invention of machines, which increases
the power of man, may be a benefit to humanity, yet the unjust
distribution which we make of profits obtained by their means,
changes them into scourges to the po o r . . , that the natural limits
of population are always respected by men who have something, and
always passed over by men who have nothing. 2°s
Darwin labeled Sismondi's book Poor in his reading notebook.
His liberalism did no t go that far. He was clearly committed to the
British philosophy of individualism, with a minimum of government
interference; l a i s s e z - f a i r e a n d l a i s s e z - p a s s e r were political ideals he
believed in. Also he had recently purchased as an investment a farm in
Lincolnshire.2 o9
One other likely source that introduced Darwin to the concepts of
the division of labor was Charles Babbage's influential book O n t h e
E c o n o m y o f M a c h i n e r y a n d M a n u f a ct u re s . 21° Published in 1832, it
206. J. C. L. de Sismondi, Pol it ical Eco nom y and the Phi losophy o f Govern-
m e n t with a historical notice of his life and writings by M. Mignet (London: John
Chapman, 1847).
207. Sismondi, preface to N ew Pr inc ip les o f Pol it ical Econ om y and the l ight
Which Th ey M ay Cast on the Cris is Which England Is at This T ime Experiencing,
reprinted in Sismondi,
Pol i t ical Economy.
208. Sismondi,Pol i t ical Economy, p. 72.
209• In
Darwin Revalued
Keith says that Darwin purchased the farm of
Beesby in Lincolnshire as an investment in 1845. His father advanced him £ 3,529
for the purchase. See alsoL L D , I, 311-312.
210. C. Babbage, O n t h e E c o n o m y o f M a c h i ne r y a n d M a n u f a c tu r es (London:
J. Murray, 1832).
270
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 77/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
w e n t t h r o u g h s e ve ra l e d i t i o n s i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 3 0 s , a f o u r t h e n la r g e d
e d i t i o n a p p e a r in g i n 1 8 4 6 . I t w a s t h e r e s u l t o f B a b b ag e 's in v o l v e m e n t
w i t h h i s c a l c u l a ti n g e n g i n e , w h o s e c o n s t r u c t i o n h e h a d b e e n s u pe rv is in g
s in c e 1 8 2 2 . H e v i si te d a c o n s i d e ra b l e n u m b e r o f w o r k s h o p s in E n g la n d
a n d C o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e i n o r d e r t o b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e s ta t e
o f t h e a r t o f t h e a p p l ic a t io n o f m a c h i n e r y t o m a n u f a c t u r e . A c o n -
s id e ra b le p o r t i o n o f t h e b o o k w a s d e v o t e d to d i sc u s si o n o f t h e d i v is io n
o f l a b o r , s in c e B a b b a g e c o n s i d e r e d i t p e r h a p s th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
p r i n c ip l e o n w h i c h t h e e c o n o m y o f m a n u f a c t u r e d e p e n d s . I n d is cu ssin g
h o w t h e p r in c i p le e v o l v e d , B a b b a g e n o t e d t h a t s o c i e t y m u s t h a v e
m a d e c o n s i d e ra b l e a d v a n c e s b e f o r e t h i s p r in c i p l e c o u l d h a v e b e e n
c a r ri e d i n t o t h e w o r k s h o p ; f o r i t is o n l y i n c o u n t r i e s w h i c h h a v e a t t a i n e d
a h igh degree o f c iv i l i za t ion , and in a r t i c l e s in wh ich the re i s a g rea t
c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g s t t h e p r o d u c e r s , th a t t h e m o s t p e r f e c t s y s te m o f
t h e d i v is io n o f la b o u r is t o b e o b s e r v e d . C o m m e n t i n g o n A d a m S m i t h 's
s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r in c i p le o f d i vi si o n o f l a b o r , B a b b a g e w r o t e t h a t
a n y e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e c h e a p n e s s o f m a n u f a c t u r e d ar ti c le s , b a s e d u p o n
the d iv is ion o f l abor , i s inco m ple te un less the fo l low ing p r inc ip le is
a d d e d :
T h a t t h e m a s t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r , b y d iv id in g th e w o r k t o b e e x e c u t e d
in to d i f f e ren t p roces ses , each r equ i r ing d i f f e ren t deg rees o f sk i l l o r
o f f o r c e , c a n p u r c h a s e e x a c t l y th a t p r e c i se q u a n t i t y o f b o t h w h i c h is
n e c e s s a r y f o r e a c h p r o c e s s ; w h e r e a s i f t h e w o r k w e r e e x e c u t e d b y
o n e w o r k m a n , t h a t p e r s o n m u s t p o ss es s s u f fi c ie n t s kill t o p e r f o r m
t h e m o s t d i f f ic u l t , a n d s u f f ic i e n t st r e n g t h t o e x e c u t e t h e m o s t
l abor iou s , o f the ope ra t ions in to wh ich the a r t i s d iv ided . 211
M y d i sc u ss io n u p t o t h is p o i n t h a s b e e n p r im a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h
D a r w i n ' s r e a d in g s in t h e f i e ld o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y . T h e r e is a n o t h e r
p o i n t w h i c h m u s t b e s tr es se d . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e e c o n o m i c
bases o f Br i t a in th a t was t ak ing p lace in ea r ly V ic to r i an times be fo re
D a r w i n ' s e y e s - t h e r e s u lt o f th e r a m p a n t i n d u s tr i a li z a t io n a n d th e
i n te n s iv e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f a g ri c u lt u r e - m u s t h a v e d e e p l y i m p r e s s e d
Darw in . O rgan ized s c ience was no t a neu t r a l obse rve r in th i s p roces s .
T h e B A A S , f o r e x a m p l e , w a s a c ti v e i n e n li st in g t h e s u p p o r t o f i ts m e m -
b e r s h ip i n p r o j e c t s t o h e l p a c c e l e r a t e t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f i n d u s t r y
a n d a g r i cu l t u re . T h u s i n 1 8 4 0 t h e B A A S c o m m i s s io n e d L i e b ig t o w r i t e
211. C. Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery 4th ed. enlarged (London:
J. M urray, 1846), pp. 17 5-176.
271
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 78/95
SILV AN S. SCI- IWEBER
a r e p o r t o n t h e s t a te o f o r g a ni c c h e m i s tr y . H e r e s p o n d e d w i t h Organic
Chemist ry in Its Appl ica tion to Agriculture and Physiology. 212 D a r w i n
b o u g h t a c o p y o f t h e b o o k i n 1 8 4 1 . z13 T o j u d g e f r o m h i s m a r k i n g s i n
t h e b o o k , D a r w i n ' s i n t e re s t i n t h e s u b j e c t p r o b a b l y s t e m m e d f r o m h is
g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n b o t a n i c a l m a t t e r s a t t h e t i m e . 214 A n o t h e r r e a s o n
f o r h i s i n t e r e s t w a s t h a t a g r i c u l tu r e w a s t h e l a rg e s t e n t e r p r i s e in w h i c h
a r t i f ic i a l s e l e c t i o n w a s p r a c t i c e d .
I n h i s p r e f a c e , L i e b ig i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e h a d e n d e a v o r e d t o p r e s e n t
t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n ci p le s o f c h e m i s tr y i n o r d e r to e l u c i d a te th e
c h e m i c a l p r o c e ss e s in v o l v e d i n a g r i c u lt u r e a n d p h y s i o l o g y . P e r f e c t
a g r i c u l t u r e , L i e b i g s t re s s e d , i s t h e t r u e f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l t r a d e a n d
i n d u s t r y - i t i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e r i ch e s o f s t a te s . '2 ~ s H i s a p p r o a c h
w a s u t i l i ta r i a n :
The general
o b j e c t o f a g r i c u l t u re i s t o p r o d u c e i n th e m o s t a d v a n -
t a g e o u s m a n n e r c e r t a i n q u a l i ti e s , o r a m a x i m u m s iz e , i n c e r ta i n
p a r t s o r o r g a n s o f p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t s . N o w , t h i s o b j e c t c a n b e a t t a i n e d
o n l y b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th o s e s u b s ta n c e s w h i c h w e k n o w t o b e
i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e p a r t s o r o r g a n s , o r b y
s u p p l y i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e ss a ry t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e q u a l i ti e s
d e s i r e d . 216
D a r w i n d r e w a l i n e n e x t t o t h i s p a s s ag e .
O n t w o o c c a s i o n s , o n c e in 1 8 4 4 a n d a g a i n i n 1 8 5 1 , D a r w i n re a d
L i e b i g ' s
Familiar Letters on Chemistry.
2~7 T h i s l i t t l e b o o k w a s w r i t t e n
212. Liebig ' s Organic Chemistry was publ ished in 1840.
213. Da rwin ' s co py is in the Cambr idge Univers i ty Library. Most of the
anno ta t ions were mad e in 1841 . Upon r e read ing the boo k in 1856 , the on ly fac t
which war r an ted a no te p inned in the back of the boo k r e la tes to the f ac t tha t the
b loo d of th e d i f f e ren t races o f m an have d i f f e r en t odour .
214. Darwin ' s growing in te r es t in bo tany i s a t t e s ted by box 49 of Darwin ' s
papers a t Cambr idge Univers i ty Library. For a del ightful overview of Darwin ' s
botanical works , see M. Allen,
Darwin and His Flowers: The Key to Natural
Selection (New Y ork: T apl inger , 1977) .
215. Liebig,
Organic Chemistry
preface .
216. Ibid . , pp . 129-130.
217. J . Liebig,
Familiar Letters on Chemistry and lts Relation to Commerce
Physiology and Agriculture
(New Yo rk : App e l ton , 1843). Darwin read th i s bo ok
on N ov. 20, 1844, a nd O ct . 14, 1851, according to his reading no tebo ok s; see
Vorz imm er , The Darwin Reading No teboo ks . On Oct . 3 ,1851 , whi le in Lond on
vis i t ing the G reat Ex hibi t io n, Darwin w rote to his son Wil liam, I am reading a
Book on Chem is try ca l led Familiar Letters on Chemistry and th i s makes me of ten
2 7 2
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 79/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
f o r t h e s p ec ia l p u r p o s e o f e x c i t in g t h e a t t e n t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t s , a n d
o f t h e e n l i g h t e n e d p u b l i c , t o t h e n e c e s s i ty o f e s ta b l is h i n g S c h o o l s o f
C h e m i s tr y a n d o f p r o m o t i n g , b y e v e r y m e a n s , t h e s t u d y o f a s cie n ce
s o i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e a r t s, p u r s u i t s , a n d s o c ia l w e l l b e i n g
o f m o d e m c iv il iz e d n a t i o n s . 21s T h e l e t t e rs p r e s e n t e d in m o r e p o p u l a r
f a sh i o n m a n y o f t h e t o p ic s f o u n d in L i e b ig ' s v o l u m e
Organic Chemistry.
L e t t e r X d e a l t w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a g r i c u lt u re a n d t h e
m u l t i p l ic a t i o n o f th e h u m a n s p e c i e s ; a n d i n it L i e b ig i n d i c a te s t h a t
T h e c u l ti v a ti o n o f o u r c r o p s h a s u l t im a t e l y n o o t h e r o b j e c t t h a n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f a m a x i m u m o f th o s e s u b s ta n c e s w h i c h a r e a d a p t e d f o r
a s s im i l a t io n a n d r e s p i r a ti o n , in t h e s m a l le s t p o s s ib l e s p a c e . . . M a n
• i s c o m p e l l e d t o c o n s u m e f o r c e m e r e l y i n o r d e r to s u p p l y m a t t e r
fo r r e sp i ra t i on .
C u l t i v a t io n i s t h e e c o n o m y o f f o r c e . S c i en c e t e a c h e s u s th e
s i m p l e s t m e a n s o f o b t a i n i n g t h e greatest e f f e c t w i t h t h e smallest
e x p e n d i t u r e o f p o w e r , a n d w i t h g iv e n m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a m a x i m u m
o f fo rc e .219
A s n o t e d a b o v e , D a r w i n h a d a n n o t a t e d a s im i l a r p a s sa g e i n L i e b ig ' s
Organic Chemistry. D a r w i n f o u n d ' o p ti m a l i z a t io n a p p r o a c h e s a t tr a c -
t iv e . T h e s e p a s s ag e s a ls o i n d i c a t e t h e w i d e d i f f u si o n o f s u c h f o r m u l a t i o n s
b y t h e e a r ly 1 8 4 0s . D a r w i n ' s e nt r ie s o n p a ge s 9 5 - 9 7 o f t h e E n o t e b o o k
d a t e f r o m 1 8 3 9 , a n d c o n s t i t u t e
independent
e v i d e n c e o f t h e p e r v a si v e
in f l uence o f such op t im a l i za t i on p r i nc ip l es . C l ea r ly , t he i r ro o t s l ie i n
the soc i a l and m ora l s c iences .
E v e n i f t h e i m p a c t o f i n d u s t r a l i z a t i o n h a d n o t b e e n a p p a r e n t t o
D a r w i n i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f h i s p h y s i c a l a n d i n t e ll e c t u a l en v i r o n -
m e n t - a d u b i o u s a s s u m p t i o n -
the
e v e n t o f 1 8 5 1 , t h e G r e a t E x -
h i b i t i o n o f t h e W o r k s o f I n d u s t r y a t t h e C r y s t a l P a l a c e , w o u l d h a v e
d o n e s o . I t s p u r p o s e w a s t o p r e s e n t a t r u e t e s t a n d l iv in g p i c t u r e
o f t h e p o i n t o f d e v e l o p m e n t a t w h i c h t h e w h o l e m a n k i n d h a s a r r i v e d
. . . a n d a n e w s t a r ti n g p o i n t , f r o m w h i c h a l l n a t i o n s w i ll b e a b l e t o
think of yo u in the evenings. Liebig's
Familiar Letters
was very popular and
went through several editions. The fo urth edition had as its title
Familiar Letters
on Chemistry in Its Relation to Physiology Dietetics Agric~dture Commerce
and Political Economy
(London : W alton and M aberly, 1859). It is very likely that
Darw in read two different editions in 1843 and 1851.
218. Liebig,
Familiar Letters p. 1.
219. Ibid., p. 8.
2 7 3
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 80/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
d i r e c t t h e i r f u r t h e r e x e r t i o n s . ' 2 2 ° I t s s u cc e ss w a s h u g e . A s D a v i d
B r e w s t er n o t e d ,
T h e E x p o s i t i o n o f 1 8 51 - t h e g r e a t e x p e r i m e n t o f m o d e m t i m e s
. . . n o w s t a n d s b e f o r e u s , g i ga n t i c a n d s u b l im e , c o m m a n d i n g t h e
a d m i r a t i o n . . . o f t h e c i v il iz e d w o r l d . . . I n i t s m o r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l
. . . a s p e c t , i t i s . . . p r e g n a n t w i t h m a t c h l e s s r e s u lt s . W i t h i n t h e
p r e c i n c t s o f t h e l o f t y b a z a a r a re d i s p l a y e d . . . t h e n o b l e s t e f f o r t s
o f h u m a n g e n iu s . . . t h e w o n d r o u s m e c h a n i s m s w h i c h s c ie n ce a n d
a r t h a v e c o m b i n e d t h e i r p o w e r s t o c r e a t e . 221
N o o n e a r t i c u l a t e d th e m e a n i n g o f t h e G r e a t E x h i b i t i o n a s a m o u m e n t
t o t h e g r o w i n g p o w e r o f m a n o v e r h i s p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d a s a
r e c o r d o f t h e m a t e r i a l p r o g r es s o f t h e a g e m o r e s u c c i n c tl y th a n t h e
P r in c e C o n s o r t . P r in c e A l b e r t , w h o h a d o r i g i n a te d t h e i d e a o f t h e
e x h i b i t i o n , a n d w h o o v e rs a w i ts c o m i n g i n t o b e i ng , d e c la r e d :
N o b o d y w h o h a s p a i d a n y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p e c u l i a r f e a tu r e s o f o u r
p r e s e n t e r a w i ll d o u b t f o r a m o m e n t t h a t w e a re l iv in g a t a p e r i o d o f
m o s t w o n d e r f u l t r a n s i t i o n , w h i c h t e n d s r a p i d l y t o a c c o m p l i s h t h a t
g r e a t e n d t o w h i c h i n d e e d a l l h i s t o r y p o i n t s -
the realization o f t he
unity of mankind . . . T h e d i s t a n c e s w h i c h s e p a r a t e d t h e d i f f e r e n t
n a t i o n s a n d p a r t s o f t h e g l o b e a r e r a p i d l y v an i s h in g b e f o r e t h e
a c h i e v e m e n t s o f m o d e r n i n v e n t io n , a n d w e c an t ra v e rs e t h e m w i t h
i n c r e d i b l e e a s e ; t h e l a n g u a g es o f a ll n a t i o n s a r e k n o w n , a n d t h e i r
a c q u i re m e n t s p l a ce d w i t h in t h e r ea c h o f e v e r y b o d y ; t h o u g h t i s c o m -
m u n i c a t e d w i t h t h e r a p i d i t y , a n d e v e n b y t h e p o w e r o f l ig h t ni n g . O n
t h e o t h e r h a n d , the great principle of the division of labour w h i c h
m a y b e c a ll e d t h e m o v i n g p o w e r o f c i v il iz a t i o n , i s b e i n g e x t e n d e d
t o a ll b r a n c h e s o f s c i e nc e , i n d u s t r y a n d a r t . . . G e n t l e m e n , t h e
E x h i b i t i o n o f 1 8 51 i s t o g iv e u s a t r e e t e s t o f a l iv i n g p i c t u r e o f t h e
p o i n t o f d e v e l o p m e n t a t w h i c h t h e w h o l e o f a n a n k i n d h a s a r r iv e d i n
220. Qu oted in Asa Briggs , Victorian People: A Reassessment o f Persons and
Themes 1851-67
rev. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press , 1972), p. 16.
The f i r s t e s s ay in th i s book i s C rys ta l Pa lace and the Men o f 1 851 .
221. David Brew ster 's review o f Charles Babbage, The Exposition of 1851 or
Views of the Industry the Science and the Government of England London
1851
2nd ed . , appea red in the
North Brit. Rev. 15
(1851) 529. C. Babbage ' s
The Exposition of 1851 (Lon don : J . M ur ray , 1851) was a lso rev iewed in the Jun e
14, 1851, issue of the
Atheneaum
and in m any o the r V ic to r i an pe r iod ica ls .
2 7 4
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 81/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
t h i s g r e a t t a s k , a n e w s t a r t in g p o i n t f r o m w h i c h a l l n a t i o n s w i l l b e
a b l e t o d i r e c t t h e i r f u r t h e r e x e r t i o n s . 2 22
D a r w i n a t t e n d e d t h e e x h i b i t i o n o n J u l y 3 0 , 1 8 5 1 , a n d e n j o y e d i t
i m m e n s e l y . 223 I f t h e e x h i b i t d i d n o t d r iv e h o m e t h e v i r tu e s o f c o m -
p e t i t i o n a n d t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e d i v i si o n o f l a b o r i n s a t is f y i n g m a n ' s
n e e d b y p r o d u c i n g it s m a t c h l e s s r e s u lt s , t h e o p e n i n g c e r e m o n i e s -
w i d e l y r e p o r t e d i n t h e p r e ss - c e r t a i n l y d i d s o .
T h e I n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n a f f e c t e d e v e r y a s p e c t o f V i c t o r i a n so c i e ty .
U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d y n a m i c s o f it s d e v e l o p m e n t , i n o r d e r t o g u a r a n t ee
t h e c o n t i n u e d p r o g re s s o f t h e n a t i o n , w a s a v i ta l a n d i m p o r t a n t t a sk .
T h e a r t ic l e s in t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d i c a l s r e v e r b e r a t e w i t h t h e i n t e n s i t y
o f t h e e n s u i n g d i s c u s si o n s . D a r w i n a s a m e m b e r o f t h e u p p e r c l as s
a n d o f t h e s c i e n ti f ic e li t e h a d b o t h a n e c o n o m i c s t a k e a n d a m o r a l
r e s p o n s i b i li t y i n k e e p i n g i n f o r m e d o f t h e se i ss ue s. A k n o w l e d g e o f
p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y w a s a p r e re q u i s it e f o r i n f o r m e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e
d e b a t e .
P O L I T I C A L E C O N O M Y , S T A T IS T IC S , A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y
T H E O R I E S
M y i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e v a r i o u s s t r a n d s t h a t D a r w i n h a d t o in -
t e r t w i n e t o a r ri v e a t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i v e r g e n c e h a s y i e l d e d a c o m p l e x
w e b . B u t t h a t i s n o t s u r p r is i n g . T h e p a t h l e a d i n g t o a m a j o r s c i e n t if i c
d i s c o v e r y is r a r e l y li n e a r o r p r e d e t e r m i n e d . I t w o u l d b e t o o f a ci le t o
a s c r ib e a o n e - t o - o n e c a u s a l i n f lu e n c e o f D a r w i n ' s s t u d y o f p o l i t i c a l
e c o n o m y a n d h i s t h e o r i z in g a b o u t s p e c i a t i o n . P e r h a p s h is v ie w s b e f o r e
222. Pr ince Alb er t ' s speech was del ivered a t a b anq uet a t the Mansion Hou se
on M arch 21, 1850. I t i s qu oted in J . B. Bu ry, The Idea of Progress ( L o n d o n :
Macm illan, 193 2), p. 330. See also T. M artin, The
Life of the Prince Consort 5
vols . (Lo nd on: Sm ith, Elder , 1975-1980), I I I , 247. F or an acc oun t of Pr ince Al-
be r t ' s involvement in the Grea t Exhib i t ion and i t s r e la t ion to h i s a r t is t i c in te r es t s,
see R . F u l ford , The
Prince Consort
(Lon don : M acmil lan, 1966), par t icu lar ly pp.
203-225; and W. Ames,
Prince Albert and Victorian Taste
(New York: Viking
Press, 1968).
223. Darwin ' s daughte r reca l led tha t on Ju ly 30 th [185 1] , my f a the r and
mo ther spen t a week wi th Erasmus Darwin a t h i s house in Park S t r ee t in o rde r to
see the Exh ib i t ion . George and I were a lso taken , bu t I a t any r a te d id no t make
much of i t , and r emem ber s tay ing a t ho me to sc rub the back s ta i rs , a s be t te r f un
• . . M y f a th e r e n j o y e d i t im m e n s e l y ; E m m a Da r wi n , e d .,
A Century o f Family
Letters
2 vols . (pr ivate ly pr inte d, 1904), I I , 153. The pu bl ic edi t io n was pub l ished
by J . Murray (Lond on, 1915).
2 7 5
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 82/95
SILVA N S. SCHWEBER
1 8 4 4 , w i t h t h e i r g e o g r a p h ic e m p h a s i s , w e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y h i s r e a d i n g o f
M c C u U o c h . S i m i l a r l y , p e r h a p s t h e G r e a t C r y s t a l E x h i b i t i o n i n f l u e n c e d
h i s t h e o r iz i n g i n t h e 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 5 2 p e r i o d . W h a t d o e s s t r ik e m e a s c h a r a c -
t e r i s ti c o f D arw in ' s r e sea rch s t y l e i s h i s wi l li ngness t o a pp rop r i a t e
e x p l a n a t o r y p r in c ip l e s a n d m o d e l s f r o m w h a t e v e r so u r ce s h e c a m e
a c r o s s . T h u s t h e M a l t h u s i a n p o p u l a t i o n s t a t e m e n t s , t h e B e n t h a m i t e
o p t i m a l i z a t i o n c a l cu l u s, A d a m S m i t h ' s d i v is io n o f l a b o r a ll b e c a m e
i n c o r p o r a t e d o r t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o b i o lo g i c a l p r i n c ip l e s t h a t w e r e to
b e t h e b a si s f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e g r o w t h o f
d i v e r si ty o f l i f e o v e r t i m e . S u c h h e u r i st ic a l t r a n s fe r s a r e , o f c o u r s e , n o t
unusua l . 224 B u t i n D arw in ' s case these t r ans fe r s were be tw een f i e ld s
t h a t h e s a w a s h a v i n g a s p e c ia l r e la t i o n s h ip t o o n e a n o t h e r . T h e e v o l u -
t i o n o f p o l i t ic a l , s o c ia l , a n d m o r a l s y s t e m s w e r e b i o l o g ic a l p r o b l e m s t o
D a r w i n . T h e M a l t h u s i a n l a w s o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h a n d A d a m S m i t h ' s
d i vi si o n o f l a b o r w e r e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l la w s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y s h o u l d b e
exp la ined b y b io log i ca l p r i nc ip l es .
B y t h e 1 8 3 0 s t h e p r o b l e m o f e x p l a in i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s o c ia b i li ty ,
a n d m a n ' s e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , h a d , o f c o u r s e , a l o n g
h i s t o r y . D a r w i n h a d i m m e r s e d h i m s e l f i n t h a t l i te r a t u re , a n d m o r e
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e S c o t t i s h a t t e m p t s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n a n d
s t a bi li ty o f t h e m o r a l a n d e c o n o m i c o r d e r .
B u t i t s e e m s t o m e t h a t M a r x ' s f a m o u s o b s e r v a t i o n th a t i t i s r e -
m a r k a b l e h o w D a r w i n r e c o g n i z e d a m o n g b e a s t s a n d p l a n t s h i s E n g l i s h
s o c i e t y w i t h i t s d i vi si o n o f l a b o u r , c o m p e t i t i o n o p e n i n g u p o f n e w
m a r k e t s , i n v e n t i o n , a n d t h e M a l t h u s ia n ' st ru g g l e f o r e x is t e n c e ' ' 2 2 s i s
c e r t a i n ly n o t t h e w h o l e s t o r y .
I b e l i e v e i t is c o r r e c t t o a s s e r t t h a t D a r w i n f o r m u l a t e d h i s t h e o r y i n a
m etap ho r i c l anguage t h a t was charac t e r i s t i ca l l y B r i ti sh . Gi l li sp i e has
s u g g e st e d t h a t n o n e b u t a V i c t o r i a n E n g l i s h m a n c o u l d h a v e e x p r e s s e d
h i m s e l f a s D a r w i n d i d i n t h e O r ig in o / S p e c i e s :
S o o r d i n a r y i s t h e l a n g u a g e [ t h a t i t a l m o s t s e e m s a s i f w e c o u l d b e i n
t h e m i d s t ] o f r e a d i n g a la y s e r m o n o n s e lf -h e lp i n n a t u r e . A ll t h e
p r o v e r b s o n p r o f i t a n d l o ss a re t h e r e , f r o m p u l p i t a n d f r o m c o u n t i n g -
h o u s e - . . . O n th e r a ce b e i ng t o th e s w i f t . . . O n p r o g re s s [ be in g ]
224. See G. Holton, Thematic Or igins o f Sc ient i f ic Thought: Kepler to
Eins te in (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973); and Holton, The
Scient i f ic Imagination: Ca se S tudies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1978).
225. Karl M arx and Friedrich Engels, Sele cted Correspondence 1846-1895
(New York: International Publishers, 1936), p. 000.
2 7 6
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 83/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
t h r o u g h c o m p e t i t i o n . . . I t is , a s a G e r m a n c r i ti c s a id i n a r e m a r k
m e a n t t o b e s c a th i n g , c la ss ic a l p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y a p p l i e d t o b i o l o g y .
O r a s D a r w i n s a id h i m s e l f , T h i s is t h e d o c t r i n e o f M a l t h u s a p p l i e d
t o t h e w h o l e a n i m a l a n d v e g e t a b l e k i n g d o m . 226
O n e c a n a d d t o G i U i s p ie 's l is t . F o r e x a m p l e , D a r w i n c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e
l a r g e s t f a v o ra b l e a r e as in w h i c h t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t a n i m a ls e vo lv e
a s th e m o s t e f f i c ie n t w o r k s h o p s ' 2 2 7 f o r n e w s p e c ie s , b e c a u s e t h e y
h a v e t h e l a r g e s t p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e m o s t k i n d s o f an i m a l s , a n d t h e m o s t
i n t e n s e c o m p e t i t i o n . P l a c e s , t h a t i s , e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e s , a r e c o m p a r e d
t o c o l o n i z i n g e n t e r p r i se s . I t i s a ls o c e r t a i n l y c o r r e c t t o s a y t h a t D a r w i n
r e c o g n i z e d t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t w o u l d a c c r u e t o t h e individual in the
c o m p e t i t i v e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r i n
laissez-faire
e c o n o m i c s a n d t h e n a t u r a l
e c o n o m y . O r g a n i sm s t h a t m o v e i n t o u n o c c u p i e d n i c h e s w i l l e n j o y
r e d u c e d c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d w i l l h a v e a d i f f e r e n t i a l a d v a n t a g e in t h e
s t ru g g l e f o r s u rv i v a l a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n .
B u t D a r w i n c l e a r l y d i d m o r e t h a n t r a n s c r i b e B r i ti s h p o l i t i c a l e c o n -
o m y . I b e l ie v e t h a t h e a l s o r e f le c t s t h e s h a r p c o n c e p t u a l b r e a k t h a t
o c c u r r e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 2 2s A l t h o u g h i t i s o f
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t o f a s c e r t a in w h e t h e r t h i s b r e a k i s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l ,
a s F o u c a u l t w o u l d h a v e u s b e l i e v e , 2 29 o r n o t , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a
c o n s e n s u s t h a t a p r i m a r y f a c t o r i n t h e f r a c t u r e is t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e
h i s t o r i c a l e l e m e n t i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e o b s e r v e d c h a n g es . T h e v ie w s
a n d c o m m i t m e n t s a s t o t h e r o le o f h i s t o r y i n e f fe c t in g ch a n g e c o u l d b e
r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t - c o m p a r e C o n d o r c e t a n d H e r d e r 23° - b u t t h e r e
i s l i t t le q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s . I a l so
c o n t e n d t h a t , i n b r o a d t e r m s , i t w a s C o n d o r c e t ' s p h i l o s o p h i c o u t l o o k
226. C. Gil l ispie , The Edge of Objectivity (Pr inceton: Pr inceton Univers i ty
Press , 1960) , pp. 303-304.
227. Darwin, Origin p. 27 . The no t ion of a workshop may wel l have had
i ts or igin in Darwin ' s t rans la t ion of Milne-Edwards ' Ate l iers , in the la t ter ' s
discuss ion o f the divis ion o f labor .
228. O f the m any b oo ks on th e subject , see , e .g ., J . B. Bury, The Idea of
Progress
(Lo nd on : M acmillan, 1932); F. E. Manuel,
Shapes of Philosophical
History
(S tanfo rd: S tanford Unive rs i ty Press, 1968) ; and M. M andelbaum ,
History
Man and Reason (Bal t imore: Johns Hopkins Press , 1971) . I thank Erns t Mayr
for cal ling M ande lbanm ' s bo ok to my a t ten t ion .
229 . M. Fou caul t ,
Les mots et les choses
(Paris: GaUimard, 1966).
230. See, e .g . , the chapter on Condorcet in F . Manuel , The Prophets of
Paris (Cambr idge: Harvard Un ivers i ty Press, 196 2) , and the in trod uc t ion by F .
Manuel to J . C. Herder ,
Reflections on the Philosophy o f the History o f Mankind
(Chicago: Un iversity of Chicago Press, 1968).
2 7 7
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 84/95
SILVAN S. SCHW EBER
- - w i t h i ts u n d e r l y i n g c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e m a t h e m a t i z a t i o n o f n a t u r e ,
i t s e q u a t i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s w i t h c e r t a i n t y , i t s p r o g r e s s i v e v i e w o f
h i s t o r y - t h a t a n i m a t e s t h e d o m i n a n t s e c t o r o f B r i ti sh s c ie n c e i n t h e
f ir st h a l f o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . D a r w i n w a s c e r t a in l y s y m p a t h e t i c
t o t h i s o u t l o o k .
A c h a r a c te r i st i c f e a t u r e o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y , g e o l o g y , a n d n a t u r a l
h i s t o r y a f t e r 1 8 1 5 i s t h e r e c o g n i t io n b y m a n y o f th e f o r e m o s t t h e o -
r e t i c ia n s t h a t b e c a u s e t h e e n t i t i e s t h e i r s c i e n c e d e a l t w i t h ar e c o m p l e x ,
t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e s e e n ti ti e s m u s t b e t a k e n i n a c c o u n t : t h e ir h i s t o r y
h a d s h a r p e d t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e i r p r e s e n t c o m p l e x s tr u c t u r e .
I t w a s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e i r s ci e n ce h a d t o b e b a s e d o n e l e m e n t s
t h a t h a d a h i s t o r y , h e n c e w e r e ch a n g i n g i n t im e , t h a t f o r m e d a c o m m o n
d e n o m i n a t o r . T h a t w i t h i n t h e n a t u r a l h i s to r y c o m m u n f t y v a li an t
a t t e m p t s w e r e b r i n g m a d e t o a d h e r e t o u n c h a n g i n g F ix ed e l e m e n t s ,
s u c h a s th e f i x e d ' s p e c i e s , o h l y t r a n s fe r re d t h e p r o b l e m s o f h o w t o
a c c o u n t f o r t h e o b s e r v e d , h i s to r i c al , c h a n g e s o f a n im a l p o p u l a t i o n s t o a
d i f f e r e n t l ev e l, a n d m a d e t h e e v e n t u a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n m o r e c a ta c l y s m i c .
B u t t h e h i s to r i ca l c o m m i t m e n t c u t s d e e p e r . S t a ti st ic s a n d p r o b a b i l i ty
p l a y e d a s p e c ia l r o le in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e s c i e n c e s, p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e s o c i a l s c ie n c es . B y t h e 1 8 2 0 s , p r o b a b i l i ty w a s w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a s
t h e c o r r e c t c a lc u l u s f o r th e d e s c r i p ti o n o f complex p h e n o m e n a , a n d
s t a ti s ti c s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d t h e r a w d a t a u p o n w h i c h t h e s ci e n c e s d e a l in g
w i t h c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n a w e r e t o b e b a s ed . 231
R e c e n t r e s ea r c h e s h a v e m a d e i t a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r t h a t t h e i n f lu e n c e
o f t h e s t a ti s ti c a l m o v e m e n t i n E n g l a n d w a s p e r v a si v e . 2 32 D u r i n g t h e
1 8 3 0 s t h e m o s t i n f lu e n t ia l p o l it ic a l e c o n o m i s t s s a w s t a t is t i c s n o t
o n l y a s t h e r a w , i n d u c t i v e d a t a u p o n w h i c h t h e i r s c i e n c e w a s t o b e
b a s e d , b u t a l s o a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u p o n w h i c h t o b u i l d p o l i t i c a l e c o n -
o m y i n t o a q u a n t i t a ti v e , r i g o r o u s , o b j e c ti v e s c ie n c e. 2 33 T h e y h o p e d
231. Statist ics had m an y differen t senses, ranging fro m the m ere compila-
t ion o f data to the handling o f experimental data, bu t I sh all no t elaborate here
on these differences. See Merz,
History of European Thought,
vol. II, the chapter
Th e Statist ical V iew o f Na ture.
232. See Philip Abrams, The
Origins of British Sociology, 1834-1914: An
Essay with Selected Papers (Chicago: U niversity o f C hicago Press, 1968); M . J .
Cullen, The
Statistical Movement in Early Victorian Britain
(Hassocks: Harvester
Press, 1975); V icto r L. Hilts, Aliis Extererendum, or, the Origins of the Statist ical
S oc ie ty o f L o ndon , Isis, 69 (1978), 21-43.
233. The tradition, o f course, goes bac k to Ad am Smith and to the Phy-
sioerats . One of the aspects in which Adam Smith differs from Senior, Jones,
and McCul loch is in his view of the object ivi ty o f poli tica l econom y. The
later political economists were at greater pains to separate political actions from
2 7 8
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 85/95
Darwin and the Political Economists
that such a science would transform the process by which Parliament
legislated. The problem was to separate the
science
of political economy
from the
politics
of the legislative procedure.
The people of the circle in which Darwin moved were, however, in
a quandary. They had strong and often-expressed reasons for wishing to
separate the science of political economy, with its topical and useful
stress on statistics, from the intrigues and compromises of politics. And
yet their mouthpieces - the periodicals that appeared on the tables of
the Athenaeum - advocated a combined discipline in which there was
no clear dividing line between the two disciplines. WheweU, as president
of the BAAS in 1833, defended the format ion of the Statistical Section
of the BAAS
T
against the possibility of political philosophy intruding
into the Society:
By science, then I understand the consideration of all subjects,
whether of a pure or mixed nature, capable of being reduced to
measurement and calculation. All things comprehended under the
category of space, time, and number properly belong to our investi-
gation, and all phenomena capable of being brought under the
semblance o f law are legitimate objects o f our inquiry.
Can then statistical inquiries be made compatible with our sub-
jects, and taken into the bosom of our society? I think they unques-
tionably may, so far as they have to do with matter of fact, with
mere abstractions, and with numerical results. Considered in this
light they give what may be called the raw material for political
economy and political philosophy; and by their help the lasting
foundat ions o f these sciences may be perhaps ultimately laid.
T
The use of statistics was not confmed to the social sciences. In the
1820s geology was emerging from its descriptive phase and greater
political economy, and to clarify the relation of political economy to legislative
political acts. Adam Smith also thought of each human being as at birth almost
exactly the same in character and capacities as every other being: for him, it was
the division of labor that alters characters. The later economists accepted greater
variability and differences in people.
234. For an account of the formation of the Statistical Section of the BAAS,
see Hilts, Aliis Extererendum ; Cullen, The Statistical Movement; and C. Bab-
bage,
Exposition of 1851
2nd ed. (London: J. Murray, 1851).
235. W. Whewell,
Report of the Ninth Meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement o f Science 3 (1833), xe-xci.
279
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 86/95
SILVAN S . SCHW EBER
e m p h a s i s w a s b e in g p l a c e d o n c e a g a i n o n t h e d y n a m i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f
t h e s c ie n c e. R u d w i c k h a s c o n v i n c i n g l y p r e s e n t e d L y e U ' s v i si o n o f a
s t a t i s t i c a l p a l e o n t o l o g y ,
T
a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y i n
a r ri v in g a t h i s c h r o n o m e t e r f o r t h e t e r t ia r y s tr a ta . A n d b y t h e 1 8 2 0 s
p h y t o g e o g r a p h y h a d a w e l l -d e v e l o p e d s t a ti s ti c a l a s p e c t . 2 37
W h e t h e r o r n o t o n e a c c e p ts t h e t he si s t h a t t h e c o m m u n a l i t y o f
t h e n a t u r a l h i s t o r i a n , g e o l o g i s t , a n d p o l i t ic a l s c i e n ti s t d e ri v e s f r o m a
c o m m o n c o m m i t m e n t t o a p p r e h e n d t h e ro l e o f h i s t o r y as a c au s at iv e
a g e n t i n a f f e c t i n g c h a n g e , t h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t h e u r i s t i c t ra n s f e r s w e r e
t a k i n g p l ac e b e t w e e n p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y a n d g e o l o g y a n d n a tu r a l h i s t o r y .
T h i s tr a n s f e r w a s a c c e l e r a te d o w i n g t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e se c o m m u n i t i e s
h a d o v e r l a p p i n g m e m b e r s h i p .2 a 8 F o r e x a m p l e , B a b b a g e , P o u l e t t S c r o p e ,
a n d W h e w e l l w e r e i n f lu e n t i a l a n d a c t iv e in b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s . L y e l l w a s
a g o o d f r i e n d o f N a s s a u S e n i o r . J o h n H e r s c h e l o f t e n v i si te d t h e E a s t
I n d i a C o l le g e a t H a i l e y b u r y a n d w a s a c l o se f r ie n d o f R i c h a r d J o n e s .
I t s h o u l d b e a d d e d t h a t t h e s e w e r e h i g h l y g if t e d i n d iv i d u al s - m o s t
o f t h e m h a d g o n e t h r o u g h C a m b r i d g e U n i v e rs it y a n d w e r e e i th e r
W r a ng l er s o r h a d o b t a i n e d h o n o r d e g r e e s b a s e d o n v e r y s t i ff m a t h e -
m a t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s - a n d t h a t i t w a s e a si er t o b e a p o l y m a t h i n t h e
f i rs t h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a n a t t h e p r e s e n t t im e .
T h e i n t r o d u c t o r y l e c tu r e t h a t R i c h a r d J o n e s ga v e o n F e b r u a r y 2 7 ,
1 8 3 3 , o n b e c o m i n g t h e p r o f e s s o r o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y a t K i n g ' s C o l le g e ,
L o n d o n , 2 39 g iv e s a p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v e al in g g l i m p s e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e s e d i s ci p li n e s. F o r J o n e s t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f p o l i t ic a l
e c o n o m y is t h e w e a l t h o f n a t io n s . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e
p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s tr i b u ti o n o f w e a l th ,
236. Rudw ick, Charles Lyell 's Dream o f a Statistical Palaeontology, pp.
225-244.
237. Janet Browne in an Imperial College Ph.D. dissertation (1978) has
inves tigated p hytoge ograph y in the early nineteenth century.
238. I have not compared the m embership o f the Poli tica l Eco nom y Club
and that o f the Geological Society. See the centennial publication o f the Poli tical
Economy Club: P o li ti ca l E c o n o m y C lu b F o u n d e d in L o n d o n 1 8 2 1 , M i n u t e s o f
P r o ce e d in g s , 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 2 0 : R o l l o f M e m b e r s a n d Q u e s t io n s D is c u ss e d , 1 8 2 1 - 1 9 2 0 ,
w i t h D o c u m e n t s B e a r in g o n t h e H i s t o r y o f th e C l u b , 6 vols. (Lo nd on : Macmillan,
1900); M. J. Rudwick, Th e Fo und at ion o f the Geological Socie ty of Lond on:
Its Scheme for C o-operative Research and Its Struggle for Indep end ence , Bri t . J .
Hist . 8ci . , 1 (1963), 325-355; and J . B. Morrell, L on do n Insti tutions and Lyell's
Career, 18 20 -18 41 , B r i t . J . H i s t . Sc i ., 9 (1976), 132-146.
239. L i t e r a r y R e m a i n s C o n s i s t i n g o f L e c t u r e s a n d T r a c t s o n P o l it i ca l E c o n -
o m y o f t h e L a te R e v. R i c h a r d J o n e s , ed. W ill iam W hewell (Lond on: Joh n Murray,
1859), pp. 537-539; reprinted in 1964 b y Augustus M. Kelley, New York.
2 8 0
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 87/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
w e m u s t s t u d y . . , t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t io n s in th e p a st a n d p r e se n t
s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d a t l a r g e ; a n d t o c o n d u c t t h a t s t u d y e f f i c i e n t l y ,
w e m u s t m a k e o u rs e lv e s t h o r o u g h l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h . . . t h e
e c o n o m i c a l s t ru c t u re o f n a t i o n s . . . [ b y w h i c h ] I m e a n t h o s e
r e l a t io n s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t c la s se s w h i c h a r e e s t a b l is h e d in t h e
f i rs t in s t a n c e b y t h e i n s t i tu t i o n o f p r o p e r t y i n t h e s o il , a n d b y t h e
d i s t r ib u t i o n o f i t s s u r p lu s p r o d u c e ; a f te r w a r d s m o d i f i e d a n d c h a n g e d
( t o a g r e a t e r o r le s s e x t e n t ) b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c a p i ta l is t s, a s
a g e n t s i n p r o d u c i n g a n d e x c h a n g i n g w e a l t h , a n d i n f e e d i n g a n d
e m p l o y i n g t h e l a b o r in g p o p u l a t i o n
J o n e s i s a t p a i n s t o s t r e s s t h a t o n l y a n a c c u r a t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e
e c o n o m i c a l s t r u c tu r e o f a n a t i o n s c a n
g iv e u s t h e k e y t o t h e p a s t f o r t u n e s o f th e d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e o f t h e
e a r t h , b y d i s p la y i n g t h e i r e c o n o m i c a l a n a t o m y , a n d s h o w i n g t h u s , t h e
m o s t d e e p l y - s e a t e d s o u r c e s o f t h e i r s t r e n g t h , t h e e le m e n t s o f t h e i r
i n s t it u t i o n s , a n d c a u s e s o f t h e i r h a b i t s a n d c h a r a c t e r . I t i s t r u e w e
m u s t l e a r n th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h d iv i de t h e m i n t o c la s se s , e s t a b li s h
o r c h a n g e t h e t ie s w h i c h c o n n e c t t h o s e c l a ss e s, a n d t h e v al u e a n d
i n f l u e n c e o f e a c h , a s c o m p o n e n t p a r t s o f a s t a te o r a g e n t s i n p r o -
duc ing i t s wea l t h .
T h a t t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s u p o n w h i c h J o n e s w a n t e d t o
e s ta b li sh t h e s ci en c e o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y h a v e m u c h in c o m m o n w i t h
t h o se t h a t t h e y o u n g C h a r l es D a r w i n w o u l d c o m m i t h i m s e l f t o w h il e
s tr u g g li n g w i t h s i m il a r a i m s f o r e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y i n t h e 1 8 3 7 - 1 8 3 9
p e r i o d s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p ri si n g. B o t h w e r e p r o d u c t s o f C a m b r i d g e ,
b o t h w e r e d e e p l y in f l u e n c ed b y H e r s c h e l 's Preliminary Discourse z4°
b o t h t r ie d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r u n i v e rs e in t e r m s o f i ts c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s ,
a n d b o t h s a w t h e se c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s a s c h a n g in g s t r u c t u r e s w i t h a
h i s t o r y . B o t h r e c o g n i ze d t h a t a n y c o m p l e x s y s t e m h a s a h i s t o r y a n d
t h a t h i s t o r y w i ll s h a p e i ts d e v e l o p m e n t . B o t h w e r e t r y i n g t o f r e d g e n e r a l
l aw s , b u t b a s e d t h e i r i n v e s t i g a ti o n s u p o n e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s . F o r a s
J o n e s i n d i c a t e d , i f w e w i ll n o t t a k e t h i s t r o u b l e ; i f w e w i ll b e c l o s e t
p h i l o s o p h e r s , t a k e a p e e p o u t o f o u r l i tt l e w i n d o w , a n d f a s h i o n a w o r l d
o f o u r o w n a f t e r t h e p a t t e r n o f w h a t w e se e t h e n c e , h o w e v e r in g e n io u s
a n d c l e v e r w e m a y b e , w e r u n a g r e a t r i sk o f b e in g s a d l y m i s t a k e n , a n d
a re s u re t o r e m a i n e x t r e m e l y i g n o r a n t . A n d J o n e s c o n t i n u e d :
240. J. Herschel,
Preliminary Discourse on Natural Philosophy
(London:
Lardner's Cabinet, 1831 ).
281
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 88/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
S u p p o s in g , h o w e v e r , t h a t w e d e t e r m i n e t o k n o w a s m u c h a s w e c an
o f t h e w o r l d a s it h a s b e e n , a n d o f t h e w o r l d a s i t is , b e f o r e w e l a y
d o w n g e n e r a l la w s as t o t h e e c o n o m i c a l h a b i t s a n d f o r t u n e s o f
m a n k i n d o r o f cl as se s o f m a n : t h e r e a re o p e n t o u s t w o s o u rc e s o f
k n o w l e d g e , - h i s t o r y a n d s t a ti s ti c s , t h e s t o r y o f t h e p a s t , a n d a
d e t a il o f th e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n o f th e n a t i o n s o f t h e e a r t h . F r o m
t h e s e a l o n e th e t e a c h e r o f p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y c a n d r a w t h e in f o r m a -
t i o n a n d t h e k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s h i s d u t y t o a r r a n g e , t h a t h e m a y
p r e s e n t t h e m t o t h e s t u d e n t . E a c h s o u r c e h a s i ts d e f e c t s , a n d e a c h it s
p e c u l i a r p o w e r s o f d i f f u s i n g l i g h t , w h i c h w o u l d b e s o u g h t i n v a i n
f r o m t h e o t h e r . I n o b s e r v i n g t h e l o n g t ra i n s o f e v e n ts r e c o r d e d
b y h i s t o r y , w e d e t e c t t h e i m m e d i a t e a n d r e m o t e e f f e c ts o f t h e
e c o n o m i c a l s t r u c t u r e s w e a r e a n a l y s i n g . B u t h i s t o r y h a s s u f f e r e d t o
d r o p f r o m h e r p a g es , p e r h a p s h a s n e v e r r e c o r d e d , m u c h o f th e
i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h n o w b e m o s t p r e c io u s to u s. F o r m a n y w h o l e
c l as ses o f f ac t s , neces sa ry t o i l l u s t r a t e p r i nc ip l es o f wh ich t he im-
p o r t a n c e h a s o n l y l a t e ly b e c o m e k n o w n , w e s h o u ld t o il t h r o u g h h e r
p a g e s i n v a i n . Y e t t h is d e f e c t d o e s n o t a l w a y s e x i s t w h e n w e t h i n k
i t d o e s . . . T h e l a b o r s o f N i e b u h r , S a v i g n y , H e r d e r , M u l l e r h a v e
p r o v e d t h a t t h e re is m u c h k n o w l e d g e , m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o o u r su b -
j e c t , i n h i s t o ri c a l r e c o r d s , w h i c h h a s f a d e d f r o m t h e m i n d s o f m e n ,
a n d m u s t b e l a b o r i o u s l y r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e r e ce s se s o f n e g l e c te d
l i t e r a t u r e . . .
S t a t i s t i c s , un l i ke h i s t o ry , p resen t s a l l t he f ac t s e s sen t i a l t o ou r
r e a so n i n g s in i n e x h a u s t i b l e d e t a il a n d a b u n d a n c e ; b u t l ea v e s u s t o
s p e c u l a te u p o n c a u s e s, a n d t o g u e ss a t e f f e c t s a s w e c a n . I t i s n o t
p l e a s a n t t o r e f l e c t h o w l i t tl e h a s b e e n d o n e i n E n g l a n d t o s y s t e m a t i s e
s t a ti s ti c a l i nq u i ri e s, o r t o p r e s e rv e a n d s p r e a d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h
s t a t i s ti c s can g ive us . In t h i s r e spe c t , a s i n ma n y o the r s , the cu l t i va to r s
o f p h y s i c a l s c ie n c e h a v e s e t a b r il l a n t a n d u s e f u l e x a m p l e . T h e r e i s
h a r d l y a d e p a r t m e n t in t h e ir p r o v i n c e w h i c h h a s n o t t h e a d v a n t a g e
o f b e i n g p u r s u e d b y s o c ie ti es o f m e n a n i m a t e d b y a c o m m o n o b j e c t ,
a n d c o l le c t i n g a n d r e c o r d i n g f a c t s u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f p h i lo s -
o p h i c a l v i ew s . W e m a y h o p e s u r e ly , t h a t m a n k i n d a n d t h e i r c o n c e r n s
w i ll s o o n a t t r a c t i n t e r e s t e n o u g h t o r e c ei v e s im i l a r a t t e n t i o n ; a n d
t h a t a s t a t is t ic a l s o c i e t y w i ll b e a d d e d t o t h e n u m b e r o f t h o s e w h i c h
are advanc ing t he s c i en t i f i c knowledge o f Eng l and .
N o t e t h e m e t a p h o r s a n d t h e l an g u a ge J o n e s u s ed . H e u r g ed t h e s t u d y o f
the comp r tive n tomy o f t h e e c o n o m i c a l s t r u c tu r e s t o b e f o u n d
in d i f f e ren t soc i e ti e s a t d i f f e ren t s t ages o f t he i r deve lopm en t , t ha t i s ,
2 8 2
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 89/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s
t h e s t u d y o f e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s e st r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s - e v e n t h o u g h
h i s t o r y h a s p e r h a p s n e v e r r e c o r d e d m u c h o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h
w o u l d n o w b e m o s t p r e c i o u s t o u s . T h e g a p s i n t h e p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l
r e c o r d c a m e i m m e d i a t e l y t o m i n d . J o n e s s t r e s s e d c o n s t a n t l y t h a t h e
w a s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
dyn mics
o f t h e e c o n o m i c c ha n g es ,
h o w t h e s e c h a n g e s a l te r t h e m a n a g e m e n t a n d p r o d u c t i v e n e s s o f l a b o r
a n d h o w t he s e in t u r n p r o d u c e a ch a n ge i n t h e ti es w h i c h c o n n e c t t h e
d i f f e re n t c la sses o f soc ie ty :
T h e t ie s w h ic h f o r m e r l y b o u n d t h e c o m m u n i t y t o g e t h e r a re w o r n
o u t a n d f a ll t o p i e c e s; o t h e r b o n d s , o t h e r p r in c i p le s o f c o h e s i o n
connec t i t s d i f f e ren t c la s ses ; new economica l r e la t ions sp r ing in to
b e i n g , f r e s h a n d p o t e n t p o l i t i c a l e l e m e n t s m i n g l e i n t h e n a t i o n a l
s y s t e m , a n d t h e t r a c in g o f th e g r a d u a l i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e e f f e c t s
o f t h es e is o n e o f ~ e m o s t im p o r t a n t t a s k o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y ,
w h e n u n f o l d i n g t h e c a u s e s w h i c h r e g u l a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o r t h e
d i s t r ib u t i o n o f t h e r e v e n u e s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e o f th e e a r t h .
B u t , h e w a r n s , T h e a p p r o a c h t o a s t a te o f s o c i e t y l ik e o u r o w n ,
w h e r e i t c a n b e p e r ce i v ed , is , i n m a n y i n st a nc e s, e x t r e m e l y s l o w . . .
Whi le som e [ soc ie t ie s ] a re thus s t a t io nary , an d o the r s chang ing the i r
e c o n o m i c a l e l e m e n t s b y g r a d a t i o n s s o m i n u t e , t h a t i t m u s t t a k e a g e s
b e f o r e a n y d i s t in c t c h a ng e b e c o m e p r o m i n e n t . O n e c a n l o o k a t
J o n e s ' s p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y a s a t r a n s c r ip t i o n o f t h e L y e l l ia n g e o lo g ic a l
r e s ea r c h p r o g r a m , i n cl u si v e o f i t s u n d e d y i r t g p o l i ti c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d
m e t a p h y s i c s :
O u r i n q u i r i e s a n d r e a s o n i n g s a b o u t t h e f u t u r e p r o g r e s s a n d c o n d i -
t o n s o f c o m m u n i t ie s o f m e n m u s t , i f t h e y a re t o h a v e a n y p ra c t ic a l
c h a r a c t e r , b e c o n f i n e d t o t h e a d v a n ce a n d f o r t u n e s o f n a t i o n s ,
d u r i n g p e r i o d s s o m e w h a t l i k e t h o s e w h i c h t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p a s t
a n d o u r k n o w l e d g e o f m e n ' s n a t u r e s t e a c h us a re li k e ly t o b o u n d t h e
d u r a t i o n o f e m p i r e s , a n d p e o p l e , a n d s t a te s o f c iv i li z a ti o n . D u r i n g
s u c h p e r i o d I s e e n o g r e a t c h a n c e o f t h e w o r l d c o l l e c ti v e l y b e i n g
a n y t h i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t i t h a s b e e n a n d i s.
J o n e s ' m e t h o d o l o g i c a l su g g e st io n s f o r t h e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f th e f o u n d a -
t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y a p p l y e q u a l l y w e l l t o a n y e v o l u t i o n a r y
s c ie n c e , a n d t o g e o l o g y a n d n a t u r a l h i s t o r y i n p a r t ic u l a r .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , J o n e s m u s t h a v e m a d e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e s p e e c h a t
t h e t h i r t i e t h a n n i v e rs a r y o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y in 1 8 3 8 , m a k i n g t h e
2 8 3
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 90/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
c o m m u n a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e v a r io u s e v o l u t i o n a r y s c ie n c es e v e n m o r e
exp l i c i t . I n a l e t t e r to h i s fa the r -in - law , Le ona rd Ho m er , Lye l l gave a
s h o r t a c c o u n t o f t h a t m e e t i n g , w h i c h h e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s
n o t s o f u l l as u su a l , a n d m o s t o f t h e M . P .'s a b s e n t o n t h e I r is h P o o r
law ques t ion ; never the les s a g rand d i sp lay o f t a l en t . Whewel l in the
cha i r , Sedgwick , Buck land , S i r P . Eger ton , Darwin , Owen (who i s
w o n d e r f u l l y p l e a se d a t r ec e iv i ng t h e W o l la s to n m e d a l ) , F i t t o n ,
G r e e n o u g h , H a l l a m , M i l m a n , M u r c h i s o n , L o r d B u r l i n g t o n , P r o f ,
J o n e s , L u b b o c k , B a il ey , C l if t, H a m i l t o n . . .
L ye U c o m m e n t e d t h a t J o n es m a d e a t ru l y e l o q u e n t s p e e c h . . , o n t h e
s i m i la r it y o f t h e p r o s p e c t s o f t h e t w o n e w s c ie n c e s, d i f f e r e n t a s t h e y a r e
in the i r sub jec ts , geo log y and po l i t i ca l ec on om y. 24~
T h e p r e s e n c e o f D a r w i n i n t h e a u d i e n c e i s o f i n t e re s t . B u t it i s e v e n
m o r e n o t e w o r t h y t h a t R i c h a r d J o n e s s h o u l d b e c a l l e d u p o n t o d e l i v e r
a s p e e c h o n t h a t o c c a s io n . T h a t t h e h o l d e r o f M a l t h u s ' c h a ir a t t h e
E a s t I n d i a C o l l e g e , a n d t h u s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t r e s p e c t e d p o l i t i c a l
e c o n o m i s t i n E n g l a n d , f o r m a l l y a d d r e s s ed t h e G e o l o g ic a l S o c i e t y o n i ts
t h i r t i e t h a n n i v e rs a r y o n t h e s i m i la r it ie s o f t h e p r o s p e c t s o f th e tw o
scienc es i s s t r ik ing .
In h i s inaugura l addres s in 1833 in Lo nd on , Jone s ha d bee n s ens i tive
t o t h e p o l it i ca l d i m e n s i o n o f h i s v i ew s , a n d h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t s o m e
p e r so n s m a y p e r h a p s b e s ta r tl e d a n d o f f e n d e d b y t h e c o n n e c t i o n I
h a v e p o i n t e d o u t b e t w e e n ' p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y a n d t h e p o l it ic a l e l e m e n t s
o u t o f w h i c h g o v e r n m e n t s ar e f o r m e d , a n d b y w h i c h th e y m u s t b e
m a i n t a i n e d . H a v in g a r g u e d t h a t t h e m u t u a l r e l at i o n s a n d i n f lu e n c e s
o f d i f fe r e n t o rd e r s o f m e n [ ar e] d e t e r m i n e d b y d i f f e re n t m o d e s o f
p r o d u c i n g a n d d i s tr i b u ti n g p u b l i c w e a l t h , a n d t h a t p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y
is the s tud y w hich t eaches the l aws tha t r egu la te the d i s t r ibu t ion and
p r o d u c t i o n o f w e a l t h , J o n e s w e n t o n t o s a y t h a t o u r s u b j e c t [ p o li ti c a l
e c o n o m y ] is t h u s b r o u g h t i n t o i m m e d i a te c o n t a c t w i th t h e p h il o s o p h y
o f l eg i s l a t ion . Bu t Jone s be l i eved tha t the l ine wh ich di s tingu ishes
t h e m i s s u f f i c ie n t l y o b v i o u s . N o m a t t e r w h a t p o l it i ca l c o n v i c t io n s
po l i t ica l econ om is t s he ld as ind iv idua l s , a s po l i t i ca l econ om is t s they d id
n o t d e c i d e , d i d n o t e v e n d isc uss t h e m e r i ts o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t i t u t i o n s
o r f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t c o n s i d e r e d a b s t r a c t l y . A s p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m i s ts ,
I t i s n o t o u r p r o v i n c e t o p r a i se o r b la m e t h i s o r t h a t f o r m o f g o v e rn -
241. Life Lyell I1, 37-3 9.
2 8 4
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 91/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i s t s
m e n t . . , b u t t o s h o w i n w h a t c a se s t h e e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f e a c h i s o r
i s n o t p o s s ib l e ; w h y i n s t i tu t i o n s a n d l aw s w h i c h e n d u r e a n d f l o u r is h
u n d e r o n e s t a t e o f e c o n o m i c c o n f o r m a t i o n , w i t h e r a n d d i e a w a y
w h e n t r a n s p l a n t e d w h e r e s o c i e t y d o e s n o t p r e s e n t th e m a t e r ia l s t o
g iv e t h e m l if e a n d s u p p o r t . O u r s u b j e c t th e n i s , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , t h e
m o t h e r s c ie n c e o n w h i c h t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l e g is l a t io n
r e s t s .
B u t t h o u g h t h e l in e s e p a r a t i n g p o l i t i c s a n d p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e w a s c l e a r t o
J o n e s , - i t w a s n o t s o r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t t o t h e r e a d e r s o f t h e
Edinburgh
Revi ew, the Quarterly Review, and the Westminster Revi ew, in
w h i c h
t h e g r e a t is su e s o f e c o n o m i c t h e o r y a n d e c o n o m i c p o l i c y w e r e b e i n g
d e b a t e d d u r i n g t h e f i rs t h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 242 A r t i c l e s o n
p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y i n t h e
Edinburgh Review
c a r d e d w i t h t h e m a s t r o n g
W h i g b ia s , t h o s e i n t h e
Quarterly Review an
o v e r t T o r y b i a s, a n d t h e
Westminster Review
h a d b e e n f o u n d e d i n 1 8 24 b y J e r e m y B e n t h a m
a n d J a m e s M i l l f o r t h e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f a d v a n c i n g U t i l i t a r ia n i s m .
E c o n o m i c , p o l i t ic a l , a n d s o ci a l p h i l o s o p h y w e r e f r ee l y i n t e rm i n g l e d
i n t h e s e a r ti c le s , a n d i n t h e i n f l u e n t i a l V i c t o r i a n m a g a z i n e s p o l i t i c a l
e c o n o m y h a d c e r ta i n l y b e c o m e p o l i t i c i ze d .
I s u g g es t t h a t i t w a s D a r w i n ' s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s f a c t t h a t m a d e h i m
a t t r i b u t e t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e p h y s i o l o g ic a l d i vi s i o n o f l a b o r to M i l n e-
E d w a r d s , t h e z o o l o g i s t , r a t h e r t h a n t o A d a m S m i t h , t h e p o l it i c a l
e c o n o m i s t . 243 I f o n e a s k s , W h y t h e n w a s D a r w i n n o n e t h e l e s s w i ll in g
242 . See F rank W . Fe t te r , Econ om ic Cont rover sy in the Br it ish Review,
1802-1850 ,
Economica, 0
(1965) , 4 24 .437; John Leona rd Cl ive ,
Scotch Re-
viewers: The Edinburgh Rev w, 1802-1815
(London: Faber and Faber , 1957) ;
W. Graham,
English Literary Periodicals
(New Yo rk : Thom as Ne lson , 1930); and
Michael W olf f, Vic tor ian Reviewers and C ul tur a l Resp ons ib i l i ty , in P . Ap ple ton ,
W. A. M adden, and M . W olf f , ed. ,
Eighteen Fifty-Nine: Entering and Age of Crisis
(Bloom ington: Ind iana Un ivers i ty Press, 1959) , p p. 269-289.
243. Inc iden tal ly , G. H. Lewes and H erber t Spencer were a lso s t ruck in
1852 by M i lne -Edwards ' concep t o f the phys io log ica l d iv is ion of l abor . I n h i s
Autobiography,
S p e n c e r wr i te s : L e w e s . . . h a d b r o u g h t w i t h h i m a v o lu m e b y
Milne-Edwards , an d in i t for th e f i r s t t ime I me t with the express ion - ' the
phys io log ica l d iv i sion of l abou r . ' Though the concep t ion was no t new to m e , a s i s
s h o wn t o wa r d s th e e n d o f
Social Statics,
y e t t h e m o d e o f f o r m u l a t in g i t wa s ; a n d
the phrase the rea f te r p layed a pa r t in my cour se of thought ; Herber t Spencer ,
An Autobiography,
2 vols. (New Y ork: A pp el to n, 1904) , I , 436-437. See a lso J .
A . T h o m s o n ,
Herbert Spencer
(New York: E. P . Dutton, 1906) , p . 30. In
hisSea
Side Studies
(Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1890) , p . 408 , G. H. Lewes po in ted ou t
t h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o n i s t o b e f o u n d i n Go e t h e ,
Zur Morphology
(1807) : the
Fren ch natura l is t [Milne-Edwards] having the m er i t of appl icat io n and abu nd ant
2 8 5
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 92/95
S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R
t o r e f e r e x p l i c i t l y t o M a l t h u s i n t h e
O r i g i n ?
a p a r t i a l a n s w e r i s t h a t
D a r w i n s a w t h e M a l t h u s i a n l a w s a s r e s t i n g o n b i o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s .
B y c o n t r a s t , d i v i si o n o f l a b o r a n d m o r e p a r t i c u l a rl y o p t i r n a li z a t io n p r in -
c i p l e s w e r e c o n c e p t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h U t i l it a r i a n is m , a n d U t i l i t a r i a n i s m
h a d a d e c i d e d p o l i t i c a l f l av o r .
I n F r a n c e , M i l n e - E d w a r d s f e l t p e r f e c t l y f r ee t o g iv e c r e d i t f o r h i s
i n s ig h t t o t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s , t o J e a n - B a p t i s t e S a y , i n p a r t i c u l a r . 244
S a y ' s d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e a n d p o l i t i c s a r e s e p a r a te s c i e n c es
i s a s v i g o r o u s a s t h a t o f h i s E n g l is h c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e s
o f h i s f a m o u s
T r a i t b
r e a d a s f o l l o w s : O n e h a s l o n g c o n f u s e d
P o l i t i c s ,
t h e s c ie n c e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f so c i e t ie s , w i t h
P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y
w h i c h e x p o u n d s h o w t h e w e a l t h t h a t s a t is f ie s t h e n e e d s o f s o c i e ti e s
i s p r o d u c e d , d i s t r i b u t e d a n d c o n s u m e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , w e a l t h i s e ss e n-
t i a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p o l i t ic a l o r g a n i z a ti o n . U n d e r a ll f o rm s o f
g o v e r n m e n t a s t a te c a n p r o s p e r , i f p r o p e r l y a d m i n i s te r e d . ' 2 4 s A n
e s se n t i a l d if f e re n c e b e t w e e n F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d i s t h e p a u c i t y o f m a g a -
z in e s i n w h i c h e c o n o m i c i s su e s c o u l d b e p u b l i c l y d e b a t e d i n F r a n c e ,
a n d t h e f a c t t h a t U t i l it a r i a n i s m t h e r e w a s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p o l i t i c a l
o u t l o o k . 246 E n g l a n d , b e c a u s e o f i t s l e ss s p e c i a l i z e d s c i e n t i f i c c e n t e r s ,
i t s m o r e o p e n s c i e n t if i c so c i e ti e s , i t s p o l y m a t h s , i t s s i za b l e l i te r a t e
i l lu s tra t ion o f the l aw . Fo r an in fo rma t ive and ins igh tfu l d i s cuss ion o f the back-
g round o f Spence r ' s evo lu t iona ry theo ry , s ee J . D . Y . Peel , H e r b e r t S p en c e r : T h e
E v o l u t i o n o f a S o c io l o g i s t (New Yo rk: Bas ic Books , 1971 ) .
244. J . B . Say , in turn , was inf luenced by A . P. de Cando l le ; see Can dol le ' s
M d m o i r e s e t s o u v e n ir s d e A P d e C a n d o l l e,
(Geneva, Paris : J . Ch erbu liez, 1862).
See a lso J . E. E. D. A. Acton,
H i s t o r ic a l E s s a y s a n d S t u d i e s ,
ed. J . N. Figgis and
R. V. La urence (Fr eep ort , N. Y. : Bo oks for Lib rary Presses , 1967) .
245. J . B. Say, T r a i t d d ' d c o m o m i e p o l i t i q u e o u s i m p l e e x p o s i t i o n d e l a
m a n i k re d e n t s e f e r m e n t , s e d i s t r i b u e n t e t se c o n s o m m e n t l es ri ch e ss e s, 5th ed . ,
(Par is : RapiUy, 1826) . The 4 th edi t ion was t rans la ted by C. R. Pr insep and
appea red a s J . B . Say , A T r e a t is e o n P o l it i c a l E c o n o m y (Ph i l ade lph ia : C lax ton ,
Remsen, and Haffe lf 'mger , 1880); i t has bee n rep r in te d by A ugus tus M. Kel ley
(New Yo rk, 1964). Th e preface is of pa r t icular in te res t because in i t Say discusses
h is v iews o f h i s to ry and s t a ti s ti c s . The con t ra s t be tween h i s F rench v iew and
the v iews o f the Br i t i sh i s no tewor thy . For ano the r ind ica t ion o f how wide ly
his to ry and s ta t i s t ics were conf la ted in the Cam bridge c i rc le see A. Sedgwick, A
D i s c o u r s e o n t h e S t u d i e s o f t h e U n i v e r s it y
(Cambridge, 1830), p. 74.
246. Exc ep t fo r a r t ic l e s by S i smond i and S ay , p r imar i ly in the R e v u e E n -
c y c l o p e d i q u e , o n l y t h e R evue U n i ver se l l e i n Geneva carr ied a r t ic les in French
comp arab le to those fou nd in the Vic to r i an pe r iod ica l s. Thom as Sowe ll , S a y ' s
L a w : A H i s t o r ic a l A n a l y s i s (Pr ince ton: Pr inc e ton U nivers i ty Press , 1972), wh ich
chron ic le s the deba te ove r Say ' s law in the Eng li sh and Frenc h p e r iod ica l s .
2 8 6
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 93/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
p u b li c , w h i c h s u p p o r t e d b o t h a n e t w o r k o f V i c to r i an m a g a z in e s a n d a
pop u la r s c ien t if i c -book-pub l i sh ing en te rp r i s e , w i tnes sed a d i f f e ren t
f lower ing o f i t s s c ien t i f ic ac t iv i ti e s than d id F ran ce du r ing the f i r s t ha l f
o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e g r e a t s uc c es s o f E n g l a n d 's i n d u st r ia l a n d
g e n e ra l e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g t h a t s a m e p e r i o d , w h i c h it s
l e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s a t t r i b u t e d t o i t s a d h e r e n c e t o a p o l i t i c a l
p h i l o s o p h y o f i n d iv i d u al is m , r e i n f o r c e d t h e B r i t is h c o m m i t m e n t t o a n
i n d iv i d u al is ti c a n d a t o m i c o u t l o o k i n o t h e r f ie l ds .247
I h a v e n o w r e t u r n e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n I s t a r t e d w i t h : T o w h a t e x t e n t i s
D a r w i n ' s e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y B r i t is h i n i ts c o n c e p t i o n a n d e x e c u t i o n ?
M y i n v e s t ig a t io n o f o f D a r w i n 's d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r i n c ip l e o f d iv e r-
g e nc e o f c h a r a c t e r h as t o u c h e d u p o n s o m e as p ec ts o f th e p r o b l e m . B u t
b e f o r e a n a n s w e r c a n f u l l y b e g i v e n , o t h e r s t u d i e s o f e v o l u t i o n a r y
b i o l o g y i n F r a n c e , B r i ta i n , a n d G e r m a n y w i ll h a v e t o b e u n d e r t a k e n .
S u c h f u t u r e w o r k s w i l l h a v e t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l
a s p e c ts o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s c ie n c e in t h e se c o u n t r i e s , t h e i m p a c t o f
ph i losoph ica l v iews , and espec ia l ly , the e f f e c t o f the i r d i f f e ren t v iews
conce rn ing h i s to r ic i sm. 24s
C O N C L U S I O N
Severa l s t ages can be iden t i f i ed in Darwin ' s e f fo r t to fo rmula te
na tu ra l s e lec t ion . Th e f i rs t s tage co r resp on ded , rough ly speak ing , to th e
p e r i o d u p t o 1 8 4 4 . I t w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y D a r w i n 's a t t e m p t t o b a s e h i s
m o d e l o f g e o g r a ph i c s p e c i a t io n o n a n i n d iv i d ua l is ti c d y n a m i c s , w i t h
s p ec ie s u n d e r s t o o d a s re p r o d u c t i v e l y i s o l a te d p o p u l a t i o n s . T o w a r d t h e
e n d o f t h i s p e r i o d , D a r w i n 's i g n o r a n c e o f t h e l aw s o f v a ri a ti o n s a n d
h e r e d i t y l e d h i m t o a d o p t v a r ie t ie s a n d s p ec ie s as t h e u n i t s o f v a r i a ti o n s.
T h i s h a d t h e e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o f st im u l a t in g h i m t o c o n s i d e r
t h e p r o c e s s o f s p e c i a t i o n a s involving p o p u l a t i o n s . A t t h e e n d o f t h is
pe r iod , Darw in a l so began to r egard ada p ta t io n as be ing exc lus ive ly
t o w a r d p la c es in t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e . T h u s h e f a c e d t h e p r o b l e m
o f i n t e g ra t in g t h e p r o c e s s o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f
spec ia t ion . Ind iv idua l va r ian t s were the un i t s tha t fue led the f i r st
p roces s , whereas va r ie t i e s p roduced new spec ies . There was no l ink
b e t w e e n a d a p t a t i o n a n d s p e c i a t i o n , e x c e p t w h a t e v e r c o u l d b e s u p p l ie d
247. J. B . Morrell, Individualism and the Structure o f British Science, Hist.
Stud. Phys. Sci. 3 (1971), 183-204.
248. M. J. Rud wick, Historical Analogies in th e G eological W ork o f Charles
Lyell, Janus 66 (1977), 89-107.
2 8 7
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 94/95
SILVAN S. SCHWEBER
b y a q u a s i - h i s t o r i c a l , d e v e l o p m e n t a l i d e a o f o p t i m i z i n g t h e a m o u n t
o f l i f e .
In the s econ d s t age , I co n te nd , Darwin s r ead ing o f Mi lne -Edwards
c rys tz l l i zed h i s p rev ious in sigh ts in t o a coh ere n t wh o le . Mi lne -Edwards
c o m m e n t s o n t h e a d v a n ta g e o f f u n c t i o n a l sp e c i a li z a ti o n c o u l d r e a d i ly
b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f t h e a d v a n ta g e a cc r u in g t o t h e indiv idual
r e la t iv e t o o t h e r m e m b e r s o f i t s sp e c ie s , f r o m o c c u p y i n g a d i f f e r e n t
n iche . Mi lne -Edwards d i s cuss ion o f the d iv is ion o f l abor sugges ted tha t
o rg a ni sm s w h i c h m o v e d i n t o u n o c c u p i e d n i c he s w o u l d e n j o y r e d u c e d
co m pe t i t ion , and hen ce a d i f f e ren t i a l advan tage in surv ival and r e -
p r o d u c t i o n ; t h u s t h e y w o u l d i n d u c e t h e s p e c i e s t o d o l i k e w i s e . R a t h e r
t h a n b a se h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o n a n a n a l o g y w i t h t h e a rt if ic i al e c o n o m y ,
D a r w i n c h o s e t h e p r i n c i p le o f . t h e o p t i m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f l if e
pe r u n i t a r ea as the overa l l ex p la na t o ry p r inc ip le . Th e d i f fi cu l t i e s
c o n n e c t e d w i t h i n t e g r a ti n g d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f d e s c r i p t i o n w e r e t h e r e f o r e
c i r c u m v e n t e d , i n s o f a r a s t h e p r o b l e m o f d i v e r s i t y a n d s p e c i a t i o n w a s
concerned . A l though na tu ra l s e lec t ion cons ide red ind iv idua l s a s the
un i t s o f s e lec t ion , an d the u n i t s o f va r i a t ions were va r i e ti e s and spec ies ,
t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e p r o c e s s u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n ,
c o m p e t i t i o n , d i vi si o n o f l a b o r a n d n i c h e s c o u l d g iv e a p l a us ib l e a c c o u n t
o f h o w i n d iv i d u a l a d v an t a g e c o u l d b e t r a n s f e r re d t o t h e s p ec ie s , a n d
h o w d i v e rs i ty r e s u lt e d f r o m t h is m e c h a n i s m . T h e p r o b l e m o f t h e d i f-
f e r e n t l e v e l s o f d e s c r i p t i o n s w a s c o n f i n e d t o h o w t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f
va r ia t ions in ind iv idua ls ( in p a r t i cu la r , the f r eq ue ncy o f va r i a t ions
and the i r t r ansmis s ion ) w ere r espons ib le fo r the as sumed va r iab il i ty
charac te r i s t i c o f va r i e t i e s and spec ies . Th i s p rob lem Darwin never
solved.
A t h i r d s ta g e o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 5 8 w i t h t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n o f t h e t re e -
o f - li f e v izua l iza t ion o f the p roces s o f spec ia t ion . Spec ia t ion , geograph ic
d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d s y s t e m a t i c s w e r e a l l t h e n e m b e d d e d i n a c o n c e p t u a l
m a t r i x w i t h v a s t e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r s .
A c k n o w l e d g m e n ts
M y s p ec ia l t h a n k s g o t o C a m i ll e L i m o g e s a n d E r n s t M a y r . T h e i r
w r i ti n g s a n d m y d is c us si o ns w i t h t h e m w e r e t h e p r i m a r y i n s p i ra t i o n f o r
th i s paper . Jo n Ho dge and M ichae l Gh ise l in generou s ly gave me the
b e n e f i t o f t h e i r v a s t k n o w l e d g e o f b i o l o g y , D a r w i n , a n d t h e h i s t o r y o f
b io logy . I have benef i t ed a l so f rom d i s cus s ions w i th and sugges t ions
f r o m J o h n B e a t t y , R a l p h C o l p , S te v e G o u l d , D a v id K o h n , D o v O s p o v a t,
D iane Pa t ti , and Ma r t in Rud wick ; I than k them . D iscus sions w i th J ane t
2 8 8
7/23/2019 Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/schweber-darwin-and-the-political-economists 95/95
D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s
B r o w n e , w h o i n d e p e n d e n t l y h a s w o r k e d o n D a r w in s g e ne sis o f t h e
d i v er g e nc e o f c h a r a c t e r , w e r e p a r t i c u l a rl y h e l p f u l a n d s t im u l a t in g . I a m
i n d e b t e d t o h e r f o r t h e s e a n d f o r h e r c r i ti c a l c o m m e n t s o n t h e f ir s t
d r a f t o f t h i s p a p e r . T h e h e l p f u l c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s b y t h e
r e f e r e e f o r t h i s j o u r n a l h a v e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e f i n a l v e r s i o n o f
the paper . Th i s wo rk w as begun whi le I was a r e sea rch as soc ia te in the
D e p a r t m e n t o f H i s t o r y o f S c i e n c e a t H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y . I a m g r a t e f u l
f o r t h e w a r m h o s p i t a l it y s h o w n m e b y t h e m e m b e r s o f th e d e p a r t m e n t
a n d e s p e c i a ll y f o r t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d h e l p o f E r w i n H i e b e r t .
I t i s aga in a r ea l p leasu re to tha nk P e te r G au t r ey fo r h i s a ss i st ance in
m a k i n g t h e D a r w i n m a t e ri a ls a t t h e C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s it y L i b r a r y
a v ai la b le t o m e a n d f o r g u i d in g m e t o u s e f u l s o u rc e s . I t h a n k t h e S y n d i c s
o f C a m b r i dg e U n i v e r si t y L i b r a r y a n d t h e L i b r a ri a n s o f t h e H o u g h t o n
L i b r a r y a n d o f t h e M u s eu m o f C o m p a r a ti v e Z o o l o g y a t H a rv a rd f o r
pe rm is s ion to qu o te f rom m ate r i a l s in the i r a r ch ives. F ina l ly , I g ra te fu l ly
a c k n o w l e d g e t h e f in a n c i a l s u p p o r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o f L e a r n e d
Socie t ies .