Schweber Darwin and the Political Economists

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D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i st s D i v e r g e n c e

o f Cha rac ter

SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

Brandeis University

Waltham Massachusetts

Every one knows how greedily a theorist pounces on a fact, highly

favourable to his views.

- Charles Darwin, 1846

INTRODUC'I~ION

Natural Selection has become a paradigm for the demons trati on

of the influence of external factors on the formulation of scientific

theories. Darwin himself indi cated th at reading Malthus in 1838 was a

key factor in arriving at his theory, 1 and the Malthusian infl uence is

undeniably present. Yet the linkage between natural selection and the

social and political envi ronm ent in which it was formulated is complex. 2

The fact is that Darwin had read the Malthusian statements on several

occasions before Sept ember of 1838. 3 Moreover, even a cursory look

1. Autobiography in Francis Darwin, ed., The Life and Letters of Charles

Darw/n, ed. 2 vols. (New York: Appleton, 1896), I, 68. Hereafter, this book is

cited as LLD.

2. For a contrast of views on the issue, see, e.g., G. Himmelfarb, Darwin and

the Darwinian Revolution

(New York: Doubleday, 1959); Gavin de Beer,

Charles

Darwin: Evolution by Natural Selection (New York: Doubleday, 1964); R. M.

Young, Malthus and the Evolutionists, Past and Present 43 (1969), 109-141;

P. J. Vorzimmer, Darwin, Malthus, and the Theory of Natural Selection, Z

Hist. Biol. 30 (1969), 527-542; S. Herbert, Darwin, Malthus and Selection,

J. Hist. Biol. 4 (1971), 209-217; M. T. Ghiselin, The Triumph of the Darwinian

Method (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969); C. Limoges,La s~l~ction

naturelle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1970); E. Mayr, Darwin and

Natural Selection, Amer. Sci. 65 (1977), 321-327; E. Mayr,Evolution and the

Diversity of Life: Selected Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1976). One

of the most perceptively and persuasively argued cases for the complexity of the

situation is P. Bowler, Malthus, Darwin, and the Concept of Struggle, J.

Hist.

Ideas 37 (1976), 631-650.

3. He had read it in Paley's Natural Theology while an undergraduate at

Cambridge and in 1833 in Humboldt's Political Essay on the Kingdom of New

Spain (New York: Riley, 1811) in Buenos Aires, while the Beagle docked there;

Journal o f the History of Biology vol. 13, no. 2 (FaU 1980) pp. 195-289.

0022-5010/80/0132-0195 $09.50.

Copyright ©

1980

by D. Reidel Publishing Co. Dordrecht Holland and Boston U.S.A



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

at the Victorian periodicals of the 1830s makes it clear that the laws

governing the growth of po pulat ion were central to ma ny of the politi-

cal and economic issues being debated at the time and that it would

have been difficult for anyone reading the

E d i n b u r g h R e v i e w

or the

Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w , as Darwin did, not to be familiar with Malthus'

thesis. 4

Any clarification of the process by which Darwin got a theory by

which to wo rk must account for the resonance set up in Darwin's

min d in September 1838 by the interac tion of external and internal

factors. At the very least this implies a careful analysis of the evo luti on

and development of the scientific part of Darwin's endeavors. For as

C. C. Gillispie has aptly no te d in sharpening Pasteur's famou s stat emen t

about chance favoring the prepared mind, the mind has to be not

only prepared b ut cocked ahead of time. 's In September 1838 that

was certainly true of Darwin's mind. Darwin came to Malthus not for

his amu se me nt - as he would have us believe - bu t after reading

Brewster's review of the first two volumes of Comte's

P h i l o s o p h i e

p o s i t i v e . Reading that review had led him to Quetelet's S u r l S o m m e ,

and to a lengthy review of it in the

A t h e n a e u m .

It was there that he

once again came across the Malthusian principle of p opu lat ion growth. 6

His scientific inquiries were thus the stimulus that led him to Malthus,

and in the summer of 1838, when Darwin was led to Malthus by way of Quetelet,

he was also rereading Humboldt's

Political Essay.

The C transmutation notebook

has the following entry on p. 268: Humboldt: New Spain much about castes

etc. ; and on the same page appears: Find out from Statistical Society where M.

Quetelet has published his laws about sexes relative to age of marriages. All

four transmutation notebooks are transcribed in Gavin de Beer, ed., Darwin's

Notebooks on Transmutation of Species, Bull . Brit . Mus. Nat. H ist .) Hist . Se t .) ,

2 ,

(1960), De Beer, M. J. Rowlands, and B. M. Skramorski, ed., Pages Excised

by Darwin, ibid., 3 (1967), 129-176 (excised pages). De Beer's First, Second,

Third, and Fourth notebooks correspond to Darwin's B, C, D, and E note-

books. Throughout I will cite them by Darwin's letter and page number followed

by a lower-case e in the case of excised pages: e.g., C, p. 123.

4. See, e.g., Elie Haldvy, The

Gr ow th o f Philosophic Radicalism

(Boston:

Beacon Press, 1955); Edwin Cannan,

A H is tory o f the Theories o f Product ion and

Dis tr ibut ion in Engl ish Pol i t ical Economy from 1776 to 1848,

3rd ed. (London:

Staples Press, 1917).

5. C. C. GiUispie, private communication. Pasteur's original statement is: In

the fields of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind ; quoted in Rend

Vallery-Radot,

La vie de Pasteur

(Pads: Haehette, 1900), p. 88.

6. See S. S. Schweber, 'The Origin of the

Origin

Revisited, Z

Hist. Biol., 10

(1977), 229-316.

196



Darwin and the Political Economists

and in September 1838 his researches were at a stage where he could

assimilate and use Malthus' insight.

The interaction of external and internal factors is no less important

in explaining the process by which Darwin arrived at his principle of

divergence of character - his explanation o f how diversity is generated.

In this paper I analyze some of the external and internal aspects of the

genesis of the principle of divergence of character, focusing particularly

on the relationship between political economy and evolutionary theory.7

As will become clear, there are many parallels between how Darwin

came to formulate natural selection and how he arrived at the principle

of divergence. Darwin himself indicated that his explanation of the

divergence of characters was essentially equivalent to the concept of the

physiological division of labour that Milne-Edwards had promulgated

in his writings, a That principle, I shall show, was certainly known to

Darwin before 1852, the date usually ascribed to Darwin's insight after

his reading of Milne-Edwards' In troduction h la zoologie gbn~rale. 9

Milne-Edwards himself credited his formulation o f the concept of the

division of physiological labor to the writings of political economists.

Darwin never so credited his principle, yet as I shall document, he was

certainly familiar with the doctrines o f the leading political economists

of the day. The question therefore arises why Milne-Edwards in France

7. For previous investigations of this question, see L. Eisely,

Darwin's Century

N e w York: Anchor Books, 1961), pp. 182-184; C. Limoges, Darwin, Milne-

Edwards, et le prineipe de divergence, XII Congrks International d'Histoire des

Sciences, 1968, 111-115; C. Limoges,La s~lection natureUe, pp. 135-137; Robert

Young, Darwinism and the Division of Labour, The Listener, 88 (1972), 202-

205; H. Grubor and P. Barrett,

Darwin on Man

(New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974),

pp. 117-118; M. P. Winsor,Starfish, Jellyfish, and the Order of Life (New Haven:

Yale University Press, 1976), pp. 171-178;E. Mayr,Evolution and the Diversity of

Life; M. T. Ghiselin, The Economy of Nature and the Evolution of Sex (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1974); W. Faye Cannon, The WheweU-Darwin

Controversy, J.

Geol. Soc., 132

(1976), 377-384; Donald Worster,

Nature's

Economy: The Roots o f Ecology

(San Francisco: Sierra Book Club, 1977); Janet

Browne, '~he Charles Darwin-Joseph Hooker Correspondence: An Analysis of

Manuscript Resources and Their Use in Biography, J.

Soc. Bibliog. Nat. Hist., 8

(1978), 352-366.

8. R. C. Stauffer, ed.

Charles Darwin's Natural Selection

(Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 233; Charles Darwin, On the Origin of

Species,

facsimile of the 1st edition, with an Introduction by Ernst Mayr (Cam-

bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964),

p . 1 0 1 .

9. H. Milne-Edwards, Introduction ~ la zoologie g~n~rale ou considerations

sur les tendances de la nature dans la constitution du rbgne animal (Paris: Victor

Masson, 1851).

197



SILVAN S. SCHW EBER

f r e e ly a d d u c e d p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y a s a s o u r c e f o r a b i o lo g i c a l p r i n c ip l e ,

w h e r e a s D a r w i n i n E n g l a n d s t e a d f a s tl y r e f u s e d t o d o s o .

T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e n es is o f t h e p r in c i p le o f d i v er g e n c e t h e r e f o r e

r e q u i r e s f u l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l a s w e l l a s i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s . C o n -

c e r n i n g t h e f o r m e r , m a n y s c h o la r s h a v e s u g g e st e d t h a t t a k e n a s a w h o l e

D a r w i n i a n t h e o r y i s c h a r a c t e ri s ti c a ll y B r it is h . S e v e n t y y e a r s a g o J o h n

T h e o d o r e M e r z i n h i s c la s si c

History o f European Thought

v e n t u r e d t h e

o p i n i o n t h a t p h y s i o l o g y a n d e c o n o m i c s j o i n e d h a n d lo i n V i c t o ri a n

E n g l a n d . D a r w i n ' s

Origin of Species

c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s e v o l u -

t i o n a r y t h o u g h t j o i n i n g h a n d w i t h B r it is h p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y a n d B r it is h

p h i l o s o p h y o f s c ie n c e . M y a i m i n i n v e st ig a t in g t h e f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d

D a r w i n ' s th i n k i n g a b o u t t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f d i v e r si ty is t o s u b s t a n ti a te t h e

t h e si s o f t h e u n i q u e l y B r i t is h c h a r a c t e r o f D a r w i n i a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y .

T h e p h i l o s o p h y o f in d i v id u a l is m t h a t D a r w i n s u b s c r ib e d t o w a s , o f

c o u r s e , a c h a r a c t er i s ti c f e a t u r e o f t h e s c h o o l o f B r i ti sh p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y

f r o m A d a m S m i t h t o M c C u l l o c h . A f f i n i t y f o r , a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h ,

i n d iv i d u a li st ic ( a t o m i c ) e x p l a n a t i o n s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n f e a t u r e s o f

t h e B r i ti sh m i n d i n t h e f ir st h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I t is o n e o f

m y a im s h e r e t o a n al y z e t o w h a t e x t e n t D a r w i n ' s c o m m i t m e n t t o

i n d i v i d u a l is m r e f l e ct s a n i n d e b t e d n e s s t o t h e p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m i s t s a n d

t o t h e B e n t h a m i t e d e d u c t i v e a p p r o a c h t o p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y . S i m i la r ly ,

I a t t e m p t t o s h o w t h a t , w h e r e a s o n t h e C o n t i n e n t u n i v e rs a l p r in c i p le s

w e r e b e i n g a d v a n c e d t o a c c o u n t f o r n a t u r e ' s d i v e rs it y , D a r w i n w a s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y B r i t i s h i n s t r e s s i n g t h e n e e d t o u n d e r s t a n d p a r t i c u l a r

a n d s e p ar a te p h e n o m e n a a s r e f le c t in g u n iv e rs a ls . 11 B u t u n d o u b t e d l y

D a r w i n ' s c o n s t a n t a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n a ll i ts

u n i q u e n e s s i n o r d e r t o a p p r e h e n d t h e u n iv e r sa l fe a t u r es o f i ts h i s t o r y

a r e a l so a s p e c t s o f h i s g e n i u s.

1o. John Theodore Merz , A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth

Century 4 vols. (Edinburgh, 1904-1912), II , 395 -396 ,415 . See also the perceptive

remarks in vol. I comparing the British approach with that o f the contine nt in

physics, mathematics, and the other sciences. For comments on a somewhat

later period, see Gerald L. Geison,

Michael Foster and the Cambridge School o f

Physiology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 220, 348-351.

11. Darwin's indebtedness to Scott ish philosophy merits a thorough study.

Scott ish philosophy from Hume to Dugalt Stewart and Thomas Browne rejected

the notion that one could explain anything by referring to ult imate principles or

processes whose existence and operation could not be ascertained from the

observation o f part icular instances. An d H um e's notion o f causali ty played a

central role in the development o f the social sciences and in ascertaining

mechanisms of evolution. See Norman Kemp Smith, The Philosophy of David

Hume (Lo ndo n: Macmil lan, 1941); Thom as Browne 's Inqu iry into the Rela tion

of Cause and Effects , in Geo ffrey Keynes, ed., The Works of Sir Thomas Browne

1 9 8



D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m i s t s

O f c o u r s e , i n t e m a l f a c t o r s a ls o p l a y e d a r o le in t h e g e n e s is o f D a r -

w i n ' s p r i n c i p l e o f d i v e r g en c e o f c h a r a c te r . I n f a c t , D a r w i n h a d a l r e a d y

o b t a i n e d t h e

essential

i n s ig h t s i n t o t h e d i v e r g e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r s d u r i n g

t h a t a m a z i n g l y c r e at iv e p e r i o d f r o m 1 8 3 7 t o 1 8 4 1 . W h e n h e w r o t e th e

S k e t c h 12 i n 1 8 4 2 , D a r w i n v e r y p r o b a b l y th o u g h t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m

h a d b e e n s o l v e d . I n t h e e n s u i n g y e a r s , h e e v i d e n t l y f o r g o t s o m e o f t h e

i n s i g h ts h e h a d e a r l i e r r e c o r d e d in h i s n o t e b o o k s , f o r t h e E s s a y o f

1 8 4 4 i s m u c h l e s s e x p l i c i t o n t h e i s su e t h a n t h e S k e t c h o f 1 8 4 2 .

T h e q u e s t i o n i s w h y ? F o r t h e a n s w e r , I b e l ie v e w e m u s t e x p l o r e c e r t a in

p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n s . W h e n D a r w i n o p e n e d h is t r a n s m u t a t i o n

n o t e b o o k s 13 i n J u l y 1 8 3 7 h e w a s e l a b o r a t i n g t w o r e s e a rc h p r o g r a m s

s i m u l t a n e o u s ly . O n t h e o n e h a n d , h e w as t r y i n g t o c o r r o b o r a t e t h e

fact

o f e v o l u t i o n , a n d o n t h e o t h e r , h e w a s s ea r c h in g f o r t h e

mechanism

o f

e v o l u t io n . A l t h o u g h D a r w i n r e a li z ed th a t t h e t w o p r o g r a m s co u l d b e

k e p t s e p a r a te , t h e y n o n e t h e l e s s b e c a m e i n t e r t w i n e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f te r

t h e M a l t h u s i a n i n s ig h t . I b e l ie v e t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g t h is in s i g h t

D a r w i n f e l t t h a t h e h a d a u n i v e r sa l m e c h a n i s m a n d t h a t n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n

6 vols. , (L ond on : Fa ber and Gw yer , 1928); J . B . M orre l l , ' q 'h e Un ivers i ty of

Ed inburgh in the La te E igh teen th Cen tu ry ,

1sis, 62

(1971) , 158-171. F or re -

marks on the Br i t i sh cha rac te r o f Da rwin ian evo lu t ion see E . M ayr , Fh e Na tu re

o f the Darwin ian Revo lu t ion ,

Science, 176

(1971) , 981-989, re pr in ted in M ayr ' s

Evolution and the Diversity o f Life, pp . 277-296 . The a t t empt to cha rac te r i ze

Darwinian evolu t ionary the ory as Bri t ish has a long his to ry . I t has been observed

repea ted ly tha t J ames Cowles Pr i cha rd , Wi ll iam Lawrence , Joseph Adam s , J ames

An derson , Wil liam M arsha ll , an d Char les W ells, among others , were look ing for a

mechanism to exp la in the or ig in of organ ic d ivers i ty based sole ly on individu al

he red i ty and va r i a t ion . See Herbe r t Hayes Odo m, Gro und Work fo r Da rwini sm:

The ories of Here di ty and Varia t ion in Gre a t Bri ta in , 1790 -1820 , Ph.D. d iss .,

Harvard Univers i ty , 1972; P. J . Dar l ington, Darwin's Place in History (Oxfo rd :

BlackweU, 1959), pp. 19-24; Jacques Roger,

Les sciences de la vie dans la pens~e

franeaise du XVlI1e sibcle (Paris: A Col in , 1963); and J . B . M orre l l , Individua l ism

and the St ruc ture of Bri t i sh Sc ience in 1830, Hist. Stud. Phys. Sci., 3 (1971) ,

183-204.

12 . Bo th the Ske tch o f 1842 and the Es say o f 1844 appea r in Cha rles

Darwin, The Foundations of the Origin of Species : Two Essays Written in

1842 and 1844, ed. Fran c is Darwin (Cam bridge: Cambridge Un ivers i ty Press ,

1909), and in Charles Darwin and A. R. Wallace,

Evolution by Natural Selection

(Cambridge: Cam bridge Univers i ty Press , 1958). My c i ta t ions re fer to the Darwin

and W allace bo ok .

13 . De Beer , ed . , Da rw in ' s No tebook s on T ransm uta t ion o f Spec ie s ; Gav in

de Bee r and M. J . Rowlands , ed . , Ad den da and Cor r igenda , Bull. Brit. Mus.

(Nat. Hist.) Hist Ser., 2 (1961 ); De Beer, Row lands , and Sk ram orski , ed . , Pages

Exc i s ed by Darw in , pp . 129-176.

1 9 9



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

would metamorphose all of biology, in the same way that Newton's

insights had revolutionized the physical sciences. 14 In the summer of

1839, when Darwin dosed his fourth transmutation notebook, he had

a unitary evolutionary view of everything around him: the planetary

system, our own planet, its geology, geography, and climate, its living

organisms (including, of course, man) and their social organizations.

More important, he was convinced that the dynamics of this evolu-

tionary process was explained by the invariable laws of physics and

chemistry and by natural selection without the necessity of divine

intervention at any stage or level.

Ghiselin has perceptively and convincingly argued that to under-

stand the genesis and execution of the various research programs

Darwin undertook after 1839, one must keep in mind the centrality of

natural selection as the dynamical exl~lanatory theory. Is From 1839 to

1859 Darwin was committed to the following overall view of natural

selection:

Members of a species exhibit variations. These variations are

manifest in individuals as different morphologies, physiologies, and

behaviors. Some of these variations are heritable. Because in each

generation more individuals are produced than can survive to reproduce,

there is a struggle for existence. In this struggle (which is interspecific,

intraspecific, and with the physical environment), certain heritable

traits will render an organism better adapted to its environment than

other members of the species (not endowed with this trait or endowed

with other traits). The fitter individuals - tha t is, the ones better

adapted to their environment - will therefore leave more offspring

(with similar traits). Adaptation of the various parts of an organism or

between the organism and its environment is, however, never perfect.

The many needs of the organism, the complexity of the organism and

of the environment, all make perfect adaption 16 impossible even for

the simplest organism (although for some organisms their adaptation

14. S. S. Schweber, The Young Darwin, £ His t . Bio l . 12 (1979), 175-192.

15. Ghiselin, The T r i u m p h o f t h e D a r w i n ia n M e t h o d .

16. In the Essay of 1844 Darwin does speak of perfect adaptation with

reference to sexual selection: '°rhe most rigorous males, implying perfect ad-

aptation, must generally gain the victory in their several contexts. This kind of

selection, however, is less rigorous than the other [i.e., natural] (p. 121). For a

sharply contrasting view, see Dov Ospovat, Darwin after Malthus, address at

the History of Science meeting, Madison, Wisconsin, Oct. 31, 1978, and '~Perfect

Adaptation and Teleological Explanation: Approaches to the Problem of the

History of Life in Mid-Nineteenth Century,

Stud. Hist . Biol . 2

(1978), 33-56.

200



D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i ca l E c o n o m i s t s

t o t h e i r e s s e n t i a ll y c o n s t a n t e n v i r o n m e n t i s s u c h a s t o a l lo w t h e m t o

s u rv i ve w i t h o u t f u r t h e r e v o l u t i o n f o r v e r y l o n g t i m e s ) .

B u t t h e c a u se s o f v a r i a ti o n s , a n d o f t h e i r f r e q u e n c y , c o n s t i t u t e d

p r o b l e m s t h a t D a r w i n w a s t o g r a p p le w i t h u n su c c e s sf u l l y t h r o u g h o u t

h i s l if e . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f s ex u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n w i t h v a r i a t io n s h a d b e e n

a p p a r e n t t o h im f r o m t h e t i m e h e o p e n e d t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n n o t e b o o k s .

I t i s o n e o f D a r w i n ' s g r e a t i n s ig h t s t h a t h e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t v a r i a ti o n s

w e r e n o n d i r e c t e d a s e a r l y a s 1 8 3 8 , a n d c o u l d a c c e p t t h e m a t h i s l e v el

o f d e s c r i p t i o n a s r a n d o m e l e m e n t s - e ve n t h o u g h h e b e l i ev e d t h a t

u l t i m a t e l y t h e y w e r e c a u s e d . T h e r o le o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n c a u si n g

v a r i a t i o n s w a s c o m p l e x a n d d i f f i c u l t t o s p e c i fy . D a r w i n b e l i ev e d t h a t

a n o r g a n i s m p l a c e d u n d e r n e w c o n d i t i o n s v ar ie s i n e v e r y t r if l in g

r e sp e c t 1 7 t o s o m e d e g r e e a n d t h a t s o m e o f th e s e s l ig h t v a r i a t io n s a re

( o r te n d t o b e c o m e ) h e r e d i t a r y .

T h e d y n a m i c i n t e r r e la t i o n b e t w e e n e n v i r o n m e n t , v a r ia t io n s , n a t u r a l

s e l e c t i o n , a n d a d a p t a t i o n s w a s a l w a y s p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f D a r w i n ' s o v e r a ll

v i ew . N a t u r a l s e l e c t io n r i g o r o u s l y s e l e c t e d v a r i a t io n s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e

e l e m e n t s t h a t w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r v a r i a t i o n s a n d t h e r a t e o f v a r i a ti o n s .

I n t h a t s en s e n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n h a d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e o r i g in o f s ex .

I n d e e d , o n e o f D a r w i n ' s r e s e a r c h e f fo r t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l if e w a s t o e x -

p l a in t h e o r ig i n o f s e x a n d s u ch r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s as h e r m a p h r o d i s m ,

T

t h e d i c h o g a m y o f p l a n t s , 19 a n d t h e d i m o r p h i s m o f s e x u a l l y r e p r o d u c i n g

o r g a n i s m s . 2 ° T o D a r w i n t h e s e l f -r e f l e x iv e a n d s e l f - r e g u l a ti n g c h a r a c t e r

o f h i s d y n a m i c t h e o r y w a s o n e o f i t s e s se n t i a l a s p ec t s . I f t o t h e y o u n g

D a r w i n o f 1 8 3 9 i t w a s th i s f e a t u r e w h i c h m a d e h i m h o p e h is t h e o r y

m i g h t i n d e e d e n c o m p a s s t h e e n t i r e b io l o g i c a l s p h e r e , t h i s s a m e a s p e c t

17. Darw in and Wal lace , Evo lu t ion by Na tura l Se lec t ion p . 41 . The quo ta t ion

occurs in the open ing s en tence o f the Ske tch o f 1842 .

18 . Da rw in 's in t e re s t in he rmap hrod i sm i s a l ready ev iden t in the no teboo ks .

See, e.g., B, p. 96 , C, p. 245, D, p. 174, a nd E , pp . 70-71. See th e l is t ings in

Co nco rdan ce -D arw in Manusc ript s a t Cambr idge Unive rs i ty L ib ra ry , ed . P . H .

Ba rre t t (Michigan S ta te U nivers i ty , 1977). I than k Professor Ba rre t t for mak ing

a copy o f the Con cordance avai lab le to me .

19 . Box 49 o f Da rwin ' s pape rs a t Cambr idge Unive rs i ty L ib ra ry con ta ins

h i s no te s on d ichogam y in p lan t s ( the m a tu r ing o f the an the rs and s tigmas o f

ind iv idua l f lower a t d i f fe ren t t imes ) da ted 1841 . A t tha t t ime Darwin v iewed

d ichogam y no t o n ly a s a dev ice to reduce the s e l f- fe r ti l iz a t ion o f ind iv idua l f lowers

bu t also as a means o f favoring th e crossing o f diffe ren t individuals .

20. In his A u t o b i o g r a p h y L L D p . 74 , Da rwin wro te , I had no t i ced in 1838

o r 1 8 3 9 t h e d i m o r p h i s m o f Linum f la i r im and had a t f i r s t t hough t tha t i t was

mere ly a case o f unmean ing va r i ab i li ty . Bu t on examin ing the com mo n spec ie s

o f Pr imula I found tha t the two fo rms were mu ch too regu la r and cons tan t to be

thus v iewed .

2 0 1



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

may well have d eluded the older Darwin in to believing that he was no t

abando ning his original theory when he adopted a more Lamarckian

position in the third a nd later editions of the Origin.

I submit that in 1839 Darwin felt that the p henomenological facts

that he had accumulated in the transmut ation notebooks would be

explained by natural selection, in con jun cti on with geological, geo-

graphic, and climatological data and principles. I believe that in 1839

Darwin felt confid ent th at na tural selection would explain not only the

two primary facts of the biological world, adap tati on and the increasing

diversity of organisms over t ime, bu t also such Cuviedan formal laws as

the uni ty of type, the condit ions of existence, and the correlation

of parts (to the exten t that they were true), and more particularly, the

many biogeographical facts that he had gleaned from his vast readings

and that play a central role in the tran smut atio n notebooks. 21 Darwin

21. The centrality of biogeography in the notebooks has been stressed by

Limoges, La sdlection naturelle pp. 57-59, and by R. C. Stauffer, Ecology in the

long Manuscript Version of Darwin's Origin of Species and Linnaeus' Economy of

Nature, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 104 (1960), 235-241, and Haeckel, Darwin,

and Ecology, Quart. Rev. Biol. 32 (1937), 138-144. See also P. Vorzirnmer,

Darwin's Ecology and Its Influence upon His Theory,

Isis 56

(1965), 148-155;

F. Egerton, Humboldt, Darwin, and Population, J. Hist. Biol. 3 (1970), 326-

360; Egerton, Studies of Animal Population from Lamarck to Darwin, aT.Hist.

Biol. 1

(1968), 255-259. For earlier but post-Or/gin, nontechnical presentations

of biogeography, see Asa Gray, Species as to Variation, Geographical Distribu-

tion, and Succession, Amer. J. Sci. and Arts May 1863, reprinted in Asa Gray,

Darwiniana ed. A. H. Dupree (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,

1963). Biogeography also played a major role in Wallace's development of natural

selection theory. In 1876, with Darwin's encouragement, Wallace wrote The

Geographical Distribution of Animals (London: Macmillan, 1876), noting in the

preface: I am well aware that this first outline of a great subject is, in parts, very

meagre and sketchy; and, though perhaps overburdened with some kinds of

detail, yet leaves many points most inadequately treated. It is therefor~ with some

hesitation that I venture to express the hope that I have made some approach to

the standard of excellence I have aimed at; - which was, that my book should

bear a similar relation to the eleventh and twelfth chapters of the Origin of

Species as Mr. Darwin's Animals and Plants Under Domestication does to the

first chapter of that work. Should it be judged worthy of such a rank, my long,

and often wearisome labours, will be well repaid. See also A. R. Wallace and W.

T. Thiselton-Dyer, '~flie Distribution of Life, Animal and Vegetable in Space

and Time, Humboldt Library of Popular Science Literature January 1885;

and Thiselton-Dyer's Geographical Distribution of Plants and Hans Gadow's

Geographical Distribution of Animals, chap. 16 and 17 in A. C. Seward, ed.,

Darwin and Modern Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1909). For

other interesting articles on biogeography, see David Starr Jordan, Isolation as a

Factor in Organic Evolution, in Fifty Years of Darwinism: Modern Aspects o f

202




h i m s e l f st r e ss e d t h a t t h e b i o g e o g r a p h y o f th e G a l ~ p a g o s w a s c ru c i a l f o r

h i s re c o g n i t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n i n n a t u r e .

B i o g e o g r a p h y w a s o f p a r t ic u l a r in t e r e s t t o D a r w i n n o t o n l y b ec a u s e

i t c o u l d s t r e n g t h e n t h e c a s e fo r e v o l u t i o n ( d e s c e n t a n d th e a s s u m p t i o n

t h a t s p e c i e s o r i g i n a t e i n w e l l - d e f i n e d si n g le c e n t e r s a t w e l l - d e f ' m e d t i m e s

a n d m i g r a te t h e r e f r o m b e i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e q u a l i ta t iv e fa c ts o f

g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ) , b u t a l so b e c a u s e b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l d a t a c o u l d

b e e x p r e s s e d q u a n t i t a t iv e l y . A f t e r t h e M a l t h u s i a n i n s ig h t , t h e i s su e

b e c a m e h o w n a t u r a l s e le c t io n a n d t h e g e o lo g i ca l h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r t h

w o u l d a c c o u n t f o r t h e se b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c ts . 2 z T h a t s o m e o f t h e f a c t s

w e r e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y s t a t e d a s s t a t is t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s m a d e t h e m v e r y

a t t r a c t iv e s i n ce D a r w i n ag r e e d w i t h H e r s c h e l a n d C o m t e t h a t t h e

u l t i m a t e o b j e c t o f p h y s i c a l t h e o r i e s is t o

p r e d i c t , a s e x a c t l y a s p o s s i b l e

a ll th e p h e n o m e n a w h i c h a b o d y w i l l p r e s e n t w h e n p l a c e d in a n y g i v en

c i r c u m s t a n c e s . 2 3

B y t h e 1 8 4 0 s b i o g e o g r a p h y w a s t h e c o r e o f n a t u r a l h i s t o r y . I m -

p o r t a n t b i o g e o g r a p h ic a l q u e s t io n s w e r e b e in g p o s e d b y m e n w i t h

t ra i n in g a n d c o m p e t e n c e i n b o t a n y a n d / o r z o o l o g y a n d in g e o l o g y ,

p a l e o n t o l o g y , a n d g e o g r a p h y , m e n s u c h a s L y e l l , E . F o r b e s , J . H o o k e r ,

a n d D a n a . B u t n o n e o f t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s w a s t r y i n g t o a n s w e r si m u l-

t a n e o u s l y a s m a n y q u e s t i o n s a s D a r w i n . F o r b e s i d e s a d d r e s s in g t h e i s su e

o f c e n t e r s o f c r e a t i o n , D a r w i n w a s a l so u s i n g b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l d a t a t o

c l a r i f y t h e r o l e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n p r o d u c i n g v a r i a t io n s , t o v e r i f y h i s

a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e a b s o l u t e n e s s o f c o m p e t i t i o n , t o s u p p o r t h i s

Evo lu t ion

(New Yo rk : Hen ry Hol t , 1909) ; J . B . S . Ha ldane , Na tura l Se lec t ion ,

in P. R. Bell , ed. ,

Darwin 's Biological Work: Some Aspec ts Recons idered

(Cam-

br idge: Cam br idge Univers i ty Press, 1959); and P . J . Dar l ington , J r . , Darw in and

Z o o g e o g r a p h y ,

Proc . Am er . P hi l. Soc . , 10 3

(1959), 307-319.

2 2 . T h e n o t e b o o k s c o n t a i n m a n y r e f e r e n c e s t o A . y o n Hu m b o l d t a n d A .

B o n p l a n d ' s

Essai sur la g~ographie des plantes

(Par is , 1805) and to Humboldt ' s

l a te r e s says on the l aws obse rved in the d i s t r ibu t ion of vege tab le fo rms . Th e

la t te r e s says (or ig ina l ly wr i t t en in F rench) were t r ans la ted in to Engl i sh and

a p p e a r e d in t h e Phi l. M ag. J . , 4 7 (1816) , 446 , and in the Edinburgh Phil. J., 6

(1822) , 273. The ea r l ier essay a lso app eared in 1817 as

De Dis tr ibut ione Geo-

graphica Plantarum

(Pads ) ; the r e Humbold t showed tha t in p lan t s the average

num ber of species in genera i s l a rge r by a f ac tor o f two in F rance as compared

wi th the num ber in L apland . Hum bold t be l ieved tha t the num ber of spec ies in

each order i s de te rmined by a m athem at ica l law and tha t th i s l aw r emains cons tan t

th rough out any geo log ica l epoch . Darwin apprec ia ted Hum bold t ' s e f for t s to use

these quan t i t a tive r e la tions to p r ed ic t p lan t d i s t r ibu t ions in s imi la r c l ima t ic

r eg ions. T he E n o teb oo k co nta ins many ques t ions r ela t ing to qu ant i t a t ive b io-

geographical data.

23 . Schweber , Or ig in of the

Origin,

p. 264.

2 0 3



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

view tha t adapta t ions were toward s ta t ions in the eco nomy of

na ture , to corre la te the fossi l record wi th geologica l his t ory in t ime and

space , and to tes t de ta i led mech anis ms of spec ia t ion - and a ll this to

s t reng then the case of na tura l se lec t ion.

Darwin ' s in te re s t in b iogeography had probably been s t imula ted

while he was a t Cambridge by Henslow,24 as well as by reading of

24. In reviewing John Richardson's

Fauna Boreali-America

in the

Edinburgh

Review 52

(1831), 328-360, James Wilson wrote an essay on the geographical

distribution of animals that surveyed the field as of 1830, before the publication

of LyeU's

Principles of Geology.

Wilson wrote: A knowledge of the various

phenome na pre sented by the different groups of animals and plants, in accordance

with the latitude, the longitude, and the altitude of their position constitutes the

science .. . and forms one of the mos t ir~teresting and important branches of

natural history . . . The geographical distribution of animals presents a wide field

for speculation, although t he modes by which that distribution has been effected

will probably remain ever concealed from human knowle dge . Their gradual

extension by natural means, from a single center of creation, scarcely falls within

the sphere of credibility; and thus the creation of various groups of species over

different points of the earth's surface . . . or the removal and dispersion, by

supernatural agency, o f the greater proportion of existing species from an original

center seem to be the two p o i n t s. . , to be il lu st ra te d. .. It is for the naturalist

• to collect an ample, accurate and extended series of facts ... and, by com-

paring and combining these determinant observations, to deduce the laws in

accordance with which species and genera are now dispersed over the surface

of the earth. As a footnot e to this last sentence, Wilson added: One of the

most important of those preliminary enquiries which are essential to a proper

comprehension of zoological geography, consists of the investigation and as-

certainment (at least approximately) of the limits which nature has assigned to

the variation in the specific characters of animals, and the establishment of fixed

and determinate principles, by reference to which it may be discovered whether

certain distinctions were sufficient to constitute a specific difference, or were

merely the result of climate, or some peculiar or accidental combination of

circumstances . . . One of the chief difficulties . . . in tracing the distribution

of widely-extended species, arises from the uncertainty under which naturalists

labour, from the want o f a positive and assured test to ascertain whethe r a certain

character should be regarded as expressive of specific distinction , or ought rathe r

to be ranked as within the legitimate range of individual variation . . . Where we

have acquired a knowledge of the habits and economy of a species, and of the

individuals of that species, wheresoever found , and if these are uniformly the

same under different and far-removed localities, then a distinction in plumage

should be rega rded as insufficient to cons titut e a specific difference between them;

but when we f'md the individual from one country or c ontine nt characterized and

distinguished by some peculiarity in their instinctive habits, or modes o f life, as

well as by a cognizable different of aspect, we are then authorized to infer that

they are specifically distinct, and are entit led to rank them accordingly. We have

entered into these apparently trifling details, because we are aware that some

modern writers deny that any species is widely distributed.

204



D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s

H u m b o l d t i n p r e p a r i n g f o r h i s C a n a r i e s I s l a n d tr i p . 2s T h e Beagle h a d

c a r r i e d m a n y o f t h e c l a ss ic s o f b i o g e o g r a p h y o f th e p e r i o d , a m o n g t h e m

H u m b o l d t ' s w o r k s , R o b e r t B r o w n ' s A p p e n d i x t o Flinder's Voyage, and

A . P . d e C a n d o l l e ' s i m p o r t a n t a n d i n f l u en t i a l w o r k s o n p h y t o g e o -

g r a p h y . 26 I n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 3 2 D a r w i n r e c e iv e d t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e o f

L y e U ' s Principles o f Geology, 27 w h i c h c o u l d

pty

h a v e b e e n s u b t i t l e d

B i o g e o g r a p h y , s in c e i ts m a j o r c o n c e r n s w e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f a c ts

a b o u t t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r g a n i s m s a n d a d i s c us s io n o f

w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a n a c c e p t a b le e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h o se f a c t s ) s L y e U h a d

2 5 . I n t h e Autobiography, D a r w i n i n d ic a t e s t h a t d u r i n g m y l a s t y e a r a t

C a m b r i d g e , I r e a d w i t h c a r e a n d p r o f o u n d i n t e r e s t H u m b o l d t ' s Personal Narrative'

(LLD, p . 47 ) . He r ead pas sages f rom i t a l oud t o h i s f r i ends on t he i r excu r s ions

w i t h H e n s l o w . D a r w i n ' s p e r s o n a l c o p y o f v o ls . I a n d I I o f A . V o n H u m b o l d t a n d

A . B o n p l a n d ' s Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the

New Continent during the Years 1799-1804, t rans . Helen Wil l iams, 7 vols . in 9

( L o n d o n , 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 2 9 ) , w a s g i v e n t o h i m b y H e n s l o w an d i s i n s c ri b e d J . S .

H e n s l o w t o h i s f r i e n d C . D a r w i n o n h i s d e p a r t u r e f r o m E n g l a n d u p o n a v o y a g e

r o u n d t h e W o r l d 2 1 S e pt . 1 8 3 1 .

2 6 . D a r w i n n o t e d i n h i s

Autobiography

t h a t h e h a d m e t R o b e r t B r o w n

seve ra l t imes be fo re boa rd ing t he Beagle, a n d h e w r o t e H e n s l o w t h a t h e h a d

r e c e i v e d ad v i c e f r o m B r o w n a b o u t m i c r o s c o p e s . A m o n g D a r w i n ' s r e p ri n t c o l le c -

t i o n i s a c o p y o f B r o w n ' s Observations on the Organs and Mode of Fecundation

in Orehideae andAsclepiadeae ( L o n d o n : R i c h a r d T a y l o r , 1 8 3 1 ) , i n s cr i b e d G i v e n

t o m e b y M r. B r o w n o n F r i d a y , D e c e m b e r 9 t h , 1 8 3 1 . I n v i e w o f B r o w n ' s t ra v e ls

a s a na tu r a l i s t and h i s phy togeograph ic i n t e r e s t s i t i s no t un l i ke ly t ha t Brown

w o u l d h a v e s tr e ss e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b i o g e o g r a p h y i n t a l k in g t o D a r w i n .

D a r w i n ' s l e t t e r s t o H e n s l o w d u r i n g t h e v o y a g e o f t h e Beagle i n d i c a te t h a t t h e

Dictionnaire elassique dTffstoire naturelle (Par i s : R ey e t Grar t ie r , 182 2-183 1) ( in

w h i c h C a n d o l l e h a d w r i t te n t h e a r ti c l e o n p l a n t g e o g r a p h y a n d H u m b o l d t t h a t o n

g e o g n o s y ) a n d H u m b o l d t ' s

Voyages aux regions equinoxiales

were aboa rd , and ,

m o r e o v e r , t h a t D a r w i n w a s re a d i n g t h e m . S e e N o r a B a r l o w , e d ., Darwin and

Henslow: The Growth of an Idea, Letters, 1831-1860 ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s it y o f

Cal i forn ia Press , 1867) , in par t icu lar le t te r 1 , p . 26 , le t te r 19 , p . 54 . Candol le ' s

e s say on p l an t geog rap hy had o r ig ina ll y appea red i n 18 20 a s t he Essai el~mentaire

de g~ographie botanique; in t h is f o r m , i t w a s w e l l k n o w n a n d h a d p r o v e d v e r y

i n f lu e n t ia l . I t c o n t a i n e d t h e p r o f o u n d s t a t e m e n t : A l l t h e t h e o r y o f g e o g r a p h i ca l

b o t a n y r e s ts o n t h e p a r t ic u l a r i d e a o n e h o l d s a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f li v in g t h in g s a n d

t h e p e r m a n e e o f s p e c i e s .

27 . Cha r l e s Lye l l , Principles of Geology, v o l . I I ( L o n d o n : J o h n M u r r a y ,

1832) .

28 . Chap . 5 o f vo l . I I o f LyeU ' s Principles of Geology, p . 66 , beg ins w i th :

N e x t t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r s p ec i es h a v e a r e a l e x i s t en c e , t h e

cons id e ra t i on o f t he l aws wh ich r egu l a t e t he i r geog raph ica l d i s t r i bu t i on i s a

s u b j e c t o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e g e o l o g i st . I t i s o n l y b y s t u d y i n g t h e s e l a w s

w i t h a t t e n t i o n , b y o b s e rv i n g th e p o s i t i o n w h i c h g r o u p s o f s p ec ie s o c c u p y a t p re -

s e n t, a n d i n q u i r in g h o w t h e s e m a y b e v a r i e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e b y m i g r a ti o n s ,

2 0 5



S I L V A N S . S C H W E B E R

w r i t t e n V o l u m e I I , h e w r o t e h is fa t h e r in 1 8 2 9 , i n o r d e r t o s o lv e t h e

g r a n d p r o b l e m , w h e t h e r t h e v a r io u s l iv i n g o r g a n i c sp e c ie s c a m e i n t o

b e i n g g r a d u a l l y a n d s i n g ly i n i n s u l a t e d s p o t s , o r c e n t r e s o f c r e a t i o n ,

o r i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s a t o n c e , a n d a l l a t t h e s a m e t i m e . 29 I n t h e s a m e

l e t t e r L y e l l h a d w r i t t e n , T h e l a t t e r c a n n o t , I a m a l r e a d y p e r s u a d e d , b e

m a i n t a i n e d . T h e f i r st n o t e b o o k o n t r a n s m u t a t i o n , t h e B n o t e b o o k ,

w h i c h D a r w i n o p e n e d i n J u l y 1 8 3 7 , i s f u l l o f b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l d a t a a n d

q u e r ie s . I n i t D a r w i n d e m o n s t r a t e s h i s i n t i m a t e a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h

t h e s t a n d a r d w o r k s d e a l i n g w i t h b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s : t h o s e

b y H u m b o l d t , C a n d o l l e , R . B r o w n , P r i t c h a r d , L y e l l . a° T h e B n o t e -

b o o k a ls o r e c o r d s t h a t D a r w i n h a d s t u d i e d S w a i n s o n ' s

Treatise on the

Geography and Classification o f Animals. 31

A l t h o u g h D a r w i n c o n -

s i d e r e d S w a i n s o n ' s v i e w o n c l a s si f i c at i o n b a s e d o n M a c L a e y ' s q u i n e r i a n

s y s t em w o n d e r f u l l y a b s u r d , h e m u s t s u r e ly h a v e a g r ee d w i t h S w a i n s o n

t h a t t h e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s fa c i n g n a t u r a l h i s t o r i a n s w e r e :

W h a t a r e t h e c a u se s t h a t h a v e p r o d u c e d t h i s d i s s i m i l a r i t y o f c r e a t u re s ?

a n d s e c o n d l y , i s t h e r e

method

i n a l l t h i s a m a z i n g d i v e r s i t y ? 32 T h e

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e B n o t e b o o k r e c o r d s t h e s p l i t t in g o f sp e c i es i n t o

b r a n c h e s - t h a t i s , t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f d i v e r s i t y - a s a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

fa c t . 33

O r g a n i z e d b e i n g s r e p r e s e n t t r e e , irregularly branched. ( B , p . 2 1 )

by changes in phy s ica l geograp hy, and o the r causes , tha t we can hop e to learn

whe the r the du ra t ion o f species be l imi ted , o r in wha t man ne r the s t a t e o f the

anim ate world is a ffec ted by the endless v ic iss i tudes o f the inanim ate . Vol . I I

o f L y e l l ' s Principles i s a l so impor tan t because i t con ta ins many re fe rences to

CandoUe, Brown, an d H um boldt , w hich wou ld have s t imu la ted Darwin to read

these w orks.

29. M rs . Lyel l , ed . ,

Life Letters and Journals of Sir Charles Lyeli Bart.

2 vols . (Lo ndo n: Joh n M urray , 1881) , I , 246.

30 . See the en t r i e s unde r the se names in Ba r re t t ' s Conc ordance to the

no tebooks .

31. William Swainson,

A Treatise on the Geography and Classification of

Animals

(Lo ndo n: Longmans , 1835); see B, pp . 67 , 92 , and 276.

32. Swainson,

Treatise on the Geography and Classification of Animals

pp .

1-2.

33 . The t r ee -o f -l i fe and co ra r ' -o f - l i f e me taphor an d diag rams a re in t roduced

ear ly in the 'B notebook, pp . 21-24; see the d iscuss ion in Gruber and Barre t t ,

Darwin on Man

(New Yo rk: E. P . Du t ton , 1974); H. Gru ber , Da rw in ' s

Tree of

Nature and Othe r Images o f Wide Scop e . in On Aesthetics in Science ed. J .

Wechsler (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1978).

2 0 6




The tree of life should perhaps be called the coral of life, base of

branches dead; so tha t passages cannot be seen. (B, p. 25)

The b ottom of the tree of life is utterly ro tten and obliterated in the

course of ages. (B, pp. 25-26)

What was at issue was the cause and mechanism of the splitting.

When Darwin opened his transmutation notebooks he has already

committed to the theory of descent. On that view all the different

species of a genus descended from a common ancestor. The members o f

a species must therefore at some remote time have inhabited a well-

defined area from which their descendants spread to the regions they

now occupy. In those cases where physical barriers such as mountain

chains and oceans separate the areas now occupied by the same group,

the question of how the migration was effected must be answered.

Since most of the existing flora and fauna came into existence during

the Tertiary and Secondary periods, the nature of and the changes in the

surface of the earth during these periods had to be addressed. Darwin

did so. a4 Al though he did not divulge his views on the mutability of

species to Lyell in the 1837-1839 period, biogeography was probably

the subject most freely discussed between them relating to the mystery

of mysteries. Both were concerned with migration mechanisms and

possible migration routes consistent with the geological history o f the

earth, since both believed in single centers of creation. Lyell, who in

1838 believed in the f'trdty of species (but also in their extinction),

would only go so far as to consider the introduction of a new species

as occurring through natural, secondary (though unknown) causes. 3s

Darwin, the private transmutationist, had to supply a detailed mecha-

nism for the origin of new species. To both it was clear that geographic

34. In Lyelrs Princ ip les o f Geology , which Darwin studied carefully in its

original form in the f'trst edition of 1830-1833 and thereafter in its various re-

visions, the Tertiary period received special attention. The fossil record of the

mollusks of the Tertiary was the basis of the time reckoning Lyell had developed.

See M. Rudwiek, The

Meaning o f Fossi ls : Episodes in the H is tory o f Palaeontology

(New YorK: American Elsevier, 1972); M. Rudwick, '°l'he Strategy of Lyell's

Principles o f G eolo gy, Is is , 61

(1970), 4-33; L. G. Wilson,

Charles Lye l l , The

Years to 1841: The Revolut ion in Geology (New Haven: Yale University Press,

1972); and particularly M. Rudwiek, Charles Lyell's Dream of a Statistical

Palaeontology, Palaeontology, 21 (1978), 225-244.

35. W. F. Cannon, '°l'he Uniformitarian-Catastrophist Debate, Isis, 51

(1960), 38-55, and '°l'he Problem of Miracles in the 1830's,

Vict. Stud. , 4

(1960), 5-32; see alsoL i f e o f L y e l l, I, 467.

207




i s o l a t i o n p l a y e d a s p e c ia l r o l e in t h e p r o c e s s . D a r w i n h a d w i t n e s s e d a t

f i rs t h a n d t h e e n d p r o d u c t o f t h e i s o l a t i o n p r o c e s s i n t h e G a l ~i pa go s. H i s

m e c h a n i s m f o r s p e c i a t i o n is e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e

f i rs t t r a n s m u t a t i o n n o t e b o o k : 36 i s o l a t e s p e c ie s , e s p e c i a l ly w i t h s o m e

c h a n g e p r o b a b l y v a r y q u i c k e r ( B , p . 1 7 ) . T h i s i s o l a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n

p e r m a n e n t v a r ie t ie s , p r o d u c e d b y c o n f i n e d b r e e d i n g a n d c h an g i ng

c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h v a r ie t ie s b e c a m e n e w s p ec ie s w h e n t h e y n o l o ng e r

i n t e r b r e d w i t h t h e p a r e n t f o r m : a s p ec ie s a s s o o n a s o n c e f o r m e d b y

s e p a r a t i o n r e p u g n a n c e t o i n t e r m a r r i a g e - s e t t le i t ( B , p . 2 4 ) . E a r l i e r,

i n 1 8 2 5 , V o n B u c h h a d a r r i v e d a t a c o n c l u s i o n i d e n t i c a l t o D a r w i n ' s

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r o l e o f is o l a t i o n i n t h e m e c h a n i s m o f s p e c i a t io n , a n d

D a r w i n f a v o r a b l y c o m m e n t e d o n i t w h e n h e c a m e a cr o ss V o n B u c h ' s

d i s c u s s i o n i n 1 8 3 8 . 37

T h a t r e c e n t l y s e p a r a t e d i s l a n d s , s u c h a s E n g l a n d , s h o u l d h a v e f e w e r

p e c u l i a r s p e c ie s t h a n l o n g - e s t a b l is h e d is l a n d s , su c h a s N e w Z e a l a n d ,

w a s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t o D a r w i n , g i ve n h is v i ew s o n i so l a t i o n . H i s n o t e -

b o o k s a ls o g iv e e v i d e n c e o f o t h e r q u a l i t a ti v e i n s i g h ts , a l l v e r y p l a u s ib l e

o n t h e b a s is o f d e s c e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e o l d e r a g r o u p o f o r g a n i s m s ,

t h e w i d e r s h o u l d i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n b e , a n d , c o n v e r s e l y , r e la -

t i v e l y r e c e n t g r o u p s s h o u l d b e m o r e r e s t r i c te d . T h a t g r o u p s o f a n i m a l s

w e r e r e s t r i c t e d , o r n e a r l y s o , t o c e r t a i n a r e a s t h o u g h w e l l a d a p t e d t o

l iv e e ls e w h e r e w a s , o f c o u r s e , a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t f o r e v o l u t i o n . I n d e e d ,

D a r w i n h a d b e e n v er y m u c h s t r u c k b y t h e f a c t t h a t s lo t h s a n d a r m a d i l lo s

w e r e c o n f i n e d t o S o u t h A m e r i c a a n d th a t t h e e x t in c t m e g a t h e r i u m h a d

i n h a b i t e d t h e s a m e r e g i o n . 3s

36. Malcolm J . Kottler, '~3harles Darwin's Biological Species Concept and

T h e o r y o f G e o g r a p hi c S p e c ia t io n : T h e T r a n s m u t a t io n N o t e b o o k s , Ann. Sei. 35

(1978), 275-297.

37. L. yon Buel l , Description physique des isles Canaries trans. C . Boulanger

(Pads : F . G . L evrau l t , 1926). Von Bue l l r epa id the com pl imen t ; wr i t ing to Hum-

b o l d t a f t e r h e h a d r e a d D a r w i n ' s Journal of Researches yon Buch sa id tha t h is

v iews on th e o r ig in o f species on ea r th a re ve ry s t im ula ted by the exce l l en t and

so l id desc r ip tion o f the Ga l~pagos by Darwin . He d id no t , howeve r , ag ree wi th

Darwin ' s theo ry o f the fo rma t ion o f co ra l a to l l s . See H . Beck , Alexander yon

Humboldt

(Wiesbaden: F. Sterner, 1959), II , 301 n. 120.

38 . In chap . 10 o f the Origin Darwin w rote : Mr. Cl i f t m any years ago

showed th a t the fos s il mam mals f rom the Aus t ra l i an caves were c lose ly a l l i ed to

the l iv ing marsupia ls of th a t con t inen t . . . I was so mu ch im pressed wi th these

fac ts tha t I s t rongly ins is ted , in 1839 and 1845, on th is ' law of the su ccess ion, ' on

' th i s wonde r fu l r e l a t ion in the s am e con t inen t be tween the dead and l iv ing ' ; s ee

a lso F . Darwin and A. C. Steward , ed . , More Letters of Charles Darwin 2 vols.

(Lo ndo n: Joh n M urray , 1903) , le t te r 87 , to Char les Ly el l , pp . 132-134; th is bo ok

is here af te r c i ted as

More Letters.

2 0 8




I n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 8 3 9 , D a r w i n o b s e r v e d :

V a r i e t i e s ar e m a d e i n t w o w a y s - l o c a l v a r ie t ie s w h e n w h o l e m a s s o f

s p e c ie s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o s o m e i n f l u e n c e , & t h is w o u l d t a k e p l a c e

f r o m c h a n g in g c o t m t r y : b u t g r e y h o u n d s , r a ce - ho r se , P o u l t e r p i d g e o n

h a v e n o t b e e n t h u s p r o d u c e d , b u t b y t r a in i n g c ro s s in g & k e e p i n g

b r e e d p u r e - / & s o i n p l a n t s e f f e c t u a l l y t h e o f f s p ri n g a r e p i c k e d &

n o t a l l o w e d t o c r o s s . /H a s n a t u r e a n y p r o c e s s a n a l o g o u s - i f s o s h e

c a n p r o d u c e g r e a t e n d s - B u t h o w - e v e n i f p l a c e d o n Is l d - i f s o

t h e n g iv e m y t h e o r y - e x c e l l e n t l y t r u e t h e o r y . ( E , p . 1 1 8) a9

T h i s e n t r y c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t D a r w i n r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a p r i o r i n a t u r a l

s e l e c t i o n c o u l d g i v e r is e t o a l i n e a r e v o l u t i o n w h e r e i n a s p e c i e s e v o l v e s

i n t o a s in g l e n e w o n e . T h e a n a l o g y w i t h a r t i f i c i a l s e l e c t i o n , t h a t is , t h e

b r e e d e r ' s

picking -

s ~ le c ti n g th e i n d i v i d u a l s h e w a n t s a n d p r e v e n t i n g

t h e i r c r o s s in g w i t h o n e s w i t h u n w a n t e d t r a i t s - s u g g e s t e d t h e m o d e l f o r

b r a n c h i n g e v o l u t i o n . B u t h o w d o e s n a t u r e e f fe c t r e p r o d u c t iv e i s o l a ti o n ?

I s s p e c i a t i o n i n n a t u r e a l l o p a t r i c o r s y m p a t r i c ? R e f l e c t i n g t h e p r i o r i t y

o f h i s z o o l o g i c a l i n t e re s t s , D a r w i n b e l i e v e d u n t i l 1 8 4 2 t h a t s p e c i a t i o n

i n n a t u r e w a s a l l o p a t r i c . ( I t i s s t il l a n o p e n q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r s y m p a t r i c

s p e c i a t i o n h a s e v e r o c c u r r e d i n t h e h i g h e r a n i m a l s .) B u t D a r w i n ' s

b o t a n i c a l s t u d i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r 1 8 4 2 , g av e h i m c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f

s y m p a t r i c s p e c ia t i o n i n p l an t s . A n d E d w a r d s F o r b e s ' s g r e a t w o r k o n

t h e i n v e r t e r b r a t e s o f t h e A e g a n S e a 4 ° m u s t h a v e r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s i n

D a r w i n ' s m i n d a b o u t h o w t h e w e a l t h o f s p e ci es i n th e o p e n s ea c o u ld

h a v e d e v e l o p e d b y a l l o p a t r i c s p e c i a t i o n . 41

39. E, p . 114 is dated M arch 12, 1839. A t some la ter date Darwin inser ted

a f t e r t h e se n t en c e Ha s n a t u r e a n y p r o ce s s a n a l o g o u s . . . t h e wo r d s m a k e s t h e

d i f f icu l ty apparen t by c ross-ques tion ing .

40 . E . Forbes , Re por t on the M ollusca and Rad ia ta o f the Aegean Sea ,

and on The i r D is t r ibu t ion Co ns ide red as Bea t ing on Geolo gy , Report of the

Thirteenth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement o f Science 13

(1843), 130-207.

41 . Forb es ' s paper show ed tha t l ike the l and , the seabed was subdiv ided in to

zones and s ta tions . Al though the po ten t ia l f o r species fo rm at ion by geographica l

i so la t ion ex is ted on the sea f loor , how such spec ia fion occur r ed wi th in a zone was

not obvious . Forbe s ' s work p robab ly al so r e inforced Darwin ' s v iew tha t ad ap ta -

t ions were tow ard ecological niches. To da y i t i s c lear that D arwin was tackl ing

ext r em ely d i f f i cu l t p rob lems , man y o f which a r e s t il l unso lved. The answer to th e

quest ion of w heth er species or iginate a l lopatr ical ly or sympatr icaUy is an ambig-

uous one. The voca bulary which has em erged in recent years is revealing. In addi-

tio n t o aUopatr ic and sy m pa tr ic spec iation , one speaks o f semigeographic, semi-

sym patr ic , s ta t ipa tr ic , parap atr ic , a l lo parap atr ic specia t ionI See, e .g ., G. L . Brush,

Modes o f an imal Spee ia t ion , Ann. Rev. Ecol. and Syst. 6 (1975), 339-364.

2 0 9



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

Th ere w ere a l so o th e r d i f f icu l t i e s . Na tu ra l s e lec t ion as a me chan ism

ac ted s e lec t ive ly on i nd i v i dua l s B y A u g u s t 1 8 3 8 , D a r w i n h a d l o c a t e d

the s i te o f r an do m var ia t ions in ind iv idual s . H is s tud y o f b reed ing , even

tho ug h the in i ti a l focu s was on asce r ta in ing the causes o f va r ia t ion ,

h a d i m p r e s se d h i m w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t e v e r y i n d iv i d u al i s d i f f e r e n t

f r o m e v e r y o t h e r a n d m a d e h i m s e ns it iv e to t h e c r i t ic a l i m p o r t a n c e o f

se lec t ing the ind iv idua l s u sed in b reed ing . In the pe r iod f rom 1838 to

1 8 4 4 t h e r e w a s n e v e r a n y q u e s t i o n i n D a r w i n ' s m i n d t h a t t h e m e c h a -

n i sm which op era tes in na tu re ac ted s e lec t ive ly on ind iv idua ls : ea ch

ind iv idua l o f each spec ies ho lds i t s p lace e i the r by i t s own s t rugg le

a n d c a p a c i t y o f a c q u ir in g n o u r i s h m e n t i n s o m e p e r i o d ( f r o m t h e e gg

upwards ) o f i t s l i f e , o r by the s trugg le o f i ts pa ren t s ( in sho r t lived

organ i sms , when the main check occur a t long in te rva l s ) aga ins t and

c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s o f t h e s a m e o r d i f f e r e n t species . '42

A l t h o u g h t h e d y n a m i c s w a s t o b e in d i v id u a l is ti c , o n e o f th e c e n t r a l

c o m p o n e n t s o f th e t h e o r y , n a m e l y t h e o r ig i n , d i s t ri b u t i o n , a n d p ro p a g a -

t ion o f va r ia t ions amo ng ind iv idua ls , was t e r r a i nc ogn i t a T o o v e rc o m e

t h is d i f f i c u l ty D a r w i n h a d t o a c c e p t a c o a r s e r l ev e l o f d e s c r ip t i o n w i t h

var ie ti e s and spec ies a s the un i t s o f va r ia t ions . I be l i eve i t was Darwin ' s

ignorance o f the gene t i c l aws fo r ind iv idua l s and h i s inab i l i ty to fo rmu -

l a t e i n v a r i a b l e l aw s o f v a ri a t io n s a n d h e r e d i t y f o r i n d iv i d ua l s t h a t l e d

h i m t o b a s e h is t h e o r y o f sp e c i a t io n o n p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l aw s o f t h e

var ia t ion in w ide- rang ing , popu lous spec ies . Those popu lous spec ies

t h a t p r e s e n t t h e m o s t v a r ie t ie s a re t h e m o s t l i k e l y t o p r o d u c e n e w

spec ies . Popu lous spec ies w i th w ide r anges a re the mos t l ike ly to f r ed

themse lves in d i f f e ren t geograph ic r eg ions ; such n ew env i ron m en ts w i l l

r e su l t in va r ia t ions be ing p rod uc ed , hence new var iet i es . W ide r ange

a l so makes i t more l ike ly tha t phys ica l i so la t ing mechan isms wi l l

ex i s t , a l lowing va r ie t i e s to become good spec ies in t ime . Thus w ide-

ranging , popu lous spec ies , wh ich p resen t the m os t va r ie ti e s , a r e the

mos t l ike ly to p roduce new spec ies . I be l i eve i t was th i s in s igh t , and

t h e c o n s e q u e n t a c c e p t a n c e o f w o r k i n g a t t h e v a r ie t y -s p e c ie s l e v e l, t h a t

g e n e r a t e d D a r w i n 's e x t e n d e d s e a r c h f o r p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s

on the va r iab i l i ty o f w ide- rang ing genera and spec ies du r ing the 1840s

and 1850s . P rec i s e ly the d a ta he need ed were available in the p lan t

s ta t is ti c s o f t h e p h y t o g e o g r a p h e r s a n d i n t h e r e p o r t s o f t h e b e s t z o o -

geographer s .

By the end o f the 1840s Darwin ' s inqu i r i e s in to th e geograph ica l

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f l o r a a n d f a u n a , h i s t a x o n o m i c r e s e a r c h e s b a s e d o n

42. Essayof 1844, p. 119.

2 1 0



D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m i s t s

d e s c e n t , h i s d if f ic u l ti e s w i t h s p e c i a t io n m e c h a n i s m s a n d w i t h h o w m u c h

o f a r o l e t o a s c r i b e t o i n t r a s p e c i f i c a s c o m p a r e d w i t h i n t e r s p e c i f i c

c o m p e t i t i o n , a l l h a d r e i n f o r c e d h i s a p p r o a c h t o c o n s i d e r v a r i e t i e s a n d

s p e c i e s a s t h e u n i t s o f d e s c r i p t i o n . I t i s t h e r e f o r e p e r h a p s n o t t o o

s u r p ri si n g t h a t w h e n D a r w i n o n c e a g a in f a c e d th e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m o f

t h e b r a n c h i n g o f s p e c ie s a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t d i v er g e n c e i n t h e e a r l y

1 8 5 0 s , h e h a d f o r g o t t e n t h o s e i n s i g h t s o f 1 8 3 9 w h i c h h a d b e e n b a s e d

on a s t r i c t l y i nd iv idua l is t ic app roac h . 43

D a r w i n ' s c o r re s p o n d e n c e w i t h H o o k e r a t te s t s t o h i s c o n s t a n t c o n c e r n

i n t h e 1 8 4 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 8 5 0 s w i t h p r o b l e m s r e la t in g t o s p e c i a ti o n i n

p l a n t s . S i m i la r q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e t a x o n o m y a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s tr i b u -

t i o n o f t h e C i r r e p e d ia p r o b a b l y b r o u g h t u p t h e i ss u e o f a g en e r a l, all-

e n c o m p a s s i n g , e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r s i t y o f o r g a n i s m s

o v e r t i m e , - t h a t i s, a n e x p l a n a t i o n a p p l i c a b le t o t h e e n t i r e b i o lo g i c a l

sphere . R ead ing M i lne -Edw ards in 1852 he lped c l a r i fy t he i s sue . In

hi s Zoolog i c gbnbra l e M i l n e - E d w a r d s h a d r a i s e d t h e s t a t e m e n t s t h a t

n a t u r e i s p ro d i g a l i n t h e v a r i e t y o f h e r c r e a t i o n s , y e t p a r s i m o n i o u s

i n t h e m e a n s o f d i v e rs if y i n g h e r w o r k s '4 4 t o t h e s t a t u s o f g e n e ra l

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l a w s , w h i c h h e c a l l e d t h e l a w o f d i v e r s i t y a n d t h e

l a w o f e c o n o m y . F o r D a r w i n th e c h a ll en g e w a s h o w t o a c c o u n t f o r

t h e s e f a m i l i a r a n d w e l l - k n o w n o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f a u n i v e r s a l

m e c h a n i s m .

B u t j u s t a s D a r w i n w a s f a m i l ia r w i t h M a l th u s b e f o r e S e p t e m b e r

1838 , so be fore 1 8 5 2 h e w a s a c q u a i n te d w i th A d a m S m i t h 's d o c t ri n e o f

t h e d i v is io n o f l a b o r as t h e c o m p e t i t i v e m e c h a n i s m d r iv in g t h e a r t i f ic i a l

e c o n o m y o f c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s tr y a n d w i t h M i ln e -E d w a rd s ' c o n c e p t

o f t h e d i v is io n o f p h y s io l o g i c a l l a b o r i n t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e . I n 1 8 5 2 ,

a s i n 1 8 3 8 , D a r w i n c o u l d a m a l g a m a t e t h e c o n c e p t s h e a l r e a d y k n e w

abou t on ly a f t e r a r r i v ing a t a ce r t a i n s t age i n h i s s c i en t i f i c i nqu i r i e s .

L im oges , in h i s pe r sp i cac ious ana lys is o f D arw in ' s a r r iva l a t t he p r i nc ip l e

o f d iv e rg e n ce o f c h a r a c te r , h a s e m p h a s i z e d t h a t D a r w i n t r a n s f o r m e d

M i l n e -E d w a r d s c o n c e p t i o n . I c o n c u r . W h e r e a s t o M i ln e - E d w a r d s t h e l a w

o f d i v e r si ty a n d t h e l a w o f e c o n o m y w e r e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s ,

a n d t h e d i v i s io n o f p h y s i o lo g i c a l l a b o u r a descriptive un i fy ing p r i n -

c i pl e f o r t h e o b s e r v e d s p e c i a li z a ti o n o f f u n c t i o n i n o rg a n i s m s , f o r D a r w i n

p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i v is io n o f l a b o u r , n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n , a n d e x t i n c t i o n w e r e

t h e e l e m e n t s o f a s e l f - c o n si s te n t d y n a m i c s t h a t c o u l d e x p l a i n d i v e rg e n c e .

43. This po int has been stressed by E rnst Ma yr in private conversations.

44. Milne-Edwards, Zo olog ie g~ndrale pp. 7-8 . The idea that '~nature is like

an artist mak ing a thousand pictures fro m a single pla n is Goethe's.

211



SILVA N S. SCHWEBER

Af te r Darwin r ead Mf lne -Edwards a l l t he p rev ious i n s igh t s f e l l i n to

p l ac e . A d a p t a t i o n t o w a r d a p la c e in t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e t o g e t h e r

w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f l i fe p e r u n i t a r e a a s t h e

o v e r a ll d ri v in g f o r c e m a k e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w h y t h e r e i s d i v er g e n c e o f

c h a r a c t e r : i n e c o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n t h e p r i m a r y

fac to r o f d ive rgence is func t i ona l spec i a l i za t ion .

I n t h e S k e t c h a n d t h e E s s a y D a r w i n h a d t r e a te d a d a p t a t i o n a s a

p r o c e s s b y w h i c h i n d iv i d u al s f o u n d a n e c o l o g ic a l n i c h e ( i .e . , f u n c t i o n )

in na tu re , ye t ha d i n s i s ted on d i scus sing spec i a t i on i n t e rm s o f va r i e ti e s

t h a t s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e g e o g r a p h i c a ll y i so l a te d . H e h a d n o li n k

b e t w e e n a d a p t a t i o n a n d s p e c i a ti o n e x c e p t w h a t e v e r c o u ld b e s u p p l ie d

b y a q u a s i- d e v e l o p m e n t a l i d e a o f t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s s ib l e t e n d e n c y t o

i n c re a s e t h e n u m b e r o f l iv in g b e i n g s . M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' d i sc u s si o n o f th e

d iv i s i on o f phys io log i ca l l abo r sugges t ed t o Darwin an exp l i c i t r e l a t i on

b e t w e e n a d a p t a t i o n a n d s p e c i a t i o n : T h e o r g a n i sm s t h a t m o v e i n t o

u n o c c u p i e d n i c h e s w il l e n j o y r e d u c e d c o m p e t i t i o n , h e n c e a n a d a p t iv e

advan t age , and wi ll sh i f t t he i r spec i es t o m ov e i n to t he s ame n i ches .

S i n c e c o m p e t i t i o n i s m o r e i n t e n s e b e t w e e n c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s p e c i e s ,

d i v e r g e n c e w i l l r e s u l t . B u t a n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e n o t e d :

Mi lne -Edwards ' d i s cus s ion was based on a t e l eo log i ca l me t aphys i cs ,

w h e r e a s D a r w i n ' s m e c h a n i s m w a s s e l f -r e g u l a ti n g a n d e s c h e w e d

te l eo log y an d ren oun ced f i na l causes. A l so , r a t he r t han b as ing h i s d i s-

c u s si o n o n t h e c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e t o t h e i n d i vi d u a l t h a t r e s u lt s f r o m

d i vi si on o f l a b o r , D a r w i n r e l ie d o n t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f l if e p e r

un i t a rea as t he overa l l p r i nc ip l e .

I d o n o t d o u b t t h a t w h e n h e a d o p t e d t he m a x i m u m - m i n i m u m

f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e U t i li ta r i a n s a n d A d a m S m i t h ' s i n si g h t i n t o t h e

c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e d i v is io n o f la b o r , D a r w i n w a s a w a r e t h a t

h e w a s b i o l o g i z i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s p o li ti c a l e c o n o m y g a v e f o r t h e

d y n a m i c s o f t h e w e a l t h o f n a ti o n s. I n t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n a n d t h e M

a n d N n o t e b o o k s , 4s D a r w i n h a d e x p l i c it ly s t a t e d h i s h o p e t h a t h i s

e v o l u t io n a r y t h e o r y a n d m e c h a n i s m w o u l d a c c o u n t fo r th e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f i n s t i n c t , h u m a n i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d h u m a n s o c i e t i e s . F o r D a r w i n ,

p s y c h o l o g y a n d p o li ti c al e c o n o m y w e r e b r a n c h e s o f e v o l u ti o n a r y

b i o l o g y , w h o s e e m p i r i c a l l a w s w e r e e v e n t u a l l y t o b e e x p l a i n e d b y

bio logical pr incip les .

Bu t Darwin was a l so s ens i t i ve t o t he cons t r a in t s pu t on t he deve lop -

m en t o f b io logy as a s c i en t i f ic d i s cip li ne by h i s soc i e ty . B io logy , l ike

45. The M and N notebooks have been transcribed by P au l Barrett and

published in Gruber and Barrett, Darwin on Man

2 1 2




e v e r y o t h e r s c i en c e , w a s n o t t o b e t a i n t e d w i t h p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y - a t

l e a s t n o t c o n s c i o u s l y o r o v e r t l y . I b e l ie v e t h is t o b e o n e o f t h e r e a so n s

M i l n e - E d w a r d s p r o v e d s o a t t r a c t i v e t o D a r w i n . H e c o u l d m e t a m o r p h o s e

M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' d i v i s i o n o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l l a b o r i n t o t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l

d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r , 46 a s c r ib e t h i s p r i n c i p l e t o a g r e a t z o o l o g i s t a n d

t h e o r e t i c i a n o f b i o l o g y , a n d n e v e r h a v e t o r e fe r t o p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y .

I n Natural Selec tion a7 a n d i n t h e Origin 48 D a r w i n i s a t p a i n s t o q u o t e

M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' c o n c e p t o f t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i v is i o n o f l a b o r a n d to

i n d i c a t e i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i v e r g e n c e . T h e i n i t ia l v e r s i o n o f

t h e p r i n c i p l e , w h i c h I t a k e t o b e t h e ' 5 a r d v e rs a l v e r s i o n f o u n d i n t h e

f i r s t d r a f t o f Natural Selection D a r w i n p u t t o p a p e r t o M a c h 1 8 5 7 ,

a n d i t i s e s s e n t i a l ly t h i s v e r s i o n th a t h e c o m m u n i c a t e d t o A s a G r a y i n

S e p t e m b e r o f t h a t y e a rs . 49 T h e p r i n c i p le w a s o n c e a g a in a m p l i f ie d

w h e n D a r w i n w o r k e d o n t h e G e o g r a p h i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n c h a p t e r o f

Natural Selection in the s p r i n g o f 1 8 5 8 . s ° I t w a s e v i d e n t l y t h e n t h a t i t

4 6 . T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a d j e c ti v e p h y s i o l o g i c a l i s i m p o r t a n t . A s o n e o f t h e

ed i to r s

of More Letters

F r a n c i s D a r w i n c o m m e n t e d t h a t D a r w i n ' s u s e o f d i v i s io n

o f p h y s i o l o g ic a l l a b o u r i n h is l e t t e r t o H o o k e r i n 1 8 5 4 w a s a slip o f t h e p e n

f o r p h y s i o l o g ic a l di v is i on o f l a b o u r . B u t i n f a c t D a r w i n w a s c o r r e c tl y q u o t i n g

M i l n e -E d w a r d s . I t w a s i n hi s o w n w r i ti n g th a t D a r w i n p u t p h y s i o l o g i c a l b e f o r e

d i v i s i o n . S e e More Letters I , 76 .

47 . Da rwin , Natural Selection p. 233.

48 . Da rwin , Origin p. 115-116.

49 . Da rw in and Wal l ace, Evolution by Natural Selection pp . 264 -267 .

5 0 . R . C . S t a u f f e r, in hi s m a s t e r y e d i t i o n o f Natural Selection i nd i ca t e s t ha t

c h a p . 6 , O n N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n , w a s w o r k e d o n a t t w o d i ff e r e n t p e r io d s . T h e

f i rs t d r a f t ( w r i t t e n o n g r a y f o o l s c a p p a p e r ) w a s c o m p l e t e d o n M a r ch 3 1 , 1 8 5 7 ,

a n d c o n t a i n e d o n l y a b r i e f m e n t i o n o f t h e p r in c i p l e o f d iv e r g e n ce . T h e l a t e r

a d d i t i o n s a n d v e r s io n s ( w r i t te n o n b l u i sh - g ra y p a p e r ) w e r e m a d e b e t w e e n A p r i l 1 4

a n d J u n e 1 2 , 1 8 5 8 , a n d i n t h e m D a r w i n d e v o t e s o v e r f o r t y p a g e s t o d i v e r g e n c e.

The r e f e r ence t o Mi lne -Edwards occu r s i n t he second d r a f t o f t h e p r i n c ip l e o f

d i v e rg e n c e . I t h a s b e e n h y p o t h e s i z e d b y J o h n L . B r o o k s ( T h e American Phi-

losophical Society Yearbook 1 9 6 8 , p p . 5 3 4 - 5 3 5 ) t h a t D a r w i n ' s c o n c e p t o f

d ive rgence was fo rm ula t ed i n r e sponse t o h i s r ece ip t o f W a l l ace ' s MS in 1858 .

B r o o k s s u g g es te d t h a t D a r w i n d i d n o t o b t a i n t h e M S o n J u n e 1 8 , 1 8 5 8 , a s i s

u sua l l y a s sum ed , bu t o n May 18 , so t ha t i t was in Da rw in ' s hands s eve ral week s

b e f o r e J u n e 1 2 , t h e d a t e D a r w i n g i v es i n h is p r iv a t e d ia r y f o r t h e c o m p l e t i o n

o f t h e n o t e o n d i v e r g e n c e t h a t h e i n s e r te d i n c h a p . 6 o f t h e l o n g m a n u s c r i p t

o f w h i c h t h e Origin of Species i s an abs t r ac t . H . L . McKinney in Wallace and

Natural Selection (Ne w Haven : Y a le Un ive r s i t y P re ss , 1972) , pp . 138 -146 , ha s

c o n c l u s iv e l y s h o w n t h a t D a r w i n d i d n o t r e c e iv e t h e W a ll ac e M S b e f o r e J u n e 3 ,

1 8 5 8 . B u t t h e r e c an b e n o d o u b t t h a t D a r w i n h a d t h e c o n c e p t o f d i v e r g en c e o f

c h a r a c t e r b e f o r e M a y o r J u n e o f 1 8 5 8 . T h e l e t te r o f S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 7 t o A s a G r a y

w o u l d b e s u f f i c i e n t p r o o f o f t h a t .

2 1 3



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

o c c u r r e d t o h i m t o a m a l g a m a t e t h e v i su a l iz a t io n o f t h e t r ee - o f- l if e

d ia g ra m s o f t h e e a r l y B n o t e b o o k s w i t h t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e p r i n c ip l e

o f d i ve r ge n c e . T h e f a m o u s d i a g ra m o n p a g e 1 1 6 o f t h e Origin ( w h i c h

also appears in Natural Selection) r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r o c e s s o f s p e c i a ti o n

b o t h i n s p a ce a n d i n t im e . I t i s t h e h ig h p o i n t o f t h e Origin a n d d r a m a t -

ica l ly il lus t ra tes the or ig in o f species .

T h u s t h e u n r a v el in g o f h o w D a r w i n o b t a i n e d , a n d f m a l l y f o r m u l a t e d

the p r inc ip le o f the d ive rgence o f cha rac te r i l lu s t r a tes the p roces s o f

t h e o r y f o r m a t i o n a s a c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n o f i n t e rn a l , e x te r n a l , a n d

ind iv idua l p sycho log ica l f ac to r s . What fo l lows he re examines th i s

proce ss in d eta i l .

D A R W IN O N D IV E R G E N C E O F C H A R A C T E R

In h is Autobiography, D a r w i n r e c a l l e d t h a t w h e n h e f i r s t w o r k e d

o u t , i n th e p e r i o d f r o m 1 8 3 8 t o 1 8 4 4 , h o w n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n w o u l d

a c c o u n t f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f n e w s p e ci e s, h e f a il e d t o a d d r es s a p r o b l e m

o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e :

T h i s p r o b l e m i s t h e t e n d e n c y i n o r g a n ic b e in g s d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e

s a m e s t o c k t o d iv e rg e in c h a r a c t e r a s t h e y b e c o m e m o d i f i e d . T h a t

t h e y h a v e d i v e r g e d g r e a t l y i s o b v i o u s f r o m t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h

spec ies o f a l l k inds can be c lassed un der genera , genera un der f ami l ie s ,

f ami l ie s un der sub -o rders , and so fo r th . Autobiography, p . 68 )

W r i ti ng i n 1 8 7 6 , D a rw i n w o n d e r e d h o w h e c o u l d h a v e o v e r l o o k e d

th i s p ro b lem and i t s so lu t ion , and then r eca l l ed h i s happ ines s a t fmding

t h e s o l u t io n : I c a n r e m e m b e r t h e v e r y s p o t i n t h e r o a d , w h i l st i n

m y c a rr ia g e , w h e n t o m y j o y t h e s o l u t io n o c c u r r e d t o m e ; a n d t hi s

w a s l o n g a f t e r I h a d c o m e t o D o w n Autobiography, p . 69 ) . In the

Autobiography (p . 69 ) Darwin a lso ind ica ted tha t the so lu t ion as I

be l i eve , i s tha t the mod i f i ed o f f sp r ing o f a l l dominan t and inc reas ing

f o r m s t e n d t o b e c o m e a d a p t e d t o m a n y a n d h i g h l y d iv e r si fi e d p l a ce s i n

t h e e c o n o m y o f n a tu r e .

Darwin f i r st d ivu lged h i s p r inc ip le o f d ive rgen ce to H oo ke r in a

l e t t e r d a t e d A u g u s t 2 2 , 1 8 5 7 . A f t e r i n q u ir in g w h e t h e r H o o k e r ' s f in d in g s

c o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l ts o f A s a G r a y a n d H . C. W a t so n w h o h a d m a r k e d

fo r h im in the i r ca ta logues s everal c lose ly r e la ted , ye t d i s t inc t species o f

B r i ti s h fl o r a , D a r w i n c o m m e n t e d :

I f i t a ll h o l d g o o d i t is v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r m e ; f o r i t e x p l ai n s , a s I

2 1 4



Darwin and the:Political EconomiSfS

' ~ i all classification, i ,e:; t t ie quasi.branching a n d sub-branching

o f fo rm s, as i f : f ro m o n e r00 t i big genera increasing and: spl i tt ing up~

e re :. a s' y o u wi l l pe t ce ive l B u t t h en : com es in , a l so wha t ~I ea lf ,a

principle of divergence;~wki~h ~ k I ca n explam; :bi /t w hich i s too

' 5 t ? :

: : ong; and perhaps yo u W ould no t Care to hear , ' .~

) : : ~ L :

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t O AsaG ray o f Sep tember 5 ; i 8 5 7 : ' : ~ : .....

Another pr inciple , which may be cal led

t h e p ~ i p l e d i v e r g e n e l

plays, I believe, an im po rtan t pa rt in the origin of species. Th e same

Sp:6t ~ SaP p6~ :mo re: life

i f

o c eu p ie d b y v e r y ~ v e ~ e f 0 ~ s : W e :see

th i s 'i n ~ e m ~ y : ge ne r i c fo rms ' ~ a square:'yard 0 f t u r f , and in

t h e p l a n ts :o r i n s e c t s O n a n y H tfle u n i f o rm

i s l e t b e l o a ~ g

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in ¢ ~ a b ly ~ to aS m an y gen era and fami lies a.~ species . . N o w ; every

0 t ~ c b e in g , b y : p i o p a g a ~ g sO r a p i d l y , m a y b e ~said t o b e striv in g

i ts U tmoSt t o ~C rea~

numbeis~

So i t : ~ : be wi th the Of fspring

o f ' a n y ' species: a f t e r i t :has bee0m ~ diVeisi fied~into variet ids; o r

subspeeies~ 0r fr o 6 SpeCies: ~ d ~it f6116Ws;' I ~ , fro m ~ e Tore

going facts, tha t the varying offspring o f each species will try (on ly

few will succeed) to seize on as many and as diverse places in the

ec on om y o f nata~e ~as poSSible . EaCh :new: variety Or Species, w he n

fo rm ed , ~ gene ra l ly ~ e . t h e ph ee bf~ and~thus ex t emi ina t e i ts l es s

w ell-fi t ted p ar en t, ~ T ~ :I 15eiieve-tOb e th e origin Of th e classification

an d affinities o f organic beings at all times ; fo r organic beings always

seem

to branch and sub-branch l ike the ' ~ b s O f a: t i'ee f rom a

c o m m o n t r u e ; t h e th e

:iess vigo rous '~th~ n et

ge ne ra and,families, : . , : , ~:i : . . . . .

This sketch is most imper fec t ; bu t in so shor ta space I cannot

make i t ,bette r, :Your ~ a # a t i o n :must fill up ve ry Wide b l~ s . S 2

gence is e vid en t.in a lt his w riting s on ,the~subjeet;..Whilea t w o r k o n ,th e

"Big Spec ies Book,': ' Da rwin w ro te tO H ooke r 0n JUne 8 ( 1858

version published at the LinneanSociety."

215



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

the 'Principle of Divergence,' which, with 'Natural Selectio n' is the

keyst one of my boo k; and I have a very great confidence it is soun d. s3

When in July 1858 Darwin laid claim with Wallace to the discovery of

the laws which affect the produ cti on of varieties, races, and species at

a meeting of the IAnnae an Society, Darwin attached to the materia l

presented to the Society his letter to Gray, quoted above, that o utlined

the principle o f divergence, s4

Gavin de Beer inferred from a letter Darwin wrote to George Ben-

tha m in 1863 that Darwin arrived at the principle arou nd 1852. ss In

that letter Darwin said:

I, for one, can

ons ient iously

declare that I never feel surprised at

any one sticking to the belief of im muta bili ty; though I am often

not a little surprised at the arguments advanced on this side. I

remember too well my endless oscillations of d oubt and difficulty.

It is to me really laughable when I th ink of the years which elapsed

before I saw that I believe to be the expl anat ion of some parts of

the case; I believe it was f ifte en years aft er I began before I saw the

meaning and cause of the divergence of the descendants of any one

pair. s~

Given the importanc e that Darwin attached to the principle of diver-

gence, it is interesting that although he could remember the very spot

in the road where the solution occurred to him, he could no t pinpo int

53. More Letters II, 109.

54. Charles Darwin, and Alfred Wallace, On the Tendency of Species to

Form Varieties and On the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural

Means of Selection, Z Linn. Soe. 3 (1859),45 (read July 1, 1858);see especially

the Abstract of a letter from C. Darwin, Esq., to Professor Asa Gray of Boston,

U.S., dated September 5, 1857.

55. De Beer, Evolution by Natural Selection p. 140. It was George Bentham's

paper on the fixity of species that was displaced by the reading of the Darwin-

Wallace material at the Lirmean Society on July 1, 1858. Bentham seems to be

one of the few people who was struck by the Darwin-Wallace findings, for he

altered his paper in the light of their presentation. Bentham was a naturalist

whose book Labiatarum Genera et Species (London, 1832-1836) Darwin had

studied in 1837-1839. On March 6, 1838, Darwin noted on p. 104 of the E

notebook: Mr. Bentham says in Sandwich Isld. he believes there axe many cases

of genera peculiar to the group having species peculiar to the separate islands.

In his work on the Labiatae some of the species are described - capital case -

for Sandwich Isld are very similar to Galapagos - study Flora. What general

forms - ar e the Labiatae nearest to American or Indian Groups?

56. LLD II, 210-211.

216




m o r e a c c u r a t e l y th e d a t e o f h i s i n si g h t. I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t t he r e~ w e r e

su f f i c i en t m i l es tones i n h i s l if e - e .g . , t he co m ple t i on o f h i s f i r s t

v o l u m e o n t h e c ir r ip e d e s s7 - f o r D a r w i n n o t t o h a v e t o a p p e n d I

b e l i e v e t o h i s d a t in g . A l s o , i n v i e w o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r in c i p l e ,

i t is o d d t h a t D a r w i n d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e th e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h h e a r r iv e d

a t h i s p r i nc ip l e .

I n h is B i g S p e c ie s B o o k , t h e p r in c i p le o f d i v er g e n c e i s p r e s e n t e d

i n C h a p t e r V I , O n N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n . D a r w i n o p e n s h i s d i sc u s si o n o f

t h e p r i n c ip l e b y s a y in g th a t h e b e l i e v e s t h a t it h a s p l a y e d a m o s t

i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n N a t u r a l S e l e c ti o n . ' s 8 T h e p r i n c ip l e i s e x p l a i n e d ( a s

i n a ll o th e r c ases ) w i th a r t i f ic i a l s e lec t i on . In

o u r d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n s . . . E a c h n e w p e c u l ia r it y e i th e r s tr ik e s

m a n ' s e y e a s c u r io u s o r m a y b e u s e fu l t o h i m ; & h e g o e s o n s l o w l y &

o f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s ly s e le c ti ng t h e m o s t e x t r e m e f o r m s . . . & h e

m a k e s h i s s ev e ra l b r e e d s o f i m p r o v e d t u m b l e r s , c a r r ie r s , p o u t e r s , f a n -

t a i l s , &c , a l l a s d i f f e ren t o r d ive rgen t a s pos s ib l e f rom the i r o r i g ina l

p a r e n t s t o c k th e r o c k p i g e o n ; t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s , & i n h is e y e s i n fe r i o r

b i r d s , h a v i n g b e e n n e g l e c t e d i n e a c h g e n e r a t i o n & n o w b e c o m e

e x t i n c t . . . M o r e o v e r , f a r m o r e f a n c y - p i g e o n s w i l l b e k e p t . . .

a f t e r t h e y h a v e b e c o m e b r o k e n u p i n to v e r y d is ti n ct b r e e d s , t h a n

w h e n f e w e r m o r e s im i l a r b i r d s e x i s te d .

D a r w i n t h e n s t a te s t h a t a n a n l o g o u s p r i n c ip l e , n o t l ia b l e t o c a p r i c e , i s

a t w o r k i n n a t u re

& tha t va r i e t ie s o f the s ame spec i es , & spec ies o f t he s am e genus ,

f a m i l y o r o r d e r a r e a l l, m o r e o r le s s, s u b j e c t e d t o t h i s i n f l u e n c e . F o r

i n a n y c o u n t r y , a f a r g r e at e r n u m b e r o f in d iv i du a ls d e s c e n d e d f r o m

t h e s a m e p a r e n t s c a n b e s u p p o r t e d , w h e n g r e a t ly m o d i f i e d in m a n y

d i f fe ren t ways , i n hab i t s cons t i t u t i on and s t ruc tu re , so as t o f ' d l a s

m a n y p l a c e s , a s p o s s ib l e , i n t h e p o l i t y o f n a t u r e , t h a n w h e n n o t a t a ll

o r o n l y s li g h tl y m o d i f i e d .

W e m a y g o f u r t h e r t h a n t h is , & in d e p e n d e n t l y o f th e c a se o f

f o r m s su p p o s e d t o h a v e d e s c e n de d f r o m c o m m o n p a r e n t s , a ss e rt t h a t

a g r e a t e r a b s o l u te a m o u n t o f l if e c a n b e s u p p o r t e d i n a n y c o u n t r y o r

57. Charles Darw in, A M o n o g r a p h o n t h e S u b c la s s O r r i p e d ia w i t h F i g u re s o f

A l l t h e S p e c ie s : T h e L e p a d i d a e o r P e d u n c u l a t e d O r r i p e d e s (London: The Ray

Society, 1851).

58. Darwin, N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n p. 227.

2 1 7



S I L V A N S . SC H W E B E R

on the g lobe ; wh en l if e is deve loped und e r m any & wide ly ~ f f e ren t

forms, than when un de r a few & a l lied fo rm s; th e faires t measure

o f t h e a m o u n t o f l i f e , b ein g p r o b a b l y t h e a m o u n t o f c he m ic al

composi t ion and decom posi t ion w i ~ a g iven per iod .S9

Fu rthe r on in his discussion Darwin indicates tha t :

~ e v iew tha t t h e greatest nu m be r o f org ~i¢ be ingsi (or m ore s tr ic t ly

the greatest am ount of l i fe ) can be supp or ted on any area , by the

g rea te s t amo un t o f t he ir d ive r si f ica t ion , . , i s i n f ac t t ha t o f " the

div is ion o f labour , " so admirably propoun ded b yM ilne EdWards ,1

w ho argues that a s tom ach w il l digest bet ter , i f i t does not , as in

m an y.o f the lowes t ~ a s , serve a t the same time as a resp ira tory

o rgan ; t ha t a S tomach ~ ge t m ore nu tm ne n t ou t o f vegetab e o r

~ a l m a t t e r , i f adap ted t o d iges t e i the r Sep~a tely in stea d o f

bo th. It is obvious ~a 't m ore descendants fro m a Carnivorous animal

cou ld suppor t ed i n k y country:: i f some we re adap ted , by 10ng

cOntinUed m od i f i ca t ion th ro u~ i na tura l s e l ec tion , t o hu n t small

p rey , & o ~ r s i a rge p r e y l i n g e i th e r on p la ins o r i n ~ fo rests~ in

burrowS, or On trees or in the w ater l ~ ~

1 . M i l n e - E d w a r d s , I n t r o d u C t io n ~t l a' Z o o l 0 g i e g 6 n ~ r a l e . . . P a ri s, i 8 5 1 s e e

p . 35 , p . 55 -7 , and a r t . Organ i sa t i 6n ~ i n Dict . class: hist . nat v01. 12, Paris ,

1827 , p . 332-44. e°

Darwin s tressed tha t h e cons idered i t "o f the u tmo st im por ta nce fu l ly

to recognize that the a m oun t of li fe in any co un try, & sti ll m ore that

the num ber o f mod i f ied descendants f ro m a com m on pa re n t , w ill i n

c h i e f p a r t d e p en d t h e a m o u n

o

diversificati0n which they have

unde rgone , s o a s b e s t t ° f lU a s m any & as wide ly d i ff e r en t p laces a s

poss ib le i n th e grea t scheme o f nature."61 In Ch apter I V of atural

Selection Darwin ha d establ ished that th e species of the larger genera

in any cou nt ry (n ot a l l the , species , ,bu t on ly sp m e, & chie f ly those

wh ich are w ide rangers , mu ch diffused & num ero u in individuals")

prese nt a greater a verage nu m be r ~0f varieties th a t a re in "som e degree

perm ane nt" 62 th an d o the species o f the smaller genera. The more

m od ified form s of the se stable varieties - i .e., inc ipie nt species - are

less l iable to extin ction .

59. Ib id . , p . 228 . :

60 . I b id . , p . 233 .

6i . Ibid., p. 234.

62. Ibid., p. 235.

218




T h e f o r m a t i o n o f n e w ~ e t i e s a n d s pe ci es t h ro u g h n a tu r al se te c fi on

i m p li es m u c h e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e l es s a l t e r e d . H e n c e , th o u g h t h e l a rg e r

g e n e r a m a y b e n o w v a r y i n g l m o s t , & m u s t , :~ , h a v e :v a r ie d a r g e ly , s o

a s t o h a v e b e c o m e m o d i f i e d i n to m a r i y s p e c if ic f o rm s , y e t s u c h l ar ge

g e n e ra m u s t h a v e s u ff e re d a l a r g e a m o u n t o f e x t i n c t i o n . ~3

. . . . ~ : . , r

" T h e c o m p l e x a c t i o n o f t h e s e s e ve ra l p r in c ip l es n a m e l y , n a t u r a l s d e c -

t i o n , d i v er g e nc e & e x t i n c t i o n , '6 4 i s t h e n c o n v e y e d b y t h e f a m o u s

d i a g r a m t h a t i l l u s t r a t e s " t h e m a n n e r , i n w h i c h I b e l ie v e s p e ci es d e s c en d

f r o m : e a c h o t h e r . " 6s ~

T h e d i s c u s s io n o f t h e p r in c ip l e o f d i v e r g e n c e i n t h e

Origin o f Species

i s p a t t e r n e d o n t h a t i n Na tu r s l S e l e c t io n . I n t h e Origin t h e p r o b l e m

t o b e s o l v e d is p g s e d a s f o l lo w s : ~ ,'H ow . . . d o e s t h e l e ss e r d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n v a ri et ie s b e c o m e a u g m e n t e d i n t o t h e g r e a te r d i ff e r e n c e b e t w e e n

s pe c ie s? "6 6 S o m e :o f t he f ea tu re s D ~ h a d m o s t s tre ss ed i n t h e

" B ig S p e c i e s B o o k " : - i n p a rt ic u la r, t h e q u a n t it a ti v e a sp e ct s o f h is

f o r m u l a t i o n o f n a t u r a l s e l e ct io n , t h e n u m b e r o f s ta b le : va ri et ie s i n t h e

l ar ge r g e ne ra , a n d t h e d y n ~ c s o f e x t i n c t i o n - a re n o t e m p h as iz e d a s

m u c h i n t h e

Origin

W h a t i s g a i n e d b y t h e g r e a t e r c o n c is e n e ss i s t h e

m e t a p h o r t h a t r ep re se n ts t h e a ff in i ti es o f a ll t h e b e i n g s O f t h e sa m e

c la ss a s " a g r e a t t r e e " a n d t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e d i a g r a m m a t ic re p r e s e n ta -

t i o n ~o f t h e " g re a t T r e e o f L i f e " t o t a x o n o m y a n d s pe ci at io n . I n t h a t

s e ns e t h e d i sc u s si o n f o l l o w i n g t h e " P r i n c i p l e o f D i v e r g e n c e " i s t h e l h ig h

p o i n t o f t h e Origin o/S pe cie s. 67

I n t h e p r e f a c e t o T h e Variation o /A n im als andP lan ts under Dom es-

tication

68 D a r w i n giv es th e m o s t s uc c in c t s ta t e m e n t o / t h e p r o b l e m a n d

i t s so lu t ion .

r ,

W e s h al l s e e h o w d i f fi c u lt , o r r a t h e r h o w i m p o s si b le i t o f t e n i s, t o

d i s tingu i sh be tw een r aces and subspec ies , a s the l e s s we l l -marked

f o r m s h a v e s o m e t im e s ~ be en d e n o m i n a t e d ; a n d a g ai n b e t w e e n

s u b s p e c i e s a n d t r u e sp e ci es i I s ha ll f u r t h e r a t t e m p t t o s h o w t h a t i t

is t h e c o m m o n a n d w i d e ly ra n g in g , o r , a s t h e y m a y b e c a ll ed , t h e

63. Ibid., p. 235.

64. Ibid., p. 235.

65, Ibid., pp, 236,237 . . . .

66. Darwin, Or/g/n, p. 111. . . . . . .

67. Ib id ., pp . 111,126.:

68 . Charles Darwin, The

V a r ia t io n o f n i m a l s a n d P l a n ts u n d e r D o m e s t i c a t i o n

2 vols. Lon don : J oh n Murray, 1868); the 2nd ed., revised, appea red in 1875~

2 1 9



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

dominant species, which most frequently vary; and that it is the

large and flourishing genera which include the greatest number of

varying species. Varieties, as we shall see, may jus tly be called

incipient species ... The differences between natural varieties are

slight; whereas the differences are considerable between the species

of the same genus and great between the species of distinct genera.

How do these lesser differences become augmented into the greater

difference?. . .

It has been shown from many facts that the largest amount of life

can be supported on each area, by great diversification or divergence

in the structure and const itution of its inhabitants. We have, also,

seen that the continued production of new forms through natural

selection, which implies that each new variety has some advantage

over others, inevitably leads to the extermination of the older and

less improved forms. These latter are almost necessarily intermediate

in structure, as well as in descent, between the last produced forms

and their original parent-species; thus the lesser differences charac-

teristic of varieties come to be augmented into the greater differences

characteristic of species, and by the extermination of the older

intermediate forms, new species end by being distinctly defmed

objects.

Thus, also, we shall see how it is that organic beings can be classed

by what is called a natural method in distinct group, - species under

genera, and genera under families. 69

DIVERGENCE IN THE NOTEBOOKS

When Darwin claimed to have obtained the principle of divergence

around 1852, he seems to have forgotten the insights he had gained in

1837 and in the period after he read

Malthus 7°

Darwin recorded the tree-of-life imagery for the first time in the B

notebooks in the summer of 1837. The various tree-of-life diagrams

that appear in the B notebooks represent (1) the endeavor of each typ-

ical element to extend his domain into other domains ; 71 (2) the gaps

69. Darwin, Variation o f Animals andPlants, 2nd ed., p. 18.

70. That the insight into divergence of character may have occurred twice has

previously been suggested by Gruber,Darwin on Man, p. 117.

71. The first diagram appears in B, p. 26. A particularly penetrating discussion

of the tree-of-life diagrams appears in Darwin on Man, pp. 117-118, 140-149,

195-198, and in Gruber's essay Darwin's Three o f Nature.

220




i n t h e f os si l r e c o r d , w i t h d o t t e d l in e s s h o w i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n

h y p o t h e t i c a l e x t i n c t f o r m s ; 72 a n d ( 3 ) t h e r o l e o f e x t i n c t i o n : e x t i n c t i o n

i s r e q u i re d . 73 T h e d i ag r am s t h u s i m p l i c i t ly i n c o r p o r a t e t h e n o t i o n o f

s tr u gg l e, t h e e x p o n e n t i a l g r o w t h o f th e n u m b e r o f s pe c ie s ( si n c e e a c h

b r a n c h s p li ts i n t o f u r t h e r r a m i f ic a t io n s ), a n d t h e r o l e o f e x t i n c t i o n .

E x t i n c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e t h e r e m u s t b e a m e c h a n i s m t h a t k e e p s

t h e n u m b e r o f s p ec i es c o n s t a n t . T h e l a w o f c o n s e r v a ti o n o f s pe c ie s w a s

a L y e l l i a n p r i n c ip l e t h a t D a r w i n a c c e p t e d a t t h a t s ta g e o f h is t h e o r iz i n g ,

a s is i n d i c a t e d o n p a g e 3 6 o f t h e B n o t e b o o k s . T h e t r e e o f li f e a ls o

d i a g ra m m a t ic a l ly i l lu s t ra t e d t h e t a x o n o m i c r e l a t i o n o f s p e c ie s t o g e n e r a,

genera to f ami l ie s , f ami l i e s to suborder s . 74 Th e v i sua l iza t ion a f fo rde d

by the d iag rams r a is ed in Darw in ' s m ind ques t ions such as , I s the

s h o r tn e s s o f l if e o f

species in

c e r t a i n o r d e r s c o n n e c t e d w i t h g a p s i n

t h e s e r i e s o f c o n n e c t i o n s ? ( i f s t a r t i n g f r o m s a m e e p o c h c e r t a i n l y )

(B , p . 35 ) . Th e d iag rams a l so he lp ed Darwin d i s ce rn ho w the g rea t

g a p b e t w e e n b i r ds a n d m a m m a l i a, s ti ll g r e a te r b e t w e e n v e r t e b r a t e &

ar t i cu la te , st il l g rea te r be tw een an imal and p lan t s (B , pp . 42 -43 ) cou ld

b e e x p l a i n e d , n a m e l y :

t h e

grea t er t he groups t he grea t er t he gaps

( o r

so lu t i ons

o f

con-

t i n u o u s s t r u c t u r e b e t w e e n t h e m ( B , p . 4 2 ) .

T h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t a l l t h e s e e a r l y n o t i o n s a n d t h e i r

p i c t o r ia l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e b a s e d o n a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h

spec ies a re th e un i t o f ana lysi s . Th e to ta l num be r o f spec ies i s con s tan t ,

y e t t h e d i ag ra m s s u gg e st a n e x p o n e n t i a l g r o w t h o f t h e n u m b e r o f s p ec ie s

t h a t s o m e w h a t m u s t b e c h e c k e d . E x t i n c t i o n m u s t t h e r e f o r e o c c u r o n a

v a s t sc a le . I n d e e d , D a r w i n f o l l o w e d h i s e n t r ie s o n t h e t r e e o f li f e w i t h

l e n g t h y s p e c u l a t io n s o n e x t i n c t i o n . Y e t h e w a s n o t s a ti sf ie d w i t h h is

u n d e r st a n d in g o f e x t i n c t i o n a n d t o w a r d t h e e n d o f 1 8 3 7 h e w r o t e ,

w e a k e s t p a r t o f t h e o r y d e a t h o f s pe ci es w i t h o u t a p p a r e n t p h y si ca l

c a u s e ( B , p . 1 3 5 ) , e v e n t h o u g h h e h a d e a r li e r s u r m i se d t h a t e x t i n c t i o n

w as a c o n s e q u e n c e . . , o f n o n a d a p ta t io n o f c i rc u m s t a nc e . 7s

72. The second diagram is in B, p. 26; B, p. 25: '~' he tree of life should

perhaps be called the coral of life; base of branches dead; so that passages cannot

be seen.

73. The diagram is in B, p. 35; B, p. 36: Case must be tha t one generation

then should have as many living as now. To do thi s & to have many species (as is)

requires ex t inc t ion .

74. B, pp. 21-22: Organized beings repre sent a tree, irregularly branched;

some branches far more branched, - Hence Genera. See also B, pp. 39-40.

75. B, pp. 37-38: With respe ct to e xtinction we can easy see tha t variety of

ostrich Petise may not be well adapted, & thus perish out, or on other hand like

Orpheus being favourable, many might be produ ced.

221



S I L V A N S, S C t tW E B E R

.....O n e o f th e. p r o b l e m s D a r w i n f a c e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e x t i n c t i o n

w ~ t h a t i t c o u ld b e t h e r ~ su l t o f

accidental

e v e n t s : a c h a n c e t r ~ s p o r t

o f s o m e s e ed o r a n i m a l , o r m a n b r i n g i n g n e w f lo r a i 0 r f a u n a i n t o a

g e o g ra p h ic a r e a . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m w a s h o w t o i n te g ra t e s u c h

chance

e f f e c ts i n t o a d e t e r m i n i s t i c t h e o r y t h a t w a s t o a c c o u n t f o r p h e n o m e n a

i n w h i c h e x t i n c t i o n p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r01e,76 ~

T h e t i m e sc a l es o n w h i c h e x t i n c t i o n o c c u r s w e r e M s o g i v i n g D a r w i n

t r o u b le a t t h i s t i m e . E x t i n c t i o n c o u l d o c c u r r a p i d l y a s w n a s s l o w l y ,

W h e n i t o c c u r r e d r a p i d l y , w a s it, a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e, d i c t u m N a t u r a

n o n f a c e t s a l t u m , t o w h i c h D a r w i n w a s c o m m i t t e d ? H o w d i s co n -

t i n u o u s a p r o c e ss c o u l d h e a l l o w i n t o t h e t h e o r y w i th o u t~ ~ o l a t i n g t h e

g r e a t p r i n c i p le o f c o n t i n u i t y ? W h a t d i d r a p i d e x t in c t i o n i m p l y f o r

L y e U 's c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e T e r t ia r y p e r i o d , w h i c h h a d b e e n b a s e d o n t h e

76 . The : evo lu tion o f Da rwin ' s un de r s t an d in g o f e x t inc t ion i s v iv id ly spe l led

o u t i n t h e t w o e d i ti o n s o f th e Voyage o f th e Beagle. ln the f i r s t ed i t ion~ h e

Journal o f Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Various

Countries Visited by H. M.. S. Beagle under the Command of Captain Fitz Roy,

g:

N .

from 18s2 to 183a

( L o n d o n : C o l b u r n l~ 1839), the MS O f which was

c o m p l e t e d i n 1 83 7, b e f o r e t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n n o t e b o o k s , D a ~

concludes h is

brief

d i sc u s si o n o f e x t i n c t i o n w i t h : ' , A l l th a t a t p r e s e n t c a n b e s a id

wi th ce r t a in ty , i s tha t , a s w i th the ind iv idua l , so wi th the spec ie s, t he ho ur o f l i fe

has ru n i t s course , an d i s Spen t . However , Da rwin ha d wr i t t en ea r l i e r in the

d is cuss ion tha t va r i a t ions o f c l im a te and foo d , o r in t roduc t io n o f enemies, o r the

increased num bers of o th er species ,' [a re] the cause of the sUecessi0n o f races . In

the 2nd ed . , the:Journal of Researches into the Natural History o f the Countries

Visited during the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle round the World ( L o n d o n : 4 ,

M u rr aY , 1 8 45 ) , D a r w i n w r o t e , C e r t a in l y n o f a c t i n t h e l o n g h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d

i s so s t a r t ling as th e wide and repea ted ex te rm ina t io n o f i t s inhab i t an t s . ' , The

discuss ion on ext in c t io n is mu ch long er here , and D arwin e xp l ic i t ly s ta tes h is

Malthusian insights a n d V ividly expresses his co m m itm en ts to allo pa tric Speciati0n.

He re i t e ra te s h i s s t rong com mi tm en t to a na tu ra l is t i c exp lan a t ion o f ex t inc t ion

and mockingly sugges ts tha we shou ld no t be su rp r i s ed to f in d ex t inc t ion p re -

ceded by very low p opu la t ion densi ties . His d iscussion ech oes Pa ley ' s in Natural

Theology:

t o a pa t i en t a t t h e c lose o f h i s d is ea se . . . . Dea th . . . . i s on ly the l a s t

o f a long t ra in o f changes; in h i s p rogre s s th rough which , i t i s pos s ib le tha t he m ay

exper ience no Shocks or sudden t rans i t io ns (The . Works of William Pale),, D. D.

[Ph i l ade lph ia ; J . W oodward , 1831 ] , p . 479) . Da rwin a l so s tres se s tha t ex t in c t ion

can b e in i t i a t ed by a chan ce even t , I t w as c l ea r to D a rw in tha t h i s theo ry n eed

no t accoun t fo r chance even ts such a s the t r anspo r t o f a s eed by winds o r b i rds

b e in g c a r r ie d b y a s t o rm t o a n is la n d . T h e y f o r m e d t h e initial conditions fo r

t h e p h e n o m e n a t o b e e x p l ai n ed b y t h e t h e o r y , w h ic h w as t o a c c o u n t f o r th e

regularities tha t occu rred when a sy s tem w as p laced unde r spec i f ied c ircumstances.

Th i s po in t had been ex p l i c i t ly d is cussed in Hersche l 's Preliminary Discourse on

NaturalPhilosophy (Lon don : L a rdne r ' s Cab ine t , 183 t ) .

2 2 2



D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i e a l ~ E c o n O m i s t s

a s s u m p t i o n : o f ~ g r a d u a l a n d : u n i f o r m r a t e o f c h a n g e ha .th e o r g a n i c

w or ld. 77 ~ . . ~ .~ : . . . . ....... .% . ~:

Read ing . Mal thus , .Es say . on : Popu la t iOn in S e p t e m b e r 1 8 3 8 ag a in

d r e w D a r w i n ' s : a t t e n t i o n : t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t i m e sc ale s,T S: T h e t w o

M a l t h u s i a n l a w s : .w e re q u a n t i t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s : c o m p a r i n g

r a t e s , : o f

g r o w t h = t h e g r o w t h o f h u m a n p o p u la t i on s ~ i f u n c h e c k e d , i s e x p o n e n t i a l

a s c o m p a r e d w i t h th e i n c r e a s e i n t h e f o o d s u p p l y o n w h i c h m a n s ub si st s- ,

w h i c h t e n d s t o h a v e a c o n s t a n t r a te o f i n c re a s e , : : . . . . :

T o c l a r i fy t h e v a r io u s t i m e s c al es i n v o lv e d : b e c a m e : v e r y i m p o r t a n t

t o D a r w i n f o r u n d e r s ta n d i n g h o w n a t u r a l s e le c t io n o p e r a t e d . T o b e g in

w i t h , h e h a d t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h p a r a m e t e r s , a s : a f ir s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n ,

c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d c 0 n s t a n t i n ~ e w h e n : an a ly z in g v a r io u s p h e n o -

m e n a . T h e f i rs t a n d l o n g e s t r e l e v a n t ~ e s ca le w a s ' t h e g e o l 0 ~ c a l o i ie :

t h e a v e ra g e t i m e S c a l e f o r t h e s u b s i d e n c e a n d e l e v a t i o n o f C o n t i n e n t s

a n d t h e c o r r e l a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d c l i m a t i c c h a n g e s . 79 - T h e t i m e s c al e

f o r s p e c i a t i o n , D a r w i n a s s u m e d , w a s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t if fs g e o l o g i c a l t i m e

s ca le s ° T h o u g h e x t i n c t io n e o u l d U n d e r e e r t ~ ~ c u m s t a n c e s b e re l a t e d

t o g e o l og i c al c h a n g es , e x t i n c t i o n c o u l d O c c u r m U c h m 0 r e r a p i d l y ' ~ a n

s c h ch a n ge s ( a s w h e n a n e w s p e ci es e n t e r e d a p l a c e m t h e e c o n o m y

77, LyeU's

Principles o f Geology

(London, J ; Mur ray) , ve t , I ( 1830) , voLI I

( 1 8 3 2 ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y v o l. I l I ( 1 83 3 ) . S e e a l s o : R u d wi c k , M eaning O f Fossils,

and Ru dw iek , ' Char les Lye ll~s D ream of a S ta t i s t i ca l Pa laeonto logy , , ' pp , 225 ,

244. ' . . . . • .

7 8 , S e e m y d is cu ss io n i n " Or ig i n o f t h e Origin,, :pp. 299-302~ A typ ica l en t ry

o f t h a p e r i o d i s t h e o n e Da r wi n wr o t e o n Oc t o b e r 4 , 1 83 8, i n E , p . 4 : ' , I t c a n n o t

be ob jec ted to m y theory , th a t the am oun t o f change w i th in h is tQr ical t imes has

been s m a l l - b e c a u s e c h a n g e in f o r m i s s o le l y a d a p t a t i o n o f w h o l e o f~ on e r a c e t o

s o m e c h an ge o f c ir c u m s t a n ce s ; n o w w e k n o w h o w s lo wl y & i n s e n s i b l y s u c h

changes a re in p ro g re ss - w e f ee l in te r es t in d iscover ing a char lge of l eve l e r a f ew

fee t dur ing the l a s t two thousand year s in I t a ly , bu t w ha t change wo uld such a

chang e p rodu ce in c l ima te yege ta t ion & c ~ - i t i s the e~cu ms tanee o f smal l phys ica l

changes & osci l la t ions , not af fect ing organic forms, that the whole value of the

g e o l 0 g i e a l c h r o n o lo g y d e p e n d s t h a m o s t s u b li m e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e ge n u s o f

men.,~ See a lso th e sect ion "O n Time,r~ chap. 7 o f Char les Ba bbag e ' s Ninth

Bridgewater Treatise

(Lond on: John Mur ray , 1838), w hich Darwin r ea d in Oc to ber

1838. , ,

: "7 9 ' E ' p . '125:1 "No o ne bu t a p r ac t i sed geo log is t can rea l ly com prehend ho w

o l d t h e wo r l d i s , a s t h e m e a s u r em e n t s r e f e r n o t t o r e v o l u t io n s o f t h e s u n & o u r

l ives, b u t to . pe r iod necessa ry to fo rm heap of pebbles & e & e: the~success ion o f

organis m te l l s no th ing ab ou t l eng th O t ime , on ly order s o f succession .' . . . . .

. . 80 . D, p . 140: "wh en we m ul t ip ly the e f f ec t s o f ea r thquakes , e leva ting for ces

in r ai sing cont inen ts , s ea on beaches w e r ea l ly measure the r ap id i ty o f changes o f

f o rm s & i n s t in c t s i n t h e a n i m a l k i n g d 0 m . " :

2 2 3




o f n a t u r e a n d e x t e r m i n a t e d t h e f o r m e r t e n a n t s ) , s i T h e t i m e s c al e f o r

i n d i v id u a l , s m a l l v a r i a t io n s w a s s h o r t c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e g e o l o g ic a l

t i m e s ca le , v a r i a t i o n s in a p o p u l a t i o n b e i n g c o p i o u s a n d o c c u r r i n g

u b i q u i t o u s l y . - V a r i a t i o n s a r e a d d i t i v e , a n d b y t h e i r c u m m u l a t i v e

e f f e c t s ( m e a s u r e d o n t h e t i m e s ca le o f a g e n e r a t i o n ) s 2 v a r i e t ie s a n d

e v e n t u a l l y n e w s p ec ie s a r e p r o d u c e d , t h r o u g h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f n a t u r a l

s e l ec t io n . U n t i l 1 8 4 4 , w e m u s t r e m e m b e r , D a r w i n b e l i e v e d t h a t sp e c i a-

t i o n o c c u r s w h e n i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i s m s a r e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y i s o l a t e d , a s i n

t h e c a se o f t h e G a l ~ p a g o s m o c k i n g b i r d s , s3

8 1 . T h e e c o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t o f p l a c e is r e f e r e d t o i n t h e n o t e b o o k s , e .g ., E , p .

1 1 4 ( M a r c h 1 2, 1 8 3 9 ) : w e m u s t r e c o l l e c t t h e m u l t i t u d e o f p l a n t s i n t r o d u c e d

i n t o o u r g a r d e n s . . , w h i c h a re p r o p a g a te d w i t h v e r y l i t tl e ca re - & w h i c h m i g h t

s p r e a d t h e m s e l v e s a s ~ ve ll a s o u r w i l d p l a n t s , w e s e e h o w f u l l n a t u r e , h o w f 'm e l y

e a c h h o l d s i t s p l a c e . E a r l ie r , i n h i s O r n i t h o l o g i c a l N o t e s , w h i c h w e r e v e r y

p r o b a b l y w r i t te n d u r i n g 1 8 3 6 o n t h e la s t l eg o f t h e Beagle v o y a g e , D a r w i n h a d

n o t e d : I h a v e s p e c im e n s [ o f G a l~ p a g os m o c k i n g b ir d s ] f r o m f o u r o f t h e l ar g e r

i s la n d s . . . T h e s p e c i m e n s f ro m C h a t h a m & A l b e r m a r l e I s ld a p p e ar to b e t h e

s a m e ; b u t t h e o t h e r t w o a r e d i f f e r e n t . I n e a c h I s l d . e a c h k i n d i s exc lus ive ly f o u n d :

h a b i t s o f a l l a r e i n d i s ti n g u i s h a b l e . W h e n I r e c o l l e c t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f o r m o f t h e

b o d y , s h a p e o f s ca le s & g e n e r al s iz e, t h e S p a n i a r d s c a n a t o n c e p r o n o u n c e , f r o m

w h i c h I s la n d a n d T o r t o i s e m a y h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t . W h e n I s e e t h e s e I s la n d s i n

s i gh t o f e a c h o t h e r , &

[ b u t

d e l e t e d ] p o s s e s s e d o f b u t a s c a n t y s t o c k o f a n i m a l s ,

t e n a n t e d b y t h e s e b i r d s , b u t s l i g h tl y d if f e r i n g i n s t r u c t u r e & f i ll in g t h e s a m e place

[ m y i ta li c s] i n N a t u r e , I m u s t s u s p e c t t h e y a r e o n l y v a r i e t i e s . . . I f t h e r e i s t h e

s l ig h t e s t f o u n d a t i o n s t o t h e s e r e m a r k s t h e Z o o l o g y o f A r c h i p e la g o e s , w i ll b e w e l l

w o r t h e x a m i n i n g ; f o r s u c h f a c ts [ w o u l d i n s e r te d ] u n d e r m i n e t h e s t a b i li ty o f

S p e c i e s . N . B a r l o w , e d ., D a r w i n ' s O r n i t h o l o g i c a l N o t e s , Bull. Brit . Mus. (Nat.

Hist .) , Hist. Set . , 2 , n o . 7 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 2 0 3 - 2 6 2 . F o r t h e d a t i n g o f t h i s p a s s a g e s e e

S . H e r b e r t , T h e P l a c e o f M a n i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f D a r w i n ' s T h e o r y o f T r a n s -

m u t a t i o n , P a r t I , t o J u l y 1 8 3 7 , Z

Hist. Biol., 7

( 1 9 7 4 ) , 2 1 7 - 2 5 8 ; G . G r i n n e l l ,

T h e R i se a n d F a l l o f D a r w i n ' s F i r s t T h e o r y o f T r a n s m u t a t i o n , Z

Hist. Biol., 7

( 1 9 7 4 ) , 2 5 9 - 2 7 3 ; R . C o l p , C h a r l e s D a r w i n a n d t h e G a l ~ p a g o s , N . Y . J.

Med. , 77

( 1 9 7 7 ) , 2 6 2 - 2 6 7 .

8 2 . E , p . 5 7 : E v e r y s t r u c t u r e i s c a p a b l e o f i n n u m e r a b l e v a r i a t io n s , a s l o n g a s

e a c h s h a l l b e

per f ec t l y

a d a p t e d t o c i r c u m s ta n c e s o f

t i m es

f r o m p e r s i s t in g o w i n g

t o t h e i r s l ow f o r m a t i o n t h e s e v a r i a ti o n s t e n d t o a c c u m u l a t e o n a n y s tr u c t u r e . I t

i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g t h e t i m e s c a l e f o r v a r i a t i o n h a s m e a n i n g

o n l y f o r a p o p u l a t i o n .

8 3 . D a r w i n t o H o o k e r , S u n d a y , 1 8 4 4 . T h e c o n c l u si o n , w h i c h I h a v e c o m e

a t i s t h a t t h o s e a r e a s, in w h i c h s p e c i e s a r e m o s t n u m e r o u s , h a v e o f t e n e s t b e e n

d i v i d e d a n d i s o l a t e d f r o m o t h e r a re a s , u n i t e d a n d a g a i n d i v i d e d ; a p r o c e s s im p l y i n g

a n t i q u i t y a n d s o m e c h a n g e s i n t h e e x t e r n a l c o n d i t io n s . T h i s w il l j u s t ly s o u n d v e r y

h y p o t h e t i c a l . I c a n n o t g iv e m y r e a s o n s i n d e t a il ; b u t t h e m o s t g e n e r a l e o n c h i s lo n ,

w h i c h t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a l l o r g a n i c b e in g s , a p p e a r s t o m e t o i n d i c a t e

is t h a t i s o l a ti o n is t h e c h i e f c o n c o m i t a n t , o r c a u s e o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f n e w f o r m s

( I w e l l k n o w t h e r e a r e s o m e s t a r r in g e x c e p ti o n s ) . S e c o n d l y f r o m s e ei ng h o w o f t e n

2 2 4



D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m i s t s

I n t h e p e r i o d o f i n t o x i c a t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e M a l t h u s i a n i n s i g h t D a r w i n

m u s t h a v e h o p e d t h a t h e c o u l d s h o w h o w n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n m i g h t

a c c o u n t f o r t h e v a r i o u s t i m e s ca le s l iv i n g f o r m s e x h i b i t e d , b e c a u s e " t h e

g r e a t e n d m u s t b e t h e l a w & c a u se s o f c h a n g e s " ( E , p . 5 2 ). N a t u r a l

s e l e c t io n w a s t o b e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g a n d e x p l a i n e v e r y t h i n g f o u n d

i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l w o r l d . O f c o u r s e , t h e g e o l o g i ca l , g e o g r a p h i c , a n d

c l i m a t i c s t a g e u p o n W h i c h t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s u n f o l d e d h a d t o b e

c o n s i d e r e d , b u t t h e se i n o r g a n i c p ro c e s s e s w o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y

t h e l a w s o f p h y s i c s a n d c h e m i s t r y . ~

B u t i t m u s t q u i c k l y h a v e b e c o m e a p p a r e n t t o D a r w i n t h a t h i s d r e a m

w a s a n i m p o s s i b l e o n e , f o r i t m e a n t g o i n g b a c k t o a n in i t i a l o r i g in o f

e v e r y t h i n g o n e a r t h a n d h a v i n g t o c o n s i d e r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f e v e r y t h in g

w i t h e v e r y t h i n g e ls e a n d t o s p e c i fy p r e c i s e ly t h e e v o l u t i o n o f e v e r y

t h e p l a n t s a n d a n im a l s s w a r m i n c o u n t r y , w h e n i n t r o d u c e d i n i t , a n d f r o m s e e in g

w h a t a v a s t n u m b e r o f p l a n t s w i l l l iv e , f o r i n s t a n c e i n E n g l a n d f f k e p t free from

weeds and native plants

I have been l ed t o cons ide r t ha t t he sp read ing and

n u m b e r o f t h e o r g a n i c b ei n g s o f a n y c o u n t r y d e p e n d l es s o n i t s e x t e r n a l f e a t u re s ,

t h a n o n t h e n u m b e r o f f o r m s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n t h e r e o r ig i n a ll y c r e a t e d o r p r o -

d u c e d . I m u c h d o u b t w h e t h e r y o u w i l l f i n d it p o s s ib l e t o e x p l a i n t h e n u m b e r o f

f o r m s b y p r o p o r t i o n a l d i f fe r e n c e s o f e x p o s u r e ; a n d I c a n n o t d o u b t i f h a l f t h e

s p e c i e s i n a n y c o u n t r y w e r e d e s t r o y e d o r h a d n o t b e e n c r e a t e d y e t t h a t c o u n t r y

w o u l d a p p e a r t o u s f u l l y p e o p l e d . W i th re s p e c t t o o r ig i n a l c r e a t i o n o r p r o d u c t i o n

o f n e w f o r m s , I h a v e s a id t h a t i s o l a t io n a p p e ar s t h e c h i e f e le m e n t . H e n c e , w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t e r re s t ri a l p r o d u c t i o n s a t r a c t o f c o u n t r y , w h i c h h a d o f t e n e s t w i t h i n

the l a t e r geo log i ca l pe r iods subs ided and b een co nve r t ed i n to i s lands and r eu n i t ed ,

I s h o u l d e x p e c t t o c o n t a i n m o s t f o rm s .

" B u t such specu l a t i ons a r e am us ing o n ly t o one s e l f and i n t h i s ca se u se le s s a s

t h e y d o n o t s h o w a n y d i r e c t l i n e o f o b s e r v a ti o n .

" Your geog raph ica l - l aw- l e t t e r s r equ i r e be ing r ead and r e r ead , and I have on ly

r e a d y o u r l a s t t w i c e , a n d s o w i l l h a z a r d n o r e m a r k s o n i t . Y o u s e e m h o w e v e r t o

h a v e p u t t h e c a se o f ' t y p i c a l f o r m s ' i n a c l e a r e r p o i n t o f v ie w , t h a n I e v e r s a w i t

a n d s t r ip p e d t h e w o r d o f h a l f , ff n o t a l l i ts m y s t e r y : I h a v e l o n g s u s p e c te d , t h a t

t y p i c a l a n d a b n o r m a l f o r m s c o n s i s t o n l y o f t h o s e , o f w h i c h a g r e a t e r o r l es s v a r i e t y

h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d o r m o d i f i e d - w i t h t h i s e x c e l l e n t y e x p r e s se d s e n t e n c e , I w i l l

c o n c l u d e . "

T h i s l e t t e r i s in t h e H o o k e r - D a r w i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s it y

L i b r a ry . I t h a n k P e t e r G a u t r e y a n d t h e L i b r a r i a n o f t h e L i b r a r y f o r p e r m i s si o n t o

q u o t e i t . P a r t o f t h e l e t t e r is in c l u d e d i n LLD I , 388 -389 .

8 4 . J . F . W . H e rs c h e l, " O n t h e A s t r o n o m i c a l C a u s es W h i c h M a y I n f lu e n c e

G e o l o g ic a l P h e n o m e n a , " Trans. Geol. Soc. London 3 (1932) , 293 -299 . See a l so

W . F . C a n n o n , " J o h n H e r s c h e l a n d t h e I d e a o f S c i e n c e , " J . Hist. Ideas 22 (1961) ,

2 1 5 - 2 3 9 ; R u d w i c k , Meaning of Fossils p . 1 8 7 ; D o v O s p o v a t , " L y e l l ' s T h e o r y o f

C l i m a t e , " £ Hist. Biol. 10 (1977) , 317 -399 .

2 2 5



S ~ L V A N S : S C U W E B E R

v a r ie t y, e x t a n t a n d e x t in c t, as A m o r e m o d e s t a p p r o a c h h a d t o b e

a c c e p t e d . H e n e e d n o t t r y t o a c c o u n t f o r e v e r y t h in g . H e c o u ld in s te a d

a c c e p t a p h e n 0 m e n o l 0 g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f o r m s o f l i f e and t he

g e o l o g i c a l , g e o g r a p h i c , a n d c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s o n e a r t h a t s o m e g i v e n

t i m e a n d t h e n a ll o w " s e c o n d a r y c a u s e s" t o t a k e h i m f r o m t h a t s ta g e t o

s o m e l a t e r st ag e . n w o r k i n g o u t t h is p r o g r a m , h e w o u l d f ir s e s t a b li s h

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l a w s ( e .g ., c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w s o f su b s i d e n c e a n d

e l e v a t i o n o f l a n d m a s s e s , t h e l a w o f c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s p e c i e s , l a w s o f

c l i m a t e , l a w s o f v a r i a t io n , l a w s o f c o r r e l a ti o n o f p a r t s ) a n d th e r e a f t e r

l o o k f o r c a u s e s ,

verae causae.

86 T h i s w a s p a r t o f t h e C o m t e a n m e s s a g e

t h a t D a r w i n h a d r e a d i n A u g u s t 1 8 38 a n d t h a t r e s o n a te d so s tr o n g ly

w i t h h i s o w n p r i o r v ie w s , in s p i r ed b y h is r e a d i n g o f H e r s c h e l a n d L y e l l.

D a r w i n r e a li z e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e s e v e ra l w a y s o f l o o k i n g a t t h e

p h e n o m e n a . H e c o u l d c o n s i d e r g lo b a l e v o l u t i o n o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f

t i m e , o r h e c o u l d l o o k a t th e d i f f e r e n ti a l l o ca l d e s c r ip t io n . I n t h i s s e c o n d

a p p r o a c h , h e c o u l d t r y t o l i m i t th e i n q u i r y t o h o w n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n

o p e r a t e d o v e r s h o r t t i m e i n t e r v a l s i n f a i r y l o c a l i z e d g e o g r a p h i c a l

r e g i o n s . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a n i n q u i r y i n t o h o w n a t u r a l

s e l e c t i o n a c c o u n t s f o r t h e o b s e r v e d d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r i u m . I n f a c t ,

Lye l l i n h i s

Principles of Geology

h a d a l r e a d y a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o t h e

q u e s t i o n o f w h y a g iv e n l o c a l i ty " w i l l b e o c c u p i e d b y a f e w [ sp e c ie s ] t o

t h e e x c l u s io n o f m a n y , a n d th e s e f e w a r e e n a b l e d , t h r o u g h o u t l o n g

p e r i o d s , t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r g r o u n d s u c c e s s f u l l y a g a in s t e v e r y in t r u d e r ,

n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e f a c il it ie s w h i c h s p e c ie s e n j o y , b y v i rt u e o f th e i r

p o w e r s o f d i f fu s i o n , o f i n v a d in g a d j a c e n t t e r r i to r i e s . " 87 L y e l l ' s e x p l a n a -

t i o n a p p e a l e d t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s among species , and i t was in th i s

c o n t e x t t h a t h e r e f e r r e d t o C a n d o U e ' s " s p i r i t e d " s t a t e m e n t : " A l l t h e

p l a n t s o f a g iv e n c o u n t r y a r e a t w a r w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . "

F r o m 1 8 3 8 t o 1 8 3 9 , w h e n D a r w i n w a s p r i n c i p a l ly c o n c e r n e d w i t h

t h e h i g h e r a n i m a l f o r m s , h e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i n h is i n v e s ti g a t io n o f h o w

na tu ra l s e l ec t i on exp l a ined l oc a l equ i l i b ri a , im po r t an t s imp l i f ica t i ons

c o u l d b e m a d e . F i r s t, h e c o u l d a s s u m e t h a t t h e g e o l o g i ca l a n d g e o g r a p h i c

85. E, p. 52: "I fr om looking at all facts as inducing toward law of transmuta-

tion, cannot see the deductions w hich are possible."

86. Se e, e.g., E, p. 5 1: "Thinking o f effects of my theory, laws will probably

be discovered of correlation of parts, from the law s of variation of one part

affecting another." See als o E, pp. 53 -54 and p. 59: "H urrah - 'intermediate

cause. '" In connection with the vera causa principle, see M. J. S. H od ge , '"The

Structure and Strategy of Darwin's

Long Argument, Brit. J. Hist. Science, 10

(1977), 237-246.

87. Lyell, Principles of Geology, II, 130.

2 2 6



D a r w i n a n d t h e : P o li t ic a l E e o n o m i s tg

p r o c e ss e s w e r e c h a n g i n g e x t r e m e l y s l o w l y in t i m e , w e r e lo c a U y u n -

a f fec ted b y th e b io log ica l phe nom ena , t ak ing p la 'ee, and thus to a J f ir s t

a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t c o u l d b e a s s U m e d - c o n s t a n t . S e c o n d ,

h e c o u l d a s su m e t h a t t h e r a t es f o r r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d f e r t i li t y , a s w e l l a s

g e n e r a t i o n a l t i m e s , w e r e c o n s t a n t : D o i n g s o , D a r w i n t h e n i n f e r r e d t h a t

t h e a v e ra g e e f f e c t o f in t e r sp e c i f ic c o m p e t i t i o n a n d s h o r t - t e rm c l im a t i c

e f fec t s r e su lt ed , in a fo od Supp ly fo r an y spec ies tha t on the~ave tage was

c o n s ta n t .: T h a t i s, D a r w i n e o u l d m a k e p l au s ib l e ( a n d i n t h i s s en s e d e r i v e )

w h y t h e a v e ra g e p e r c e n ta g e o f e v e r y o n e ' o f t h e in h a b i ta n t s o f a c o u n t r y

will :ordinan ly

r e m a i n c o n s t a n t : ~ I n O t h e r w o r d s , g i ve n t h e e n O r m o u s

m u l t i p l y i n g p o w e r

inherent an d annually in

ac t ion in a l I an imals ;, ' as

n a t u ra l s e l e c ti o n c o u l d a c c o u n t f o r . t h ~ d y n a m i c e q u i li b ri u m :

on the

average the f o o d s u p p l y w as c o n s t a n t a n d t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e v a ri ou s

spec ies r em ained cons tan t~

T h e t h i r d p o i n t i n th e f a m o u s e n t r y o n p a g e 5 8 O f t h e E n o t e b o o k -

T hre e p r inc ip les w i l l ac co un t fo r a l l . .. ..

1 ) g randch i ld ren l ike g randfa the r s .

2 ) t e n d e n c y t o s m a l l c h a n g e . . , e s p e ci a ll y .w i t h p h y si ca l c h a ng e

3 ) g r e a t f e r ti l i t y i n p r o p o r t i o n t o s u p p o r t o f p a r e n t s -

m a k e s e x p l ic i t m y i n f e r e n c e : t h e r e is o n l y o n e M a lt hu si an s t a t e m e n t ,

a n d t h e s e c o n d M a lt h u si an l a w f o l l o w s f r o m t h e f ir s t. A s D a r w i n h i m s e l f

e m p h a s i z e d , a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f th e s o l u t i o n o f h i s p r o b l e m W as t h e

a p p l i c a t io n o f t h e M a l t h u s i a n th e s i s t o a ll o f n a t u r e . F o r D a r w i n t h i s

m e a n t t h a t : t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e M a l t h u si a n l a w , w h i c h s t a t e d t h a t w h e n

u n c h e c k e d , t h e r a te o f i n c r e a se ' o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a n y o n e s pe ci es

is e x p o n e n t i a l . ( B u t d i f f e r e n t s p e c ie s m a y h a v e d i f f e r e n t re p r o d u c t i v e

t ime ScaleS .) I t was th i s expo nen t ia l g row th th a t gave r i s e to po pu la t io n

pres su re , the vera causa of na tu ra l s e lec t ion , and the ensu ing in te r spe -

c i f l c a n d i n t r a s p e c i f i e c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e r e W a s o n e o b v i o u s c o n s t r a i n t

t h a t h a d t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n c o n si d er in g t h e e q u i li b ri u m o f t h e

e n t i r e s y s t e m : t h e f m i t u d e ' o f t h e' s u r f a c e o f t h e e a i t h . T h e a r ea s t h a t

c o u l d b e o c c u p i e d b y li vi n g o r g an i sm s i m p o s e d a n a b s o lu t e l i m i t o n t h e

b i o m a ss t h e e a r t h c o u l d ; su p p o r t. ' . . . . ' '

:B u t a s use fu l a s the M al thusian S ta tem en t was ' in th i s ana lys is , i t

w a s n o n e t h e l e s s o n l y / a n ~ i m p o r t a t i t

phenomenological

s t a t e m e n t t h a t

e v e n t u a l l y s h o u l d b e s u bs u m e d, u n d e r . a m o r e g e n e r a l a n d u n i v e rs a l

88. Essayof 1844, p . 118. . . . .

2 2 7




s t a t e m e n t , s9 T h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e c o n d M a l t h u s i a n l a w , r e l at iv e t o

t h e f o o d s u p p l y , c o u l d b e s h o w n t o b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e l a w o f

g e o m e t r i c a l p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h w h e n t h is l a w w a s a p p l i e d t o a ll o f n a tu r e

s u g g e s te d h o w t h e p r o c e s s w a s t o o p e r a t e . 9° D a r w i n w a s g r a p p l i n g w i t h

t h es e p r o b l e m s w h e n i n J a n u a r y 1 8 3 9 h e w r o t e :

T h e e n o r m o u s number o f a n im a l s i n t h e w o r l d d e p e n d s o n t h e i r

v a r i e d s t r u c t u r e & c o m p l e x i t y . - h e n c e a s t h e f o r m s b e c a m e c o m -

p l i c a t e d , t h e y o p e n e d fresh m e a n s o f a d d in g t o t h e i r c o m p l e x i t y .

- b u t y e t th e r e is n o

necess ry

t e n d e n c y i n t h e s i m p l e a n i m a l s t o

b e c o m e c o m p l i c a t e d a l th o u g h a ll p e r h a p s w i ll h a v e d o n e s o f r o m t h e

n e w r e l a t i o n s c a u s e d b y t h e a d v a n c i n g c o m p l e x i t y o f o t h e rs . - I t

m a y w e l l b e sa id , w h y s h o u l d t h e r e n o t b e a t a n y t im e a s m a n y

species t e n d in g t o d i s - d e v e l o p m e n t . . , m y a n sw e r is b e c au s e , i f w e

b e g i n w i t h t h e s i m p l e s t f o r m s & s u p p o s e t h e m t o h av e c h a n g e d t h e i r

v e r y c h a n g e s t e n d t o g iv e r is e t o o t h e r s - . . . I d o u b t n o t i f t h e

s i m p l e s t a n i m a ls c o u l d b e d e s t r o y e d , t h e m o r e h i g h l y o r g a n iz e d

w o u l d b e s o o n d i s o r g a n i z e d t o f i l l t h e i r p l ac e s . -

T h e g e o l o g ic o - g e o g ra p h i c o c h a ng e s m u s t t e n d s o m e t i m e s t o

a u g m e n t & s o m e t i m e s to s i m p l i f y s t ru c t u r es . W i t h o u t e n o r m o u s

c o m p l e x i t y i t i s i m p o s s i b le t o c o v e r

whole

s u rf a ce o f w o r l d w i t h

l if e . - f o r o t h e r w i s e a f r o s t i f k i l l i n g t h e v e g e t a b l e o f o n e q u a r t e r o f

t h e w o r l d w o u l d k i l l a l l . . , i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t a l a rg e p a r t o f th e

c o m p l e x i t y o f s t r u c tu r e i s a d a p t a t i o n . . .

C o n s i d e ri n g th e k i n g d o m o f n a t u r e a s i t n o w i s, i t w o u l d n o t b e

p o s s i b l e t o s i m p l i f y t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t b e in g s , ( a l l

f is h es t o t h e st a t e o f th e A m m o c o e t u s , C r u s t a c e a t o - ? & c ) w i t h o u t

r e d u c i n g t h e n u m b e r o f li v in g b e i n g s - b u t t h e r e i s t h e s t r o n g e s t

p o s s i b l e [ t e n d e n c y ? ] t o i n c r e a s e t h e m , h e n c e t h e d eg r e e o f d e v e l o p -

m e n t is e i t h e r s t a t i o n a r y o r p r o b a b l y in c r e as e s . ( E , p p . 9 5 - 9 7 ) 91

I f m d t h i s e n t r y s t a g g e r in g . T h e r e a r e s e v e ra l s t r a n d s i n it . O n e c o n -

c e r ns t h e p r o b l e m o f h o w t o r e c o n c i le t h e e v o l u t i o n f r o m s im p l e t o

c o m p l e x f o r m s a n d i ts as s o c ia t e d t im e a r r ow w i t h L y e l l ' s s t e a d y -s t a te

89. In o th er word s , the ques t ions why d o organisms repro duc e so as to g ive

r ise to a geo me tr ica l ra te of increase , and wh at the t im e co ns tan t i s , a re meaningful

and m us t be answered by the theo ry o f na tu ra l s e l ec t ion .

90 . See Schweber , The Young Darw in , on the re l a t ion be tween how na tu ra l

s e lec tion ope ra ted and ho w the New ton ian desc r ip t ion worked .

91 . The word tendency does n ot occur in Darw in ' s or ig ina l MS. De Beer

inser ted i t .

2 2 8




u n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m a n d i ts e x p l i c i t r e j e c t i o n o f d i r e c t i o n a l it y i n t i m e . 9 :

D o e s t h e n e c e s s a r y t e n d e n c y . . . t o b e c o m e c o m p l i c a t e d v i o la t e

L y e l l ' s i d e a s ? D o e s i t i m p l y t h a t p r e s e n t - d a y p r o c e s s e s a r e d i f f e r e n t i n

k i n d t h a n e a r li e r o n e s ? C o n f l a t e d w i t h th i s i s t h e q u e s t io n : I f t h e r e

i s e v o l u t i o n f r o m l o w e r t o h i g h e r f o r m s w h y a r e t h e r e s ti ll so m a n y

b e i n g s o f t h e s i m p l e s t s t r u c t u r e ? L y e l l h a d p o s e d t h i s q u e s t i o n i n h i s

P r i n c i p l e s o f G e o l o g y , a n d D a r w i n e n t e r e d a n a n s w e r i n t h e m a r g i n a l i a

t o t h e f i f t h e d i t i o n , w h i c h h e r e a d in 1 8 3 7 : B e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e l o c a l-

i ti e s f i t t e r f o r s i m p l e s t a n im a l s a s w e l l a s th e m o s t c o m p l e x , t h e r e f o r e

s o m e r e m a i n e d s im p l e i f n o t c r e a te d . '9 3 N o t e , h o w e v e r , t h e c h a n g e

t h a t o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 3 7 a n d 1 8 3 9. In 1 8 3 7 D a r w i n s p o k e o f

adap t a t i on t oward l oca l i t i e s~ t ha t i s , geograph i ca l l oca l i t i e s . In J anuary

1 8 3 9 a d a p t a t io n s w e r e t o w a r d p l a c e . A n d f o r D a r w i n t h e n o t i o n o f

p lace i s ecolog ical : i t i s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e. 94

M o r e o v e r , i t i s c l e a r f r o m t h e s e n t e n c e i n t h e E n o t e b o o k e n t r y i n

w h i c h D a r w i n s t a te s t h a t h e d o e s n o t d o u b t t h a t i f t h e s i m p l e s t a n i m a l s

w e r e d e s t r o y e d t h e m o r e h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d w o u l d s o o n b e d is o r g a n iz e d

t o f il l t h e i r p l a c e s t h a t f o r D a r w i n i n 1 8 3 9 a d a p t a t i o n c o u l d b e

p r o g r e s s i v e a s w e l l a s r e t r o g r e s s i v e a n d n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n c o u l d

a c c o u n t f o r b o t h k i n d s o f c h a n g e s .

T h e e n t r y a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n v i e w i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f e v o l u t i o n ,

D a r w i n c o n s i d e r e d o r g a n i s m s a s e n t i ti e s t h a t h a d a h i s t o r y a n d a m e m o r y

( a p r o g r a m , in m o d e m t e r m i n o l o g y ) . 9s O n l y b y v i rt u e o f h a v in g ob -

t a in e d a d e g re e o f c o m p l e x i t y c a n o r g a n is m s a d d f u r t h e r c o m p l e x i t y

( c h a n g e t h e i r p r o g r a m ) . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o n e c e s s a r y t e n d e n c y in th e

s i m p l e a n i m a l s t o b e c o m e c o m p l i c a t e d , D a r w i n s u g ge s ts t h a t t h e n e w

r e la t io n s c a u s e d b y t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f o t h e r s w i ll i n d u c e c o m p l e x i t y

t o e v o lv e . C o m p l e x i t y n o t o n l y m e a n t t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f a d d in g

f u r t h e r c o m p l e x i t y , it a ls o m e a n t d i v e r si ty . '9 6 W i t h o u t e n o r m o u s

c o m p l e x i t y - [ r e a d d i v e r s i t y ] i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o c o v e r w h o l e s u r f a c e

o f w o r l d w i t h li f e . S i n ce th e r e i s t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s s ib l e t e n d e n c y f o r

e a c h o r g a n is m t o i n c r e a se i ts n u m b e r s , t h e 'd e g re e o f d e v e l o p m e n t

p r o b a b l y i n c re a s e s. D a r w i n ' s s t a t e m e n t s t r o n g e s t p o s s ib l e t e n d e n c y

92. I thank J. Hod ge fo r a discussion o f this point.

93. Quo ted in Stauffer, Ecology in the Long M anuscript Version o f Darw in's

Origin o f Species, p. 237.

94. See ibid., p. 238, for the use of the world place.

95. See M ayr's st imulating 1974 essa y, 'q 'h e Evolution o f Living Systems,

reprinted in Evolution an d the Diversity o f Life, pp. 16-25.

96. In C, p. 147e Darwin says that the quan t i ty o f l ife on a planet depends on

subdivisions of stations & diversity.

2 2 9



S I L V A N S ; S C I - t W E B E R ....

t o i n c r e a s e i s t h e : f i rs t s t e p i n : th e g e n e ra l iz a ~ O n o f t h e M a l t hu s ia n

prin cip le.: _ . ' : ~

T h e t r a n s it i o n f r o m t h e s p e c i fi c M a l t h u s ia n s t a t e m e n t - t h a t p op u la ÷

t io n s , i f u n c h e c k e d , i n c re a s e g e o m e t r ic a l l y o n a ~ fix ed t i m e s c a l e - t o : a

• a a 1

o r m u l a t i o n m t e r m s o f t h e ~ t ro n g e st p o s s i b e t e n d e n c y t o in c r e a se

m arks an im po r tan t l sh i f in~ :Darwin . W hereas the speci f ic M al thus ian

s t a te m e n t : a l l o w e d o n e t o ~ ex pto re t h e e q u i l i b r i u m a t a g i v en t i m e , t h e

f o r m u l a t i o n in: t e r m s o f t h e m a x i m u m t e n d e n c y t o i nc r ea s e a l lo w e d

o n e t o l o o k ~' a t t h e i n it ia l a n d . t h e f in a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a n d t h e n ~ r y ~ t o

i n t e rp o l a t e b e tw e e n t h e s e i n te r m s o f a m o s t p r o b a b le h i s t o r y , : :~

s t a t e d m o re : s u c c i n c t ly ; t h e l o c a l t h e o r y f o r m u l a t e d i n t e r m s t h e

M a l t h u s i a n l a w s m i m i c k e d t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l N e w t o n i a n d e s c r i p t io n o f

p h y s ic a l p h e n o m e n a , w her~ e t h e k n o w I e d g e o f t h e c o n ~ t i o n s a t a g iv e n

t i m e a n d o f t h e la w s O f f o r c e a U o w e d o n e t o d e t e rm i n e :th e h is t o r y o f

t h e s y st e m f o r t h e n e x t i n st a n t, T h e s t a t e m e n t i n: te rm S o f a m ~ u m

t e n d e n c y t o in cre ase ~' w a s t h e a n a l o g u e o f a v ar ia t io n a I p ~ c i p l e W h ic h

s t a te d t h a t : t he a ct u al t r a j e c t o r y o f a s y s te m ( g i v e n t h e f o r c e l aw s )W a s

t h e o n e t h a t m a x i m iz e d a c e r t ~ : e x p r e s s i o n ~ I n t hi s g l o b a l w a y o f

l o o k i n g a t t h e p r o b l e m , t h e i n it ia l a n d ffm a l'( spa t i a l ) conf igu ra t ions o f

the sys tem a re p resc r ibed ( as co m pa re d t o th e spee if iCa tio rt o f the in i t i a l

p o s i t i o n a n d v e l o c it ie s in : t h e d i f f e r e n t ia l a p p r a o c h ) , a n d t h e t r a j e c t o r y

t h a t c o n n e c t s i ni ti al ~ d f m a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s t h e n d e te r m in e d ,: : :

I a m n o t s u gg e st in g t h a t : D a r w i n k n e w o f t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m u l a -

t i o n s o f N e w t o n i a n :m e c h a n i cs . 97 B u t I d o b e li ev e t h a t ~ h e : re c o g n i z e d

t h e i n h er e n t: , u s e fu l n es s o f t h e . s e c o n d a p p r o a c h , I t ~ : a l l o w e d h i m t o

c o n s i d e r b o t h t h e i n i t i a l a n d t h e f i n a l s t a t e a n d t o g iv e a p la us ib le

h is tory o f t h e e v o l u t i o n f r o m t h e i n it ia l t o ,t h e f i n a l st a t e . T h e g eo to gi~

c a l a n d c l i m a t i c c o n d it io n s a t e a c h p e r i o d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c o m p e t i .

t i o n e x e r t e d b y O t h e r sp e ei es a n d b y m e m b e r s o f t h e s am e s pe ci es i? ar e

t h e ' , f o r o e s ', t h a t s e le c t' ~ t h e p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r y .

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f : h i s t o r y i n t o b i o l o g y i s a f a c e t o f t h e l ar g er

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f ~ t h e i n te l le c t u al w o r l d t h a t b e g a n d u ri n g t h e . s e c o n d

h a l f o f t h e . e i g h t e e n t h c e n ~ r y ( a n d w i ll : b e d is c u s s e d l a t er o n); : O n e

a s p e c t o f t h is t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e c h a n g e f r o m a d e s c r ip t iv e t o a

d ev elo pm e nta l w a y o f ~ g , D arw in ,s a t t ra c t i o n t o th is m o d e o f

e x p l a n a t i o n i s o f c o u r s e n o t s u rp r is in g . T o b e l i e v e i n e v o l u t i o n i m p l ie s a

c o m m i t m e n t t o t h a t m o d e . T h u s B u f f o n 's e x p l a n a ti o n o f t h e d if f er e n c es

97. Neither Herschel in:hisPreliminary D iseoursenorW hew ellinhisHistory

of the lndueHveSeienee~ deals w ith these variational formulationS:o f mechanics.

I ha ve not established whether Darwin kn ew :abo ut S uch principles in 0pries.

2 3 0




i n sp e c ie s w a s h i s t o r i c a l . B y t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

a l s o , t h e a i m o f t h e s c ie n c e o f g e o l o g y w a s t o d i sc o v e r t h e p a t h b y

w h i c h o n e s t a t e o f t h e e a r t h h a d c h a n g e d i n t o a n o t h e r ; a n d D a r w i n ' s

in i t ia l t ra in ing w as as a geolog is t .

T h e r e is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f e a t u re o f t h e g l o b a l a p p r o a c h . E v e n

t h o u g h o n e c o n s i d e r s i n i t i a l a n d final c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , t h e a p p r o a c h i s

n o t t e le o l o g ic a l . T h e r e a r e t w o s o u r c e s w h i c h D a r w i n r e a d in t h e 1 8 3 9 -

1 8 41 p e r i o d - a p a r t f r o m t h e p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y l i te r a t u r e , w h i c h I

sha ll cons ide r l a t e r o n - t ha t ad res s s c i en ti f ic que s t i ons i n t h i s s ame

w a y : B r o u g h a m ' s

Dissertations on Sub/ects o f Science 9s

and L ieh ig ' s

Organic Chemis try. 99 B o t h t h e s e b o o k s u s e t h e m a x i m a l i z a t i o n - m i n i -

r e a l i z a ti o n a p p r o a c h .

D a r w i n s t u d i e d B r o u g h a m ' s Dissertations in 1 8 3 9 w h e n w o r k i n g o n

q u e s t io n s r e l a t in g t o i n s t i n c t, a n d t h e M a n d N n o t e b o o k s c o n t a i n

s e v e ra l r e f e r e n c e s t o i t. V o l u m e I o f t h e Dissertations a l so c o n t a i n e d a

l e n g t h y e n t r y t i tl e d O b s e r v a t i o n s , d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , a n d e x p e r i m e n t s

u p o n t h e s t ru c t u r e o f t h e c e lls o f b e e s . I n it , B r o u g h a m a s k e d w h a t t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s ib l e s a vi ng s h o u l d b e m a d e b o t h o f

s p a ce , o f w a x , a n d l a b o u r i m p l y fo r t h e g e o m e t r y o f t h e ce lls . H o w

s h o u l d t h e c e ll s b e m a d e s o a s t o p l a c e t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r in e a c h s e t

o r c o m b , w h e n t h e f u r t h e r c o n s t r a in t w a s a p p l ie d t h a t t h e f o r m o f a ll

• . . g iv e th e l a r g e s t p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e w a ll s, a n d t h e s m a l le s t o f t h e

r h o m b o i d a l b a s e ? B r o u g h a m c o n s i d e re d a ll a s p e c ts o f t h e p r o b l e m :

t h e p h y s i o l o g y o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f th e w a x b y t h e b e e s , t h e l a b o r

i n v o lv e d , t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m o f m i n i m i z i n g t h e s u r f a c e s ( s o a s

t o s a v e w a x ) b u t m a x i m i z i n g t h e a v a i l ab l e s p a c e ( s o a s t o m a x i m i z e

p o p u l a t i o n ) - i n d e e d a c a r e f u l a n a ly s i s o f th e n a t u r a l e c o n o m y o f b e e s .

D a r w i n c a r e f u l l y r e a d a n d a n n o t a t e d t h i s l e n g t h y a r t i c l e , a n d f o l l o w e d

a l l t he s t eps i n t he a lgeb ra i c and geo m et r i ca l ca l cu l a t ions . (Th e pages o f

t h e A p p e n d i x o f D e m o n s t r a t i o n s , w h i c h i n v o lv e d c a lc u lu s , w e r e ,

h o w e v e r , le f t u n c u t . )

D a r w i n 's e n t r y o n p a g e 9 5 o f th e E n o t e b o o k , B r o u g h a m ' s f o r m u l a -

t i o n a n d s o l u ti o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t io n o f t h e g e o m e t r y

o f h o n e y c o m b s , a n d L i e b i g 's a p p r o a c h , w h i c h I s h al l c o n s i d e r l a te r , ar e

a ll in d i c a ti v e o f a w a y a t l o o k i n g a t b i o lo g i c a l p r o b l e m s q u a n t i t i v e l y

98. Henry, Lord Brougham,

Dissertations on Subjects of Sciences Connected

with Natural Theology 2 vols. (London : C. Knight, 1839).

99. Justus Liebig, Organic Chemistry in Its Application to Agriculture and

Physiology

ed. L yon P layfair (London: Ta ylor and W alton, 1840)• Darwin's

copy is at C ambridge University Library and is signed Charles Da rw in 1841

inside the fron t cover.

231



SILVAN S. SCHW BER

tha t de r ives f ro m Ut i l i t a r ian po l i t i ca l ec on om y. I be li eve i t i s an exp res -

s i on wi th in t he b io log i ca l s c i ences - t he u se o f s t a t i s t i c s i n b iogeo-

g r a p h y i s a n o t h e r - o f s im i l a r t e n d e n c i e s w i t h i n p o li ti c a l e c o n o m y .

T h e r e t h e q u a n t i t a t iv e a p p r o a c h f o u n d m o r e f e r ti le f i el d s a n d i ts

i n f lu e n c e w a s m o r e p e r v a s iv e . m °

I f y o u c o u p l e t h e M a l th u s ia n s t a t e m e n t e x p r e s se d i n t e r m s o f t h e

s t r o n g e s t p o s s i b le [ t e n d e n c y ? ] t o i n c re a s e t h e n u m b e r o f l iv in g

b e i n g s w i t h D a r w i n ' s e a rl ie r s t a t e m e n t s th a t t h e e n d o f f o r m a t i o n o f

s p e c ie s & g e n e r a is p r o b a b l y t o a d d t o q u a n t u m o f l if e p o s s ib l e w i t h

c e r t a i n p r e - e x is t in g l aw s . - I f o n l y o n e k i n d o f p l a n t n o t s o m a n y

( C , p . 1 4 6 ) ; a n d t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y o f l if e o n p l a n e t a t d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s

d e p e n d s o n r e l a ti o n s o f d e s e r t , o p e n o c e a n , & c . T h i s p r o b a b l y o n l o n g

a v e ra g e e q u a l q u a n t i t y , 2 ° o n r e l a t io n o f h e a t a n d c o l d , t h e r e f o r e f e w e r

n o w t h a n f o r m e r l y . T h e n u m b e r o f f o r m s d e p e n d s o n t h e e x t e r n a l

r e l a t i ons ( a f i xe d q uan t i t y ) & o n subd iv i si ons o f s t a t i ons & d ive r s i t y ,

t h i s pe rh aps on l ong average equ a l (C , p . 147e) , i t i s bu t a smal l s t ep

t o t h e B e n t h a m i t e -l i k e i n q u i r y o f th e B i g S p e c ie s B o o k : h o w w i ll

t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r o r g a n i c b e i n g s o r m o r e s t r i c t l y t h e g r e a t e s t

a m o u n t o f li f e b e s u p p o r t e d i n a n y a r e a ? A n d i t is n o t su r p ri si n g t h a t

t h e a n s w e r is: b y t h e g r e a te s t a m o u n t o f th e i r d iv e r s i fi c a t io n .

I s u b m i t t h a t p a g e s 9 5 - 9 7 o f t h e E n o t e b o o k s , t o g e t h e r w i t h p a g e s

1 4 6 - 14 7 o f t h e C n o t e b o o k , c o n t a i n t h e k e y i ns i g h t o f e c o l o gi c a l d iv e r-

g e n c e : w i t h o u t e n o r m o u s c o m p l e x i t y ( d i v e r si ty ) i t is im p o s s i b le t o c o v e r

t h e w h o l e s u r fa c e o f t h e w o r l d w i t h l i fe . T h o u g h t h e e a r t h i s f i n it e ,

d i v e r si ty i s in f i n it e . B y b e c o m i n g m o r e c o m p l e x , m o r e a n d m o r e o r g a n -

i sm s c a n b e a d a p t e d t o m o r e a n d m o r e p l a c es i n t h e e c o n o m y o f n a tu r e .

The c l as s i f i ca to ry i n s igh t s o f t r ee -o f - li f e d i ag rams i n t he B no t eb oo ks

a r e , h o w e v e r , n o t c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e i n s i g h t s r e c o r d e d i n t h e C a n d

E n o t e b o o k s . O n e c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e s a y t h a t t h e d y n a m i c p r o b l e m

of d ive rgence was exp l ic i t l y so lved i n t he 1837-39 pe r i od . A l l the

i n g r ed i e n ts f o r a s o l u t i o n w e r e t h e r e , h o w e v e r , a n d D a r w i n m a y w e l l

h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m h a d b e e n s o lv e d.

D I V E R G E N C E D U R I N G T H E 1 8 40 S

T h e S k e t c h o f 1 8 4 2 c le a r ly a d u m b r a t e s D a r w i n ' s v i ew o f t h e

100. I sh all discuss later the attempts to q uantify and m athematize political

econom y. H ere I remark only that W hewell was involved in such a project while

Darw in was at C amb ridge. See W. W hewell, M athematical Exposition of Some

Doctrines of Political Ec ono m y, Trans. Cam b. Ph il. Soc . 3 (1830), 191-230, and

4 (1833), 155-198.

2 3 2




m e c h a n i s m o f s p e c i a t i o n i n t h e p e r i o d i m m e d i a t e l y f o ll o w i n g h i s m a j o r

in s igh t s . I t a l so , however , r e f l ec t s Darwin ' s concern wi th zoo log i ca l

q u e s t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n b o t a n i c a l o n e s u p t o 1 8 4 0 , a p r e f e r e n c e t h a t w a s

g r a d u a l ly s u p p l a n t e d a f t e r 1 8 4 0 o r s o.

T h e S k e t c h o p e n s w i t h a d i sc u s s io n o f v a r ia t io n s : t h e f r e q u e n c y o f

v a r i a ti o n s i n c r ea s e s w h e n a n o r g a n i s m is p l a c e d u n d e r n e w c o n d i t i o n s

d u r i n g s e ve r al g e n e r a t io n s . A l t h o u g h ' ~ f l d a n i m a l s v a r y e x c e e d i n g l y

l i tt le - y e t t h e y a r e k n o w n a s i n d i v id u a l s ( S k e t c h , p . 4 3 ) , a n d t h e i r

v a r i a t i o n s [ a r e] a n a l o g o u s in k i n d , b u t l es s i n d e g r e e w i t h d o m e s t i c a t e d

a n i m a l s ( p . 4 4 ) . B r e e d i n g u n d e r d o m e s t i c a t i o n c a n b e v i e w e d a s a

l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t w h e r e in t h e o p e r a t io n s t h a t o c c u r in n a t u r e a re

a m p l i fi e d a n d m a g n i f ie d : t h e c u m m u l a t iv e v a r i a t io n s a r e la r g e r, t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f a r ti fi c ia l s e l e c t io n o n t h e s e v a r i a t io n s m o r e t a n g ib l e a n d

v i si b le . Bu t a l t hou gh N a tu re ' s va r i a t i on [is ] f a r l e s s , na tu ra l s e l ec t i on

i s f a r m o r e ri gi d a n d sc r u t in i z i n g ( S k e t c h , p . 4 8 ) , a n d , m o r e o v e r , i t

ac t s on a l l va r i a t i ons , i nc lud ing t he i nv i s i b l e cons t i t u t i ona l d i f f e rences .

D a r w i n t r e a t s s p e c i a t io n at l e n g t h i n t h e S k e t c h ( p p . 6 6 - 7 2 ) a n d

desc r i bes t he p roces s a s depend ing es sen t i a l l y on geograph i c i so l a t i on :

c h a n g e o f e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s , a n d i s o l a t i o n e i t h e r b y c h a n c e l a n d i n g

of a fo rm on an i s l and , o r subs idence d iv id ing a con t i nen t , o r g rea t

c h a in o f m o u n t a i n s , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f i nd iv id u a ls n o t b e i n g n u m e r o u s

w i ll b e s t f a v o u r v a r i a ti o n a n d s e l e c t i o n ( S k e t c h , p . 6 8 ) . T h e f a c t o f

t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r ib u t i o n o f o r g a n i s m s t h e n a l l fo l lo w i n a s i m p l e

m a n n e r o n t h e t h e o r y o f o c c u rr e n c e o f sp e ci es b y . . . a n d be i n g a d a p t e d

b y s e l e c ti o n to . . . c o n j o i n e d w i t h t h e i r p o w e r o f d i sp e r sa l , a n d t h e

s t ead y geograph i co -geo log i ca l changes whic l~ a re now in p rog res s and

w h i c h u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e t a k e n p l a c e ( S k e t c h , p . 7 0 ) . I n o t h e r

w o r d s , t h e p r e s e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r g a n i s m s c a n b e e x -

p l a ined by cons ide r i ng spec ies a s c rea t e d i n single ce n t e r s and m ig ra t i ng

t h e r e f r o m . T h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r t h i s i n v o k e d t o a c c o u n t

f o r p o s s i b le m i g r a t i o n r o u t e s a s w e l l a s f o r p a s t a n d p r e s e n t - d a y b a r ri e rs .

I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e S k e t c h c o n t a i n s D a r w i n ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e g e o -

g r a p h i c d i s t r ib u t i o n o f a l p i ne p l a n t s , a n d t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n i s a p a r a d i g m

for h i s ap p ro ac h t o b iogeo graph i ca l ques t i ons . 1°1

I n h is d i sc u s s io n o f A f f ' m i t ie s a n d C l a s s if i c a ti o n s i n t h e S k e t c h

Darw in sum ma r i zes h i s v i ews :

101. Darw in's discussion o f alpine plants in the Sk etc h is on pp. 65-67. o r

an interesting discussion o f biogeography written som ewha t after the Essay, see

Darwin's review of Natural History of the Mammalia by G. R . W aterhouse,Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. Including Zool. Bot. Geol. 19

(1847), 53-56 w hich is reprinted

in The Collected papers of Charles Darwin ed. Paul Barrett, p. 214-217.

2 3 3



SILVAN S. SCHW EBER

T h e o r ig i n o f s u b - g e n e ra , g e n e r a , e t c ., is n o t d i f fi c u l t o n n o t i o n o f

g e n e a lo g i ca l s u c c e ss io n , a n d a c c o r d s w i t h w h a t w e k n o w o f s im i la r

g r a d a t i o n s o f a f f m i t y i n d o m e s t i c a t e d o r g a n is m s . I n th e s a m e re g i o n

t h e o r g a n i c b e i n g s a r e . . . r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e e x t e r n a l

c o n d i t i o n s i n m a n y p h y s i c a l r e sp e c t s a r e a ll ie d . . . a n d t h e r e f o r e

w h e n a n e w s p ec ie s h a s b e e n s e l e c t e d a n d h a s o b t a i n e d a p l ac e i n th e

e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e , w e m a y s u p p o s e t h a t g e n e r al ly it w ill t e n d t o

e x t e n d i ts r a n g e d u r in g g e o g r a p h i ca l c h a n g e s , a n d t h u s , b e c o m i n g

i s o l a t e d a n d e x p o s e d t o n e w c o n d i t i o n s , w i l l s l i g h t l y a l t e r a n d i t s

s t r u c t u r e b y s e le c t io n b e c o m e s s l ig h t ly r e m o d i f i e d , th u s w e g e t

s p e c ie s o f a s u b - g e n u s a n d g e n u s - a s v a r i et ie s o f m e r i n o s h e e p -

v a r ie t ie s o f B r i t is h a n d I n d i a n c a t t l e . F r e s h s p e c ie s m i g h t g o o n

f o r m i n g a n d o t h e r s ,b e c o m e e x t i n c t ( j u s t a s i t is n o t l ik e l y e v e r y

p r e s e n t b r e e d o f f a n c y b i rd s a n d c a t t le w i ll p r o p a g a t e , o n l y s o m e o f

t h e b e s t ) a n d a ll m i g h t b e c o m e e x t i n c t a n d t h e n w e s h o u l d h a v e

e x t i n c t g e n u s . . . B u t m o r e o f t e n t h e s a m e a d v an t ag e s w h i c h c a u s e d

t h e n e w s p ec ie s t o s p r e a d a n d b e c o m e m o d i f i e d i n t o s ev e ra l s p ec ie s

w o u l d f a v o u r s o m e o f t h e s p e ci es b e i n g p r e s er v e d : a n d i f tw o o f

t h e s p e c ie s , c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t , e a c h g a v e ri se t o g r o u p o f n e w

s p e c i e s , y o u w o u l d h a v e t w o g e n e r a t h e s a m e t h i n g w i l l g o o n .

( S k e t c h , p p . 7 3 - 7 4 )

W h a t i s s tr i k i n g i n t h e p a s sa g e i s D a r w i n ' s c o n s t a n t r e l ia n c e o n t h e

m o d e l p r e s e n t e d b y b r e e d i n g u n d e r d o m e s t i c a t i o n a n d a rt if ic i al s el ec -

t i o n . T h e s p e c i a t i o n m e c h a n i s m i s d r iv e n b y v a r ia t io n s w h o s e f r e q u e n c y

i s i n c r e a s e d b y c h a n g e s i n e n v i r o n m e n t . M i g r a t i o n i s a n e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r .

I t e x p o s e s p o p u l a t i o n s t o n e w e n v i r o n m e n t s , t h u s i n d u c i n g v a r ia t io n s

a n d g i vi ng ris e t o c o m p e t i t i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n t h r o u g h n a t u r a l s e l e ct io n .

A s i n t h e c a se o f a r ti f ic i a l b r e e d i n g , o n l y s o m e o f t h e b e s t s u rv i ve .

A n d I u n d e r s t a n d t h is t o m e a n t h a t n a t u r a l s e l e ct io n w i ll t e n d t o f a v o r

t h o s e v a r i a ti o n s t h a t d i ff e r m o s t f r o m t h 6 p ~ r e n ta l t y p e a n d f r o m e a c h

o t h e r ; c o m p e t i t i o n w i ll e l i m i n a t e a ll t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e f o r m s . 1°2

N o t e a l s o t h a t D a r w i n i s q u i t e e x p l i c i t t h a t a d a p t a t i o n i s t o a place

in the economy of nature The

s t r u g g l e f o r e x i s t e n c e i s , t o u s e m o d e r n

t e r m i n o l o g y , f o r a n e c o l o g ic a l n i c h e . E a r l ie r , in 1 8 4 1 , w h e n d i sc u s si n g

102. In the Ske tch, p . 74, Darwin fur ther noted : Accozding to mere

chance every species m ay generate another, bu t if any species A, in changing gets

an advantage and that advantage (whatever it may be, intellect, etc., or some

particular structure or constitution) is inherited, A w ill be the progenitor o f

several genera or even families in the ha rd struggle o f nature. A will go o n beating

ou t other forms, i t might com e that A wo uld people ear th.

2 3 4




the mockingbirds of the Gal~pagos, Darwin had noted that the habits

of these three species are similar and they evidently replace each other

in the natural economy of the different islands. loa Similarly, in 1842

in his discussion o f coral reefs he had written that no s tation capable of

supporting life is l o s t there is a struggle for each station between the

different orders of nature. 104 Although adaptations are to stations in

the economy of nature, the requirement of

g e o g r a p h i c

isolation in

species format ion mutes the overall ecological approach inherent in

Darwin's approach in the Sketch. In the Essay of 1844 the role of

niche is further clarified in the comparison of speciation on islands and

large land masses:

As the number of the in_habitants are supposed to be few, and as all

these cannot be so well adapted to their new and varying conditions

as they were in their native country and habitat; we cannot believe

that e v e r y p l a c e o r o f f i c e i n t h e economy of the island would be as

well f'flied as on a continent where

t h e n u m b e r o f a b o ri g in a l s p e c ie s

is f a r g re a te r a n d w h e r e t h e y c o n s e q u e n t l y h o M a m o r e st ri ct ly

l i m i t e d p l ac e , lo s

This passage shows clearly that by 1844 Darwin believed that adapta-

tion is toward a

p l a c e o r o f f i c e i n t h e

economy of nature. One can only

infer from the addition of the word

o f f i c e

that Darwin intended to

make it unmistakably clear that he had the ecological and not the

geographic meaning of place in mind. An ecological understanding

of place is also explicit in Darwin's discussion of extinct ion in the

V o y a g e o f t h e B e a g l e ,

dating from 1845. There Darwin indicated that

we often do not know when and where the checks to the Malthusian

increase in population occur; hence probably it is that we feel so little

surprise at one, o f two species closely allied in habits, being rare and the

103. Quoted in Stauffer, Darwin, Linnaeus, and Ecology, from Charles

Darwin, ed., The Zoology o f The Voyage o f H .M.S . Beagle , under the Com mand

o f Captain Fi tz Ro y, R. iV., dur ing the Years 183 2 to 183 6

(London: Smith,

Elder).

104. Quoted in Stauffer, Darwin, Linnaeus and Ecology, from C. Darwin,

ed., The Structure an d Distribution o f C oral Re efs , B eing the First Part o f the

Geology o f the Voyage o f the 'Beagle

(London: Smith, Elder 1842), p. 63.

105. Essay of 1844, p. 142;my italics. In the Fair Copy Annoted by C.D. ,

w h i h is in the Cambridge University Library, this entry occurs on pp. 154-155.

The last line reads: where they consequently hold a more strictly limited place

against a far severer struggle, with against a far severer struggle crossed out.

235



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

oth er a bun dan t in ou r d i s t r i c t , and ano the r , f 'fi ling the s ame p lace in

t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e , s h o u l d b e a b u n d a n t i n a n e i g h b o r i n g d i s t r i c t ,

d i f fer ing ve ry l i t t le in i t s con di t i on s . ~o~

I n t h e S k e t c h , D a r w i n i s e x p l i c i t a b o u t d i ff ic u l ti e s: H o w d o es

spec ia t ion occur on l a rge l and masses w i th l a rge popu la t ions? Th is

p r o b l e m m u s t b e c o n f r o n t e d b e c au s e th e p r o c e s s o f s p e c i a ti o n o n sm a l l

i sl ands s tops onc e a dap ta t ion r esu l ts and no fu r the r geo log ica l change

o c c u rs . F u r t h e r m o r e , s p e c i a ti o n o n a la r ge l a n d m a s s a n d i n t h e o c e a n s

- w h e r e la rg e p o p u l a t io n s a n d m a n y d i f fe r e n t f o rm s o f l if e o c c u r -

m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d i n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e d i v e rs i ty o b s e r v e d i n t h e

wor ld .

I h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1 8 3 8 t o 1 8 4 4 D a r w i n

a t t e m p t e d t o s ol ve p ro b l e m s i n t e r m s o f a d y n a m i c s i n w h i c h i n d iv i d ua l s

w e r e t h e p r i m a r y u n i t s. T h i s i s m o s t s u c c i n c t l y e x p r e s s e d i n t h e E s s a y

o f 1 8 4 4 w h e r e D a r w i n o u t l i n e s t h e r e a so n i n g f o r h i s c o n c l u s io n s

regard ing na tu ra l s e lec t ion :

l e t i t b e b o r n e i n m i n d t h a t t h i s av e ra g e n u m b e r o f i n d iv i du a ls ( t h e

e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s r e m a i n i n g t h e s a m e ) i n e a c h c o u n t r y i s k e p t u p

by r ecu r ren t st rugg les aga ins t o the r spec ies o r aga ins t ex te rna l na tu re

( as o n t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e a r t ic r e g i on s , w h e r e t h e c o l d c h e c k s l if e ) ;

a n d t h a t o r d i n a r il y e a c h i n d i v id u a l o f e a c h s p ec i es h o l d s i ts p l a c e

e i t h e r b y i ts o w n s tr ug g le a n d c a p a c i t y o f a c q u i ri n g n o u r i s h m e n t

in som e p er iod ( f ro m the egg upw ards ) o f i t s l i f e , o r by the s trugg le

o f i t s p a r e n t s ( i n s h o r t l i v e d o r g an i sm s , w h e n t h e m a i n c h e c k o c c u r s

a t long in te rva l s) aga inst the com pa red w i th o the r ind iv idua ls o f the

s a m e

o r

d i f f e r e n t

species . l°7

T h e o r ig i n o f n e w s p e ci e s w a s t o b e e x p l a i n e d i n t e r m s o f i n h e r it a b l e

var ia t ions tha t a rose among the ind iv idua l s o f a popu la t ion . Any ad -

van tage acc ru ed by such va r ia t ions ( such as access to new fo od supp l ies ,

a v o i d an c e o f p r e y , o r b e t t e r f it n e s s i n th e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t ) w o u l d

i m p l y t h e e v e n t u a l , r i g o ro u s , a n d t o t a l e x t i r p a t i o n o f t h e p a r e n t p o p u l a -

t ion b y the o f f sp r ing . Th is l a s t a s sumpt ion , inc iden ta l ly , cou ld be t e s ted

by b iogeo graph y : w ere the re cases o f c lose ly r e la ted species l iv ing in the

s am e l o c a l i ty ? W r it in g t o H o o k e r i n 1 8 4 4 , D a r w i n o b s e r v e d ,

106. Darwin, Journal of Researches 2nd ed., 2 vo ls. (Ne w York: Harpers,

1871), I, 225.

1 0 7 . E s s a y o f 1 8 4 4 , p p . 1 1 8 - 1 1 9 .

2 3 6




I a m p a r t i c u l a r ly i n t e r e s t e d b y y o u r r e m a r k s o n I n s u l a r F l o r a s . A

g e n u s h a v i n g several g o o d s p e ci e s i n t h e s m a ll is l an d is n e w t o m e

a n d v e r y r e m a r k a b l e a n d a s y o u w i l l o b s e r v e h o s t i l e t o d e s c e n t : c a n

y o u e n la r g e I s h o u l d p a r t i c u l a r l y b e o b l i g e d o n t h i s s o m e t i m e t o m e :

a r e s uc h ge ne r a pe c u l i a r t o i s la nds ? 1o8

B u t t h e r e w e r e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h t h a t c o u l d

n o t e a si ly b e e l i m i n a t e d . T h e s e w e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e b l e n d i n g

m e c h a n i s m o f in h e r it a n c e D a r w i n w a s c o m m i t t e d t o . D a r w i n c o u l d

a r g u e t h a t d i l u t io n a n d b l e n d i n g c o u l d b e o v e r c o m e o n i sl a nd s b e c a u s e

t h e i n i t i a l p o p u l a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e f a v o r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r r e d w a s

v e r y s m a ll . I s o l a t i o n o f a s m a ll p o p u l a t i o n c o u l d p r e v e n t b l e n d i n g a n d

p r e s e r v e v a r i a t i o n s a n d m a k e v a r i e t i e s . B u t i n a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n ,

b l e n d i n g w o u l d r a p i d l y s w a m p f a v o r a b l e v a r i at io n s . I g n o r a n c e o f t h e

d y n a m i c s o f i n h e r i t a n c e 1o9 f o r c e d D a r w i n w h e n d e a li n g w i t h v a r i a t io n s

i n l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n s t o a m o r e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a n d c o a r s e r d e s c r i p -

t i o n w i t h v a r i e ti e s a n d s p e c i e s as t h e u n i t s . H is t h e o r y o f s p e c i a t i o n

w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y h a v e t o r e s t o n t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h o s e s p e c i e s

w h i c h p r e s e n t t h e m o s t v a ri e ti e s a r e th e m o s t l i k e ly t o p r o d u c e n e w

s p e c ie s , a n d t h a t o n l y s p e ci e s w i t h l a rg e a n d i n c r e a si n g p o p u l a t i o n s -

i .e ., t h o s e w h i c h a r e c l e a rl y n o t o n t h e i r w a y t o e x t i n c t i o n - n e e d b e

c o n s i d e r e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , p o p u l o u s s p e c i e s t h a t h a v e w i d e r a n g e s a r e

m o s t l ik e l y t o f m d t h e m s e lv e s i n d i f f e re n t g e o g r a p h i c re g i o ns so t h a t

n e w v a r i at io n s a re e n v i r o n m e n t a b l y i n d u c e d . T h e h y p o t h e s i s t h u s

b e c o m e s se l f cons i s tent f o r p o p u l o u s , w i d e - r a n g in g s p e ci es . (A s a b o n u s ,

i s o l a ti o n c o u l d b e i n v o k e d t o e x p l a i n h o w t h e v a r ie t ie s o f w i d e l y r a n g i n g

s p e c ie s t u r n i n t o s p e c ie s ) .

I b e l ie v e i t w a s D a r w i n ' s a t t e m p t t o ju s t i f y t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s ( a n d

h i s c o n c o m i t a n t a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f w o r k i n g a t t h e sp e ci es -

108. Darw in-Hooker correspondence, C amb ridge University Library, bo x 150.

109. See Kotf ler , Darw in 's Biological Species Co ncept and Theor y of Geo-

graphic Speciation . N ote th at D arwin had suggested an individualistic m echanism

o f inheritance several t imes befo re 184 2 (e.g. , bloo d theories in the early note-

books) and that his gemm ule theory was formu lated in the 1840-1842 period.

Mayr has noted that Darwin o f ten used the term '~ar ie ty in two different

senses: deviating individuals and dev iating populations. I{ w ou ld be interesting

to see whether on e can correlate his usage with his beliefs in mechanisms of

inheritance; tha t is , whether wh en he believed tha t he had an explanation o f

inheritance ba sed o n an individualistic m echanism, such as, gemm ules, variety

refers to deviating individuals, an d w hethe r w hen h e ha d less faith in an individ-

ualistic m echanism, varieties refer t o deviating populations.

2 3 7



SIL VA N S. SCI-IWEBER

v a r i e t y le v e l, r a th e r t h a n a t t h e i n d iv i d u a l le v e l) t h a t p r o m p t e d h is

ex t ens ive b iogeograph i ca l i nves t i ga t i ons i n t he 1840s and 1850s . He

r e c o g n i z e d t h a t p h y t o g e o g r a p h y , w i t h i ts m a n y q u a n t i t a t iv e f a c t s ,

w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e r i g h t v e h i c l e t o t e s t a n d , h e h o p e d , c o n f i r m h i s

h y p o t h e s e s . M o r e o v e r, in 1 8 43 H o o k e r , th a t m o s t k n o w l e d g ea b l e

b o t a n i s t , h a d j u s t r e t u r n e d f r o m h is A n t a r c t i c e x p e d i t i o n a n d w a s

t h e r e f o r e a v a i l a b l e t o a n s w e r b o t a n i c a l a n d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , p h y t o -

geograph i c ques t i ons .

T h e f ir s t e x c h a n g e s b e tw e e n D a r w i n a n d H o o k e r e x h i b i t D a r w i n 's

i n t e r e s t i n q u e s t io n s r e l a t in g t o t h e c o m m o n n e s s a n d r a n g e o f sp e c ie s ,

a n d t h e n u m b e r o f s p e ci es i n b o t a n ic a l g e n e ra p re s e n t. Y o u a sk m e

w h e t h e r I s u p p o s e t h e s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n s o f s p [ e ci es ] t o g e n e r a in C o r a l

I s le t s a r is e s f r o m c h a n c e o f se e d ? I c a n n o t a n s w e r t h i s , H o o k e r w r o t e

D a r w i n i n o n J a n u a r y 2 9 , 1 8 4 4 ; b u t n o n e t h e le s s H o o k e r v e n t u r e d t h e

a n s w e r : I s h o u l d sa y p e r h a p s n o t : i f g e n e r a o r s m a ll g r o u p s a r e t r u l y

n a t u r a l t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d t o c o n t a i n m a n y c h a r a c t e r s i n c o m m o n , i t is

b u t r i g h t t o a s s u m e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t r a n s p o r t a b l e s e e d s s h o u l d h e n c e

b e c o m m o n t o s o m e g r o u p s a b o v e o th e r s , th e i n f e r e n c e o f w h i c h n e e d

n o t s t at e . ' n ° T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d i f fe r e n ce s i n th e n u m b e r o f

s p e ci es i n g e n e r a o n i sl a n ds a s c o m p a r e d to t h e n u m b e r o n n e ig h b o r i n g

c o n t i n e n t a l l a n d m a s s e s , a n d f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h i s r a ti o o n c o n t i n e n t s

a s a f u n c t i o n o f l a t i tu d e , w e r e lo n g - s ta n d i n g b i o g e o g r a p h ic a l p r o b l e m s

i n 1 8 44 . V o n H u m b o l d t h a d a l re a d y p o i n te d o u t , i n 1 8 0 7 , th a t t h e

n u m b e r o f s p e c ie s p e r g e n u s f o r m a n y p l a n ts i n L a p l a n d w a s l o w e r b y

a f a c t o r o f m o r e t h a n t w o a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n u m b e r in F ra n c e . n~

I n d e e d , i t w a s t h e n e e d t o e x p l a in t h e d i sp a r it y b e t w e e n t h e n u m b e r o f

p l a n t s p e c ie s p e r g e n e r a o n t h e C a n a r ie s a n d S t . H e l e n a as c o m p a r e d

w i t h t h e n u m b e r i n c o n t i n e n t a l N o r t h A f r i c a t h a t h a d l e d V o n B u c h to

a d v a n c e i s o l a ti o n a s t h e m e c h a n i s m f o r s p e c i a ti o n , n z

A f t e r r e a d in g H o o k e r ' s l e t te r o f J a n u a r y 1 8 4 4 , D a r w i n w r o t e h i m s e l f

a l i tt l e n o t e : E x p l a n a t i o n o f fe w n e s s o f s p e c ie s a n d d i v e r s i ty o f g e n e r a ,

I t h i n k m u s t b e p a r t l y a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e p l a n t s g r o u p s c o u l d su b s i st

i n g r e a t e r n u m b e r s , a n d i n t e r f e r e l e s s w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h i s m u s t b e

110. Darwin-Hooker correspondence at the Cambridge University Library,

box 150. See also Browne, '~ narles Darwin-Joseph Hooker Correspondence.

l l l . Hu mb oldt De Dis tr ibut ione Geographica Plantarum.

l l 2 . Von Buch , Description ph ysiq ues des is les Canaries. On p. 147 , Von

Buell quotes the following ratios of species to genera: continental N orth A frica,

1:4.2; Canaries, 1:1.46; St. H elen a, l : l .5 . He a lso compares the num bers of

orders on continents w ith those on islands.

238




exp l ana t i on o f Ar t i c R eg ions - H ow a re a lp ine P l an t s . S evera l genera? 11 s

T h i s n o t e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s ti n g b e c a u s e i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l r e a d y i n

1 8 4 4 D a r w i n b a s e d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p h y t o g e o -

g r a p h i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t i n a n y l o c a l i t y t h e l a r g e s t

a m o u n t o f p l a n t l i fe w i ll b e s u p p o r t e d i f th e r e i s d i v e rg e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r ,

f o r t h e n t h e p l a n t s g r o u p s w i ll i n t e r f e r e l e ss w i t h e a c h o t h e r . A s

D a r w i n w a s t o n o t e i n t h e O r i g i n

t h e m o s t c l o s e ly a ll ie d f o r m s - v a r ie t ie s o f t h e s a m e s p e c ie s , a n d

s p e c ie s o f t h e s a m e g e n u s o r o f r e l a te d g e n e r a - f r o m h a v i n g n e a r l y

t h e S a m e s t r u c t u r e , c o n s t i t u t i o n , a n d h a b i t s , g e n e r a l ly c o m e i n t o t h e

s e v er e st c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , e a c h n e w v a r i e ty

o r spec i es , du~ ing t he p rog res s o f i t s fo rm at io n , w i l l gene ra l l y p res s

h a r d e s t o n i t s n e a r e s t k i n d r e d , a n d t e n d t o e x t e r m i n a t e t h e m . 1~4

D a r w i n ' s i n i t i a l i n q u i r i e s t o H o o k e r w e r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f s p e c ie s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r a n g e a s a n

i n h e r i t a b l e c h a r a c t e r . I t w a s e v i d e n t l y H o o k e r w h o i n e a r l y 1 8 4 4 l e d

D a r w i n t o c o n s i d e r s i m il a r q u e s t i o n s a b o u t h i g h e r t a x a : I w i ll n o w

o b s e r v e t h a t y o u h a v e e x t e n d e d m y r e m a r k s o n t h e r a n g e o f s p e c i e s o f

she l l s i n to t he r ange o f g e n e ra o r g r o u p s . ' u s O n M a r c h 1 1 , 1 8 4 4 , D a r -

w i n q u e s t i o n e d H o o k e r o n t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n t h e r a ng e o f m u n d a n e

g e n e r a a n d t h e r a n g e o f t h e i r s p ec i es . I n h is r e p l y , H o o k e r a s k e d w h e t h e r

t h e r e i s a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r a n g e o f g e n e r a a n d t h e r a n g e o f t h e i r

s p e c ie s , a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s iz e o f t h e g e n u s , u s

A l l t h i s i n d ic a t e s t h a t b y t h e m i d 1 8 4 0 s D a r w i n w a s i n v o l v e d i n

b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l q u e s t i o n s b e a r i n g o n t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o p o s i -

t i o n , w h i c h b e c o m e s f u l l y a r t i c u la t e d i n t h e 1 8 5 0 s , t h a t i t i s t h e

d o m i n a n t s p e c ie s - t h o s e w h i c h ra n g e w i d e l y o v e r t h e w o r l d , a r e

t h e m o s t d i f fu s e d i n t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y , a n d a re m o s t n u m e r o u s in

i n d iv i d u al s , w h i c h o f t e n e s t p r o d u c e w e l l m a r k e d v a r i e ti e s, o r a s I c o n -

s id e r t h e m , i n c i p i e n t s p e c i e s . 117 T h e d i c h o t o m y i n D a r w i n ' s a p p r o a c h

s h o u l d b e n o t e d . P r o b l e m s r e l a ti n g t o v a r i a t i o n s a n d h e r e d i t y a r e

a n s w e r e d w i t h v a r ie t ie s a n d s p e c ie s a s th e u n i t s o f d e s c r i p t io n ; t h o s e

113. Darw in-Hooker correspondence, Camb ridge University Library, bo x 150.

114. Darwin, Origin p. 112.

115 . Darwin-Hooker correspondence, Cambridge University Library, b ox 150;

undated letter, early 1844.

116. Some of these letters are reprinted in L L D pp. 382-389, and in More

Le t t e r s

II, 402-422.

117. Darwin, Origin pp. 5 3-54; see also pp. 326 ff.

2 3 9




r e la t in g t o c o m p e t i t i o n , a d a p t a t i o n , e x t i n c t i o n - t h a t is , t h o s e t h a t

n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n e x p l a i n s - a r e a n s w e r e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e u n i t s

o f d e s c r i p t i o n . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e u n i t s u s e d i s i m p o r t a n t . I t

a c c o u n t s f o r t h e f a c t t h a t a t t i m e s l e v el s o f d e s c r i p t i o n w e r e in t e r -

c h a n g e d a n d s o m e c o n f u s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y c r e p t in . I t a ls o e x p l a i n s w h y

t h e p r i n c i p le o f m a x i m i z a t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f l if e p e r u n i t a r e a s h o u l d

p r o v e s o a t t ra c t i v e t o D a r w i n : i t i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r t h e d i f f e r e n t le v e l s

o f d e s c r i p t i o n s .

T h e r e w e r e , o f c o u r s e , m a n y o t h e r p r o b l e m s t o b e ad d r e s se d f r o m

t h e m i d 1 8 4 0s t o t h e m i d 1 8 5 0 s b e f o r e t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f th e p r in c i p le

o f d i v e r g e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r a s i t a p p e a r s i n N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n a n d t h e

O r i g i n e m e r g e d - t h e h i g h e r t a x a a n d t h e i r b i o g e o g r a p h i c a l r e l a t i o n -

s h ip s , th e b i o g e o g r a p h y o f t h e f o ss i l r e c o r d , a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e

c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n ti m e o f f o s si l t a x a a n d t h e i r

d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s p a c e . B u t t h e f o r m i n w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p l e w a s t o b e

f o r m u l a t e d i s a l r e a d y a p p a r e n t i n 1 8 4 4.

D a r w i n ' s b i o s t a t i s t ic a l i n q u i r ie s f r o m 1 8 3 7 o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e

a f t e r 1 8 4 4 , d e s e rv e c a r e f u l s t u d y , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e c e n t r a l t o t h e

f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i v e r g e n c e. 11a S i m i l a r l y , D a r w i n ' s

c h a n g i n g v i e w s o n s p e c i a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s a f t e r 1 8 4 4 m e r i t d e t a i l e d

i n q u i l T . 119 S u c h s t u d i e s w i ll u n d o u b t e d l y f u r t h e r

c l r i f y

t h e p r o c e s s

a n d s h a rp e n t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f D a r w i n ' s f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p r in c i p le o f

d i v e r g en c e o f c h a r a c t e r a s i t a p p e a r s i n N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n . I n t h e n e x t

s e c t i o n , I d i sc u s s D a r w i n ' s w o r k o n c i r r ip e d e s i n a n e f f o r t to s h o w t h a t

t h e b a r n ac le s c o n f r o n t e d h i m w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f h o w t o fo r m u l a t e

a u n i v e r s a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n d i v e r s it y o v e r t i m e o f a l l

o r g a n i c f o r m s .

118. J ane t B rowne has inves t iga ted the b ios ta t i s ti c a l ma te r i a l s in bo xes 15

and 16 o f the Darwin pape rs a t Cambr idge Unive rs ity L ib ra ry . Inc luded the re a re

m ater ia ls on Co m m on and Large Ge nera Present ing M ost Va rie t ies , misce llane-

ous tab les of spec ies , e tc . , a l l im po rtan t for unders tanding Darw in ' s v iews on

va r i a t ions , b iogeography in the mid 1850s , and h i s f ina l fo rmula t ion o f the

pr inc ip le of d ivergence. See Browne, D arw in ' s Bo tanica l A ri thm et ic and the

Princ ip le of Divergence , 185 4-185 8, J . Hist. BioL 13 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 5 3 - 8 9 ; I t h a n k

Dr. Browne for a llowing m e to rea d th is pap er befo re pub l ica t ion . In th is connec-

t ion s ee a l so Fred Som kin , ' ° l ' he Con t r ibu t ions o f S i r John Lub bock , F . R . S ., t o

t h e Origin o f Species: S o m e A n n o t a t io n s t o D a r w i n , No tes Rec . Ro y . Soc . 17

(1962.), 183-191.

119. In b road ou t l ine the changes have been ske tched in L imoges ' La sJ lec t ion

naturelle and in Mayr ' s Evo lu t ion and the Diver s i ty o f L i f e b u t i t w o u l d b e

in te re st ing to know the spec i fi c way in wh ich D arwin ' s bo tan ica l r e s ea rch du r ing

the 1840s a ffec ted h is v iews on sp ee ia t ion .

2 4 0




THE RELATION OF THE CIRRIPEDES TO DIVERGENCE

If we are to take Darwin at his word - and I have found no evidence

to the contrary - his later insights into the principle of divergence

occurred while he was immersed in his work on barnacles. It is thus of

interest to understand why Darwin undertook this long and arduous

task. An outline of the history of this research will also verify Darwin's

intimate acquaintance with Milne-Edwards' work and his familiarity

with Milne-Edwards' principle of the physiological division of labor

before 1852.

Many suggestions have been put forward to explain Darwin's work on

cirripedes. 12° The most convincing case has been made by Ghiselin. 121

To appreciate Ghiselin's suggestions one must stress, as he has, that

the period from 1837 to 1844 was the most creative of Darwin's life.

Essentially,

a l l

his great biological ideas and insights were generated

then: natural selection, details of the process of speciation (such as the

role of geographic isolation), pangenesis, the place of man in nature, the

nature and evolution of instinct and mind, the nature o f variations, the

role o f sex in giving rise to variations, and so on.

This creative period culminated with Darwin's writing the Essay

of 1844, which is the first self-contained and not altogether private

statement of his theory of the mechanism of evolution. In order to

make the theory more acceptable, Darwin had to try to verify em-

pirically his assumptions concerning variations, extinction, etc., and to

show that some of his conclusions were correct in specific cases. To do

this, he needed an abundant widely distributed class of flora or fauna

with a sufficient fossil record that he could use to test key explanatory

features of his theory of descent - the process of adaptation, geographic

distribution, taxonomy based on phylogeny, etc.

The cirripedes offered all these advantages and certain additional

120. See, e.g., Thomas H. Huxley's comments on pp. 347-348 of his L i f e a n d

L e t t e r s

and p. 315

o f L L D

for Hooker's thoughts.

121. Ghiselin, The

T r i u m p h o f t h e D a rw i ni an M e t h o d ,

pp. 103-105, 111,117,

128-129. See also De Beer, E v o l u t i o n b y N a t u r a l S e l e c t io n , pp. 135-156; Sydney

Smith, The Darwin Collection at Cambridge with One Example of Its Use:

Charles Darwin and Cirdpedes, A c t e s d u X I e C o n g r~ s I n t e r n a t i o n a l d ' H i s t o i r e

d e s S c i e n c e s , 1 5 (1964), 96-100; Thaddeus J. Trenn, '~harles Darwin, Fossil

Cirtipedes and Robert Fitch, Presenting Sixteen Hitherto Unpublished Darwin

Letters of 1849 to 1851,

P roc . A m er . P h i l . Soc . , 118

(1974), 471-491; A. E.

Gunther, J. E. Gray, Charles Darwin, and

O r r e p e d e s , ' N o t e s R e c . R o y . S o c . , 3 4

(1979), 53-63.

241




c h a l l e n g e s , s u c h a s d e v i s i n g a c o r r e c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e m . 122 T h e y

w e r e p a r t i c u l a r ly w e l l s u i t e d f o r s t u d y i n g t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e c o n g r u e n c e

b e t w e e n c l a s si f ic a t i o n s b a s e d o n l a rv a e a n d t h o s e b a s e d o n a d u l t s , a n d

f o r c l a r if y i n g th e s ig n i fi ca n c e o f h o m o l o g o u s a s o p p o s e d t o a n a l o g o u s

c h a r a c t e r s J 23 B a r n a c l e s w e r e a l so a d m i r a b l y s u i t e d f o r s t u d y i n g t h e

p r o b l e m o f o r g an i c d i v e rs i ty a n d t h e p r o b l e m t h a t h a d c o n c e r n e d D a r w i n

o n p a g e s 9 5 - 9 8 o f th e E n o t e b o o k : t h e r e l a t io n b e t w e e n c o m p l e x i f i c a -

t i o n a n d p r o g r e s s i o n ( a n d / o r r e g r es s io n ) . S o m e b a r n a c l e s d e v e l o p e d

f r o m f a i r ly n o r m a l c r u s t a c e o u s l a r v ae i n t o s es si le a d u l t s , l o s in g i n t h e

p r o c e ss m a n y o f t h e f u n c t i o n s a n d o r g an s a ss o c i a t e d w i t h a m o b i l e ,

f r e e - s w i m m i n g l if e . T h i s se e m i n g r e g r e s s i o n w a s , h o w e v e r , a c l e a r

c as e o f s u cc e ss fu l a d a p t a t i o n a n d i n d i c at iv e o f t h e e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r

o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n . B a r n a c l e s a l so p r e s e n t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o b t a i n i n g

a n i n s ig h t i n t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s e x a n d h e r m a p h r o d i s m , 124 a n d t h u s

p o s s i b ly a n i n s ig h t i n t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p l a n t a n d a n i m a l k i n g d o m s .

T h e r e w e r e p r o b a b l y o t h e r , m o r e p e r s o n a l, r e a so n s f o r D a r w i n t o

u n d e r t a k e h i s c i r ri p e d e s w o r k . B y 1 8 4 6 h e h a d m a d e h i s m a r k a s a

g e o l o g i s t a n d a s a n a t u r a l h i s t o r i a n . T h e r e c e p t i o n o f h i s t h e o r y o f

t h e o r ig i n o f s p e ci es b y m e a n s o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n w o u l d b e p a r t l y

d e t e r m i n e d b y h i s s t an d i n g i n th e z o o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y . D a r w i n ' s

b o o k s o n t h e C i r r ip e d i a c l e ar l y p l a c e d h i m a m o n g t h e o u t s t a n d i n g

122 . For the p lace o f ba rnac le s in n ine teen th -cen tu ry t axonomy, s ee Mary

P. Winsor, Barnac le Larvae in the Nin e teenth Ce ntur y: A Case Stu dy in Tax o-

n o m i c T h e o r y , J . His t. Med . A l l i ed Sc i . 29 (19 69 ), 294-309, an d W insor, Starfish

Je l ly f ish and t he Order o f L i f e .

123. R. Ow en,

L e c t u r e s o n t h e C o m p a r a t iv e A n a t o m y a n d P h y s i o lo g y o f t h e

Inver t e rbra t e An ima l s (Lon don , 1843) . See also Ow en 's repo r t to the 1846 me et-

ing of the BAAS and i t s enlarged vers ion , O n t h e A r c h e t y p e a n d H o m o l o gi e s o f

the Ver terbrate Ske le ton (London, 1848); Merz , H i s t o r y o f E u r o p e an T h o u g h t

I I , 258-259 ; and Roy M. MaeL eod , Evo lu t ion i sm and R icha rd Owen, 1830-1868 :

An E p i sode in D arwin 's Cen tu ry , Isis 56 (1965), 259-280.

124. The a s soc iat ion o f c i r r ipedes wi th the p rob lem o f the evo lu t ion o f s ex

da te s a t l e a s t to the 1838 pe r iod : ' q ' h e s exua l sys tem o f the C i r r ipedes i s the

mo re rema rkab le f rom the i r a l li ance to Ar t i cu la ta wh ich a re t ru ly b i s exua l (E ,

p . 60) . See also E, pp . 71 , 80 , and espe c ia l ly 155: M y theo ry only requires tha t

o rgan ic beings p ropaga ted b y g em mat ion do no t u nde rgo me tam orphos i s , bu t

to a r r ive a t the i r p re sen t s t ruc tu re they m us t have been p ropaga ted by s exua l

c o m m e r c e . . . T h e r e l a ti o n o f t h e i n fe r en c e f r o m s o m e p lan t s & som e mol lusca

be ing he rm aphrod i t e is , t ha t in t e rcourse eve ry t ime i s o f no consequence in tha t

degree of development . I t i s s ingular there i s not t rue hermaphrodi te on be ings

which have f lu id sperm a. Darwin be l ieved tha t herm aph rodi t ic spec ies eventua l ly

evolve into bisex ual ones.

2 4 2



D a r w i n a n d t h e P o l it i c a l E c o n o m i s t s

a n a t o m i s t s a n d z o o l o g i s t s o f t h e d a y , a n d e s t a b l i s h e d h i m a s t h e p e e r o f

s u c h n o t e d f i g u r e s a s O w e n a n d M i l n e -E d w a r d s .

F i n a l ly , D a r w i n ' s c o m p e t i t i v e n a t u r e s h o u l d n o t b e e x c l u d e d a s a

f a c t o r i n h i s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e c i r r i p e d e s . T h e

O r r i p e d i a

i s b o t h a n

a t t a c k o n a n d a t e s t i m o n i a l t o C u v i e r a s a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a t o m i s t , x2s

L a m a r c k i n 1 8 0 9 h a d p l a c e d t h e C i r r ip e d i a i n a c la ss b y t h e m s e l v e s , a n d

h e v i e w e d t h i s c la s s a s a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e A n n e l i d a t o t h e M o ll us c a. 12 6

C u v i e r w a s q u i c k t o d e n y ~ t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a n y i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n

t h e a r t i c u la t e a n d m o l l u s k e m b r a n c h m e n t s a n d p l a c e d t h e c i rr ip e d e s

i n t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y . 127 T h e r e i s a n o t e o f p r i d e w h e n D a r w i n s t a t e s in

t h e O r / g / n : e v e n t h e i l lu s t r io u s C u v i e r d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t a b a r n a c l e

w a s , a s i t c e r t a i n l y i s, a c r u s t a c e a n , b u t a g l a n c e a t t h e l a r v a s h o w s t h i s

t o b e t h e c a s e i n an u n m i s t a k a b l e m a n n e r . 128 D a r w i n w a s w e l l a w a r e

125 . W ha t W. S . M acLeay had sa id o f Cu v ie r i n h i s Horae Ea tomolog ica l ;o r ,

E s s a ys o n t h e A n n u l o s e A n i m a l s

( L o n d o n : A . B a g s t er 1 8 1 9 - 1 8 2 1 ) - F o r s k il l i n

a n a t o m i c a l d i s se c t io n , f o r a c c u r a c y o f o b s e r v a t io n , a n d r e f e r e n c e o f m e a n s t o

t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e e n d s , p e r h a p s n o m a n l i vi n g c a n b e p l a c e d i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h M .

C u v i e r . . . i t h a s b e e n t o o o f t e n a n d t o o j u s t ly r e m a r k e d , t h a t n o p er s o n o f s u ch

t r a n s c e n d e n t t a l e n t s a n d i n g e n u i t y e v e r m a d e s o l i t t le u s e o f h is o b s e r v at i o n s

towa rds a na tu r a l a r r ange me n t a s M. Cu v ie r ( p . 326 ) - m ay we l l have s t ruck a

r e s o n a n t c h o r d i n D a r w i n . D a r w i n h a d c a r e f u ll y s t u d i e d M a c L e a y i n t h e 1 8 3 7 -

1 8 3 9 p e r i o d , a n d f r o m a le t t e r t o H e n s l o w i n 1 8 3 2 i t is e v id e n t th a t h e k n e w o f

M a c L e a y 's w o r k w h i l e o n t h e Beagle• See D a r w i n a n d H e n s l o w , p . 62 , pa r t i en l a r ly

B a r l o w ' s n o t e 2 .

F o r t h e r e l e v a n c e o f M a c L e a y ' s w o r k t o D a r w i n ' s e i r r i p e d e s r e s e a r c h , s e e

S m i t h , D a r w i n a n d C i r r i p e d e s ; b a r n a c le s h e l d a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n M a c L e a y ' s

c l a ss i fi c a ti o n s y s t e m . H o w i n f l u e n t ia l M a c L e a y w a s i s i n d i c a t e d b y J a m e s D w i g h t

Dana , Crus taeea : US Exp lor ing Exp ed i t i on under t he C om m and o f Charl es Wi lkes ,

U S N , 2 vo l s . (Ph i l ade lph i a , 1852-1853) • D a rwin r ead t h i s bo ok on Sep t . 20 , 18 53 ,

a n d m u s t h a v e c o m e a c ro s s o n p . 5 4 D a n a ' s c o m m e n t s : ' q ' h e r e a r e n e i t h e r s t ra i g h t

l i ne s no r c i r c l e s i n na tu r e , bu t ma in b r anch ing l i ne s , w i th subo rd ina t e b r anches ,

and a lmos t end l e s s r e t i cu l a t i ons o r anas tomoses , by cu rves o f a l l k inds and a l l

g r ad e s o f d iv e r g e n c e a n d c o n v e r g e n c e . D a n a w a s c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e n u m e r i c al

c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e c i r c u l a r c l a s s i f i c a t o r y s y s t e m o f M a c L e a y , S w a i u s o n , a n d

o t h e r s, a n d i n d i c a te d t h a t i t w a s a b r i l l ia n t sc h e m e w h e n f i r s t b r o u g h t f o r w a r d

•

b u t a s t h e f i rs t g l ar e h a s n o w p a s se d , w e c a n p e r c ei v e t h a t w h i l e i t a t te m p t e d

to r i d s c i ence o f t he s t r a igh t an d r i g id ba r s o f a r t i f i c i a l sy s t ems , i t on ly m od i f i e d

t h e m o d e o f c o e r c i o n b y b e n d i n g b a r s i n t o ci r c l es . S e e a l so W i n s o r, S t a r f is h ,

J e l ly f i s h , a n d t h e O r d e r o f L i f e ; a n d P . L . H e i l b r o n e r , C i r c u l a r L o g i c : T h e

C o n t e x t , S t r u c t u r e , a n d I n f l u e n c e o f W i l li a m S h a r p M a c L e a y ' s Q u i n a r i s m , t h e si s ,

D e p t . o f t h e H i s t o r y o f S c i e n c e , H a r v a r d U n i v e r si t y , 1 97 6 .

126• J . B . Lam arck , Phi lo soph ie zoo log ique ou expo s i t i ons des cons idera t ions

relat ives ~ I 7~istoire natur el le d es a nim au x (Par i s , 1809) .

127 . G . Cuv ie r , L e rbgne anim al d aprbs so n organisation, 4 vols. (Paris , 1817).

128 . Da rwin , Origin, p . 440 .

2 4 3



SILVA N S. SCHWEBER

t h a t t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l c h a ll en g e t o h i s e v o l u ti o n a r y v ie w s c a m e f r o m

C u v i e r's w o r k a n d t h a t s t ro n g o p p o s i t i o n w o u l d c o m e f r o m th e s c h o o l

o f c o m p a r a t i v e a n a t o m i s t s C u v i e r h a d t r a in e d : O w e n i n E n g la n d ; A g a s si z

in t he Un i t ed S t a t es , F lou re ns , Mi lne -Edwards , and t he i r a s soc i a t es i n

F r a n c e .

T h u s i t w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r D a r w i n t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f

C u v i e r 's c l a s s if i c a to r y s c h e m e , b a s e d o n t h e p r i n c ip l e o f t h e c o r r e l a t io n

o f pa r t s . Va r i a t i ons w ere cen t ra l i n Cuv i e r ' s a s we l l a s D arw in ' s s chem e.

C u v i e r, o f c o u r s e , d i d n o t d e n y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f v a r i a ti o n s , b u t h e

ins i s ted t ha t va r i a t i ons ex i s t on ly w i th in ce r t a i n w eU-def ined l im i t s

( t h u s g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e r e a l i ty a n d f i x i t y o f s p e c i es ) . T h e s e l i m i ts w e r e

v e r y n a r r o w f o r t h e c e n t r a l o r g a n s , b u t . w e r e q u i t e w i d e f o r t h e p e r ip h -

e ra l , ex t e rna l f ea tu res :

T h u s w e f r e d m o r e n u m e r o u s v a r ie ti es i n m e a s u r e a s w e d e p a r t f r o m

t h e p r i n c i p a l o r g a n s a n d a s w e a p p r o a c h t h o s e o f l es s i m p o r t a n c e ;

a n d w h e n w e a r ri v e a t t h e s u r f a c e w h e r e t h e n a t u r e o f t h in g s p l a c e s

the l eas t e s sen t ia l pa r t s - wh ose l e s ion w ou ld b e leas t dangerous -

t h e n u m b e r o f v a r ie t ie s b e c o m e s s o c o n s i d e r a b le t h a t a ll t h e w o r d s

o f t h e n a tu r a li st s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n a b l e t o f o r m a n y so u n d id e a o f

it .

2 9

F o r D a r w i n , h o w e v e r , i t w a s e s s e n t i a l t o s h o w t h a t i n h e r i t b a l e

v a r i a ti o n s e x i s t n o t o n l y f o r t h e e x t e r n a l v i s ib le p a r t s , b u t a l so f o r t h e

i n t e r n a l o r g a n s , t h a t s u c h v a r i a t i o n s e x i s t a t a n y s ta g e o f t h e o r g a n i s m ' s

l if e , a n d t h a t t h e y a r e a d d i t iv e , s o t h a t g i v e n e n o u g h t i m e t h e o b s e r v e d

p h y l o g e n e t i c i n t e r n a l c h a n g e s c o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d f o r a s a r e s u l t o f

na tu ra l s e l ec t i on opera t i ng on t hese va r i a t i ons .

I n th e E s s a y o f 1 8 4 4 D a r w i n , w h e n tr y i n g t o e x p l a in h o w n a t u r al

s e l e c ti o n o p e r a t e d , i n t r o d u c e d a B e in g w i t h p e n e t r a t i o n s u f f ic i e n t t o

p e r c e i v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e o u t e r a n d i n n e r m o s t o r g a n i z a t i o n q u i t e

i m p e r c e p t i b l e t o m a n . 13o B u t D a r w i n h a d t o s h o w t h a t t h is a s s u m p t i o n

o f v a r i a b i li t y i n n a t u r e ( a s d i s ti n c t f r o m v a r i a ti o n u n d e r d o m e s t i c i t y )

w a s c o r r e c t . O n e o f t h e f u n c t i o n s t h e l o n g b a r n a c l e p r o j e c t s e r v ed w a s

t o p r o v e t h a t s m a l l v a r i a t io n s i n d e e d o c c u r i n e v e r y p a r t o f a p l a n t o r

a n i m a l a n d a p p e a r d u r in g a ll p e r i o d s o f l i f e . 131 S u c h a p r o o f a ls o

129. Quoted in W. Coleman, Georges Cuvier Zoologist: A St ud y in the

His tory o f Evo lu t ion Theory (Cam bridge, Mass.: Harvard U niversity Press, 1964),

p. 143.

130. Essay of 1844, p. 114.

131. Ibid., p. 247.

2 4 4




s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d i s p r o v e d C u v i e r' s t h e o r e t i c a l s c h e m e : t h e p a r t s w e r e

n o t p e r f e c t l y c o r r e l a t e d , t h e p r i n c i p a l o r g a n s w e r e n o t i n v a r ia b l e o r

a b s o l u t e l y s t a b le . S u f f i c i e n t v a r i a t io n s c o u l d b e s h o w n t o o c c u r n o t

o n l y t o p r o d u c e s p e c i a t i o n , b u t g i ve n e n o u g h t i m e a ls o t o b r id g e th e

e m b r a n c h e m e n t s .

I n a r e v ea l in g l e t t e r t o H o o k e r in 1 8 4 9 D a r w i n w r o t e t h a t h e w a s

s t r u c k w i t h t h e v a r i a b i li t y o f e v e r y p a r t i n s o m e s li g ht d e g r e e o f e v e r y

s p e c i e s . W h e n t h e s a m e o r g a n i s r i gor ous l y c o m p a r e d i n m a n y i n d i v i d -

ua l s , I a lways t 'md some s l i gh t va r i ab i l i t y . 132 Darwin i s even more

exp l i c i t i n h i s

Cirr ipedia:

N o t o n l y d o e s e v e r y e x t e r n a l c h a r a c te r v a r y g r e a t ly in m o s t o f th e

s p e c ie s , b u t t h e i n t e r n a l p a r t s v e r y o f t e n v a r y t o a s u rp r is i ng d e g r e e;

a n d t o a d d t o t h e d i f f i c u l ty , g r o u p s o f s p e c i m e n s n o t r a r e l y v a r y i n

t h e s a m e m a n n e r . . . I m u s t ex p r e ss m y d e l ib e r a te c o n v i c ti o n t h a t

i t i s h o p e l e s s t o f i n d a n y s p e c i e s , w h i c h h a s a w i d e r a n g e , a n d o f

w h i c h n u m e r o u s s p e c i m e n s f r o m d i f f e r e n t d is tr ic ts a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r

e x a m i n a t i o n a n y o n e p a r t o r o r g a n , - . . . - a b s o l u t e ly i nv a r ia b le i n

f o r m o r s t ru c t u re . ia 3

I n h i s p r e f a c e t o h i s b o o k o n t h e L e p a d i d a e , D a r w i n s u c c i n c t l y s t a t e d

w h a t t h is i m p l i e d f o r s y s t e m a t i c s - o n e o f t h e c h al le n g e s w h i c h a t t r a c t e d

h im to t he c i r f i pedes o r ig ina l l y -

T h e L e p a d i d a e , o r p e d u n c u l a t e d C i r r i p e d e s , h a v e b e e n n e g l e c t e d

u n d e r a s y s t e m a t i c p o i n t o f v i e w , t o a d e g re e w h i c h I c a n n o t q u i t e

u n d e r s t a n d ; n o d o u b t t h e y a r e s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t io n ,

a n d a s l o n g a s t h e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e o f t h e v a l v e s a n d t h e o r g a n s o f t h e

a n i m a l ' s b o d y a r e p a s s e d o v e r a s u n i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e w i l l o c c a s i o n a l ly

b e s o m e d i f f i c u l ty i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e s e v e ra l f o r m s , a n d s ti ll

m ore i n s e t t i ng t he l im i t s o f t he va r i ab i l i ty o f t he spec i es . Bu t I

s u s p e c t t h e p e d u n c u l a t e d C i r r i p e d e s h a v e , i n f a c t , b e e n n e g l e c t e d ,

o w i n g t o t h e i r c lo s e a f f in i t y , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t n e c e s s i t y o f t h e i r

be ing i nc lud ed i n t he s ame w ork w i th t he Sess ile C i r r i pedes ; fo r

t hese l a t t e r w i l l eve r p resen t , I am fu l l y conv inced , i n superab l e

d i f f i cu l ti e s i n t he i r i d en t i f i ca t i on by ex t e rna l cha rac t e r a l one . 134

132. L L D I, 397.

133. Charles Darw in,A Mo nograph on the Sub-Class Cirripedia : The Balanidae

(London Ra y Society, 1854), p. 155.

134. Darwin, Orripedia: The Lepadidae p. XI.

2 4 5



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

Darwin started his work on the cirripedes in October 1846. In his

Autobiography he said that he had become interested in them because

on the Beagle he had discovered a most curious form, which burrowed

into the shells of Concholepas and which differed so much from all

other Cirripedes that I had to form a new sub-order for its sole re-

ceptio n. 13s An atte mpt to u nder stan d an allied burrowing genus that

had been found in Portugal made Darwin examine and dissect many

of the com mon forms, which in turn led him - according to the Auto-

biography - to take up t he whole group. Availing himse lf of all the

collections of barnacles exta nt at the time, he began his long study of

the geographical distribution, comparative anatom y, and t axo nom y of

the cirripedes. He requested specimens of barnacles from naturalists

all over the world, from Peach, Gray, and Henslow in England, W.

Tho mso n in Ireland, J. Mtiller in Germ any , Milne-Edwards in Franc e, 136

Syms Covin gton in Australia, 137 and Augustus Ad diso n Gould a nd J. D.

Dana in the Uni ted States. In a letter to Gould ~as in Septe mber 1848,

Darwin wrote:

I have been em ployed for nearly two years on an anatomical and

systematic mon ogr apnh on Cirripedia. It is my i nte nti on to describe

the animal of every species, which by soaking I am enabled to do

even with dry specimens. All the descriptions, without exception

135. Autobiography, LLD, p. 66.

136. See the Preface in Darwin's Cirripedia: The Lepadidae, where he thanks

those who had sent him specimens. Some of the letters requesting barnacle

specimens are at the American Philosophical Society. See, e.g., letters 71 and 72

to Gray and no. 76 to Milne-Edwards, as quoted in P. T. Carroll, ed., An Annotated

Calendar of the Letters of Charles Darwin in the Library of the American Phi-

losophical Soeiety (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1976).

137. Covington became Darwin's attendant on the voyage of theBeagle, and

his clerk and anamuensis after their return to England. Covington later settled in

New South Wales, Australia, and sent Darwin one of the best collections of barna-

cles. I have received a vast number of collections from different places, but never

one so rich from one locality, Darwin wrote Covington; see Gavin de Beer, ed.,

Some Unpublished Letters of Charles Darwin, ~Notes Rec. Roy. Soc. London,

13 (1958), 19.

138. Darwin was familiar with Gould's book the Cicindelidae of Massachusetts

(Boston, 1833) and his impressive conchological work Results of an Examina-

tion of the Species of Shells of Mass. and Their Geographical Distribution,

Boston J. Nat. Hist., 3 (1840), 483-494. Darwin had studied vols. I to IV ( entire )

of the Boston Journal on May 30, 1847, and earlier (on May 31, 1845) had read

vol. IV p. 377 to end. See P. J. Vorzimmer, The Darwin Reading Notebooks,

J. Hist. Biol., 10 (1977), 107-153.

246




w h i c h I h a v e h i t h e r t o s e e n a r e t o o i m p e r f e c t f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

o f s p e ci e s: e x t e r n a l f o r m s , p r o p e r t i e s & s t a t e o f su r f a c e a r e n e a r l y

va lue l ess a s cha rac t e r s -

T h e s p e c ie s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e re s t in g

t o m e f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h E u r o p e a n o n a c c o u n t o f g e o g ra p h ic a l

r a n g e. I a m a w a r e t h a t y o u h a v e d e s c r ib e d s o m e s p e c i es & I a m m o s t

a n x i o u s t o a v o i d g i v i n g a s e c o n d n a m e , w h i c h c a n n o t d o w i t h o u t

s e e in g s p e c i m e n s o f s a m e & b e i n g a l lo w e d t o d i s a rt ic u l a te o n e o r t w o

o f e a c h k i n d .l a 9

T h e p h r a s i n g ' t h e a n i m a l o f e v e r y sp e c i e s ( m y i ta l ic s ) s h o u l d n o t g o

u n n o t i c e d . T h e l e t t e r w a s w r i t t e n t e n y e a r s a f t e r D a r w i n f o r m u l a t e d

t h e t h e o r y o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n , a n d i s t o b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h a n e n t r y h e

m a d e in t h e E n o t e b o o k i n 1 83 8 : ' n am i n g m e r e s in g le s p e c i m e n s . . .

w o r s e t h a n u s e le s s - I m a y s a y a ll th i s , h a v i n g m y s e l f a i d e d i n s u c h

s ins (E , p . 52 ) . S imi l a r l y , i n a l e t t e r t o Mi lne -Edwards i n 1848 , Da rwin

w r o t e h e w i s h e d t o o b t a i n a s in gle s p e c i m e n o f s o m e o f t h e s pe c ie s

[ f r o m t h e g e n u s A l e p a ] f i g u re d i n t h e v o y a g e o f t h e A s t r o l o b e . 14o

G o u l d a n d M i l n e - E d w a r d s w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , h a v e f o u n d D a r w i n ' s

r e q u e s t f o r a s in g le s p e c i m e n p e r f e c t l y n o r m a l : a t a x o n o m i s t c o u l d

c a t e g o r i z e a s p e c i e s f r o m o n e s p e c i m e n a l o n e ( t h i s i s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f

w h a t M a y r h a s c a l le d t y p o l o g i c a l t h i n k in g ) . D a r w i n , h o w e v e r , w a s

f i r m l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t s e v e r a l o r g a n i s m s m u s t b e e x a m i n e d , a n d a c c o m -

p l is h e d t h is b y r e q u e s t in g s p e c i m e n s o f t h e s a m e s p e c ie s f r o m d i f f e r e n t

sou rces .

T h e l e t t e r s t o G o u l d a n d M i ln e - E d w a r d s i n d i c a te h o w c a r e f u l D a r w i n

w a s i n h i s a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o f e ss i o n al c o m m u n i t y o f z o o lo g is ts . G o u l d

was a f r i end and as soc i a t e o f Lou i s Agass i z , and Mi lne -Edwards and

A g a s si z w e r e l e a d in g d e f e n d e r s o f C u v i e r 's v i e w o n t h e f i x i t y o f s p e c ie s .

I n a le t t e r t o A g a s si z t h a n k i n g h i m a n d G o u l d f o r t h e i r as s is ta n c e ,

D a r w i n w r o t e o n O c t o b e r 2 2 , 1 8 4 8 , I h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r ly g r a t if i e d

i n r e c e i v in g s p e c i m e n s f r o m y o u r s e l f in a s m u c h a s , w h e n d o u b t i n g

w h e t h e r t o u n d e r t a k e a m o n o g r a p h o f th e c la ss , o r t o c o n f in e m y s e l f

t o t h e ir a n a t o m y , Y o u r se n t e n c e t h a t ' a m o n o g r a p h o n C i r ri p ed i a w a s

a pr e ss in g d e s i d e r a tu m i n z o o l o g y ' m u c h h e l p e d t o d e c id e m e . I n t h e

s a m e le t t e r , a n s w e r in g a re q u e s t b y A g a s si z t o h e a r w h a t re s u lt s h e

139. This un published letter is in the H oughton L ibrary o f Harvard University,

and is quoted here by permission ofW . H. Bond, the librarian.

140. This letter, dated Sept. 1, 1 84 8, is no. 76 in t h e A n n o t a t e d C a l e n d a r o f

the Le t ters o f Char les Darwin.

2 4 7



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

had obtaine d thus far, Darwin indicated that it would give him

r e a l

pleasure to do so, as far as the limits of a letter go. But Darwin

added: I should be glad if you would not men tio n my present results,

partly because I should like to have the satisfaction of publishing

myself what few new points I have found out and partly because one

is more free t o alter one's own view when they are confined to on e's

ow n breast . 141

Darwin does in this letter give Agassiz a fairly complete account of

his work on the cirripedes up to that time. The summary begins with

his reasons for placing the cirripedes as a subclass of the crustaceans:

The Cirripedia are tru e Crustaceans with no affinities to other classes;

Mr. St. Ange curiously mis took a strong epithe lium for an inn er sort of

stomach hence the af•mity with the Annelides disappears, Darwin

wrote, and con tin ued for three pages. What Darwin did no t divulge was

the relation of this work to his evolutionary theorizing. This remained

conf ined to [his] own breast.

This same relu ctance to set the work in its larger con tex t also appears

in the monographs on the cirripedes. In fact, Darwin inten ded to have

his presentati on seem as objective and neut ral as possible, and thus

to avoid any controversy. 142 There are no hin ts of his evolution ary

views. Darwin did not wish to offend.

Ghiselin, however, has given a thoroug h a nd convincing accou nt of

the relation of the cirripedes investigation to Darwin's evolutionary

interpretation of the chain of nature, the relation of adaptation to

funct ion, and the relation o f adaptatio n to natural selection. 14a And

141. This letter is in the Houghton Library of Harvard University, and is

quoted here by permission.

142. Contrast Darwin's restrained presentation (admittedly for a profes-

sional audience) with Huxley's and Owen's presentation of their views to lay

audiences. T. H. Huxley, in his famous lecture On the Method of Studying

Zoology, delivered to the science classes at the South Kensighton Museum in

the early 1850s, said, 'Unity of plan everywhere lies hidden under the mask of

diversity of structure - the complex is everywhere evolved of the simple. Richard

Owen, answering questions in 1851 before the English Public School Commission,

which was seeking advice on curricular changes, said that the fundamental

principles of classification in natural history are as certain [as those of mathe-

matics] . . . There is neither fluctuation nor speculation [in natural history]. The

principles of natural history are already as settled and fixed as can be needed for

its use as a disciplinary science. Both these presentations are reprinted in E. L.

Youmans, ed., The C u l t u re D e m a n d e d b y M o d e r n L i f e : A S e ri es o f A d d r e s s e s a n d

A r g u m e n t s o n t h e C l a im s o f S c i e n t if i c E d u c a t i o n (New York: Appelton, 1897).

143. Ghiselin, The T r i u m p h o f t h e D a r w i n ia n M e t h o d , pp. 103-130.

248




Ghiselin and Jaffe have shown that Darwin's taxo nom y of the cirripedes

in his two monographs actually reflects his phylogenetic restructuring

of that science. 144

What is important here is that Darwin's work on the cirdpedes

proves his thorough familiarity with Milne-Edwards' work before 1852.

Fro m the time of the noteb ooks 14s Da rw in had carefully followed

Milne-Edwards' writing and researches. He had studied Milne-Edwards'

1844 seminal pape r on na tural classification 146 and the several volumes

of his classic wor k on the crustaceans as they appeared. 147 Milne-

Edwards had sent Darwin barnacle specimen; the two had first met in

1847 at the O xfor d meeting of the British Association for the Advance-

me nt of Science, 14a and had m et again in 1849 at the B AAS meet ing in

Birmingham. At that meetirtg the y discussed thei r differing views on the

cemen ting apparatus of the cirripedes. 149 Darwin makes n umer ous

references to Milne-Edwards' important researches in both volumes of

144. M. T. Ghiselin and Linda Jaffee, Phylogenetic Classification in Darwin's

Monograph on the Sub-Class Cirdpedia,

S y s t . Z o o l . 2 2

(1973), 132-140.

145. Barrett in his Concordance to the notebooks lists entries for Milne-

Edwards. For an early entry see B, p. 112; for one after Darwin read Malthus, see

E, p. 25.

146. H. Mllne-Edwards, Considerations sur quelques principes relatifs ~ la

classification naturelle des anirnaux, A n n . S c i. N a t . 3 r d s e t . (1844), 1, 66-69.

See also H. Milne-Edwards, Rapport sur une serie de memoires de M. A. de

Quatrefages relatffs/t l'organisation des animaux sans vertebres, A n n . S c i . N a t .

3rd. ser. (1844), 5-9.

147. In Vorzimmer, The Darwin Reading Notebooks, the following readings

are indicated: Jan. 30, 1847 - M. Edwards Geog. Distribution o f Crustaceae,

3d Tom of Suite [?] de Buffon; Nov. 26, 1852 - M. Edwards Introduct. Zoolog.

Gener. 1851. Both monographs on the Cirripedia give ample further proof of

Darwin's careful study of Milne-Edwards' published works.

148. In a letter to Milne-Edwards dated Sept. 1, 1848, Darwin thanks him

for his kindness at the Oxford BAAS meeting in June 1847. See letter 76 in

A n n o t a t e d C a le n da r o f t h e L e t t e r s o f C h a rle s D a r w i n .

149. See the A t h e n a e u m 1143 (22 Sept. 22, 1849), 966. This exchange is

reprinted in P. H. Barrett, ed., The C o l l e c t e d P a p e r s o f C h a r le s D a r w i n 2 vols.

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), I, 250-251. The standing of Milne-

Edwards in the scientific community is indicated by the following passage in the

Transactions of Section D, Natural History, Including Physiology, of the

BAAS report for 1849: The comments made by the emminent naturalist H.

Milne-Edwards, Member of the Academic des Sciences in Paris on this com-

munication [M. Barrandi's paper on the metamorphosis of certain recently

discovered trilobites] must have so much weight, that a deviation is made from

the ordinary practice in giving this abstract of them in a note - Miine-Edwards'

comments are then given.

249




hi s Ci r r ipedia .

A n d D a r w i n ' s 1 8 5 4 m o n o g r a p h o n t h e L e p a d i d a e i s

d e d i c a t e d t o M i ln e - E d w a r d s w i t h t h e m o s t s i n ce r e r e s p e c t, a s t h e o n l y ,

t h o u g h v e ry i n ad e q u a t e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t w h i c h t h e a u t h o r c an m a d e

o f h i s g r e a t a n d c o n t i n u e d o b l i g a t i o n s t o t h e H i s t o i r e n a t u r e U e d e s

c r us t ac e e s , a n d t o t h e o t h e r m e m o i r s a n d w o r k s o n N a t u r a l H i s t o r y

p u b l i s h e d b y t h i s i l l u s tr i o u s n a t u r a l i s t .

M I L N E - E D W A R D S O N T H E D I V I S IO N O F L A B O R

M i l n e -E d w a r d s f i r s t p u t f o r t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e d i v i si o n o f l a b o r in

h i s e n t r i e s O r g a n i s a t i o n a n d N e r f s i n t h e

D i c t i o n n a i r e c l a s s i q u e

dT~is to i re na ture l l e . 1so The D i c t i o n n a i r e c l a s s i q u e w a s o n b o a r d t h e

B e a g l e

a n d D a r w i n o w n e d a c o p y o f i t . 1sl V e r y p r o b a b l y h e r e a d t h es e

e n t r i e s d u r i n g t h e v o y a g e , f o r t h e y d e a l t e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h t h e i n v e r te -

b r a t e s , c e n t r a l t o D a r w i n ' s z o o l o g i c a l i n v e s t ig a t i o n s o n t h e Bea gle . i s2

I n O r g a n i s a t i o n M i l n e - E d w a r d s w r i t e s

T h e b o d y o f t h e se a n im a l s [ p o l y p s ] c a n b e c o m p a r e d t o a w o r k s h o p

w h e r e e a c h w o r k e r i s e m p l o y e d i n e x e c u t in g s i m i l a r l a b o u r s , a n d

w h e r e , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i r n u m b e r i n f lu e n c e t h e s u m t o t a l , b u t

n o t t h e n a t u r e o f th e r e s u lt . I n e f f ec t , e a c h p o r t i o n o f t h e b o d y

c a n s m e l l , c o n t r a c t , m o v e , n o u r i s h i ts e l f a n d r e p r o d u c e i n t o a n e w

b o d y . . .

W h e n , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , l i f e b e g in s t o m a n i f e s t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d

p h e n o m e n a , a n d t h e f in a l r e s u lt p r o d u c e d b y t h e i n t e r p l a y o f t h e

d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e b o d y b e c o m e s m o r e p e r f e c t , c e r t a i n o rg a n s

p r e s e n t p a r t i c u l ar s t r u c t u r e . . . T h e l if e o f t h e i n d iv i d u a l , i n s t e a d o f

b e i n g t h e s u m o f a l ar g e r o r s m a l le r n u m b e r o f id e n t i c a l d e m e n t s ,

r e s u lt s f r o m e s s e n t ia l l y d i f f e r e n t a c t s p r o d u c e d b y d i s t i n c t o rg a n s .

150. Dictionnaire classique d?~istoire naturelle; Org anisa t ion is in vol. XII

(1827 ) , pp . 332-344; N erfs i s in vol. X I (1827) , pp . 529-534.

151. Da rw in 's copy o f the Dictionnaire classique i s now a t Do wn House . Mr.

Ti the radge , the cu ra to r o f Dow n House , in fo rms me tha t the en t r ie s Organ is a-

t ion and Ner f s bea r no anno ta t ions .

152. That Darwin was reading the

Dictionnaire classique

i s c lear f rom his

le t te rs to Hens low. On May 18, 1832, for ins tance , he wro te : I am we l l of f in

hooks. The Die. Class . is mo s t use fu l (Barlow, ed. , Darwin an d Henslow, p. 54;

s ee a l so l e t t e r no . 22 , f rom Hens low to Darwin ). Da rw in 's D ia ry o f Obse rva tions

on Zoo logy o f the P laces Vis i t ed du r ing the Voyage o f the H .M.S .

Beagle

i s kep t

in boxes 30 , 31 , an d 32 o f D a rwin ' s Pape rs a t the Cambr idge Unive rs i ty L ib ra ry .

The ea r ly obse rva t ions a re p r imar i ly on inve r t eb ra te s .

2 5 0




T h e d iv e rs e p a rt s o f t h e a n i m a l e c o n o m y a ll

compete

t o w a r d s t h e

s a m e g o a l , b u t e a c h i n a m a n n e r a p p r o p r i a t e t o i t , a n d t h e m o r e t h e

f a c u l t i e s o f t h e o r g a n i s m a r e n u m e r o u s a n d d e v e l o p e d , t h e g r e a t e r

t h e d i v e rs i ty o f s t r u c t u r e a n d the division o f labor ... . a r e f u r t h e r e d

( m y i ta l ic s )

S u b s t a n t i a ll y t h e s a m e e x p l a n a t i o n a p p e a r s i n M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' in f l u e n t ia l

Elem ens de zoologie: Legons sur l anatomie, la physiologie, la classifica-

tion des moeurs des animaux, the f ir st v o l u m e o f w h i c h w a s p u b l i s h e d

in 1834: lSa

I n a n im a l s w h o s e f a c u lt ie s a re m o s t li m i t e d a n d w h o s e li fe a re

s im p l e s t, t h e b o d y p r e s e n t s e v e r y w h e r e t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r e . T h e p a r t s

a r e a ll s im i l ar ; a n d t h is i d e n t i t y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n b r i n g s a b o u t a n

a n a l o g o u s m o d e o f a c t i o n , th e i n t e r i o r o f t h e se o r g a n i s m s c a n b e

c o m p a r e d t o a w o r k s h o p w h e r e a ll th e w o r k e r s a re e m p l o y e d i n t h e

e x e c u t i o n o f s im i la r la b o r s, a n d w h e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e ir n u m b e r

i n fl u en c e t h e q u a n t i t y b u t n o t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o d u c t s. E v e r y

p a r t o f t h e b o d y p e r f o r m s t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n s a s t h e n e i g h b o r in g

p a r ts , a n d t h e l i fe o f t h e i n d i v i d u al is m a d e u p o f t h o s e p h e n o m e n a

w h i c h c h a r a c t e ri s e t h e l if e o f o n e o r t h e o t h e r o f th e s e p a r t s.

B u t a s o n e r is e s i n t h e s e ri e s o f b e i n g s , a s o n e c o m e s n e a r e r t o

m a n , o n e s e es o r g a n iz a t io n b e c o m i n g m o r e c o m p l i c a te d ; t h e b o d y

o f e a ch a n i m a l b e co m e s c o m p o s e d o f pa r ts w h i c h a r e m o r e a n d m o r e

d is si m il ar t o o n e a n o t h e r , a s m u c h i n t h e ir m o r p h o l o g y , f o r m a n d

s t r u c t u r e , a s i n t h e i r f u n c t i o n s ; a n d t h e l if e o f t h e in d i v i d u a l re s u l ts

f r o m t h e c o m p e t i t i o n o f an e ve r g r ea te r n u m b e r o f i n s t r u m e n t s

e n d o w e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t f a c u lt ie s . A t f i rs t i t i s t h e s a m e o r g a n t h a t

s m e ll s, t h a t m o v e s , t h a t a b s o r b s f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t h e n e e d e d

n u t r i e n t s a n d t h e g u a r a n t e e s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s p e c ie s ; b u t

l i t t l e - b y - l i t t l e t h e d i v e r s e f u n c t i o n s l o c a l i z e t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e y a l l

a c q u i r e i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t a r e p r o p e r t o t h e m s e lv e s . T h u s , th e m o r e

t h e l if e o f a n a n i m a l b e c o m e s i n v o lv e d i n a v a r ie t y o f p h e n o m e n a ,

a n d t h e m o r e i t s f a c u l t ie s a r e d e l i n e a t e d , o r t h e h i g h e r t h e d e g r e e t o

153. H. Milne-Edwards:

Elemens de zoologie: leqons sur l anatomie, la phy-

siologie, la classification des moeurs des animaux

(Pads: Crochard, 1834). Darwin

did n ot ow n this boo k. I t is no t l is ted in Rutherfo rd 's Catalogue of the Library of

Charles Darwin in the Botany School (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1908). In a catalogue of the Victor Masson Books (Ancibnne Maison Crochard)

tha t Darwin ow ned , wh ich now is at Cambridge University Library, Darwin check-

ed off the Milne-Edwards book which he owned, but not Elemens de zoologie.

2 5 1



SILVANS. SCHWEBER

which division of labor is carried out in the interior o f the organism,

the more its structure is complicated.

The principle which seems to have guided nature in the perfectibi-

lity of beings, is as one sees, precisely one of those which have had

the greatest influence on the progress of human industry technology:

t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r . 1s4

Milne-Edwards concluded Organisation by saying that the senses

(vision, smell, hearing, etc.) furnish new examples of the division

of labor, and the same is true for the reproductive apparatus: this

function, which initially could be executed indifferently by all the parts

of the body, localizes itself and becomes the appendage of a series of

more and more complicated organs; also the sexes become distinct

and the concourse of two individuals necessary to accomplish the

procreative act . In the ent ry Nerfs, Milne-Edwards introduces the

thesis he will later elaborate in his I n t r o d u c t i o n b l a z o o l o g i e gb n b ra l e of

1851:

Nature, which is always economical in the means she employs to

arrive at a given goal, has followed in the perfectioning of organisms

the principle so well developed by the modern economists, and it is

in these works as well as in the productions of the [mechanical] arts,

that one sees the immense advantage that results from the division of

labor.

Even if Darwin did no t read the Mllne-Edwards entries aboard the

B e a g l e ,

it is almost certain that he read them in the early 1840s before

undertaking his barnacle work. This is indicated by Darwin's notes to

Milne-Edwards' H i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e d e s c r u s ta c b e s , l ss On page 6 of

Volume I of this work is a paragraph that is essentially the same as the

one quoted above from the Nerfs entry in the

D i c t i o n n a i r e c l a ss i q u e.

Darwin drew a broad line to the left of the paragraph and the footnote

Milne-Edwards had appended: See the articles O r g a n i sa t io n , N e r f s , etc.

of the D i c t i o n n a i r e C l a s si q u e d h i s t o i r e N a t u r e l l e and our E l e m e n s d e

Z o o l o g i e where we have developed this principle. ls6 That Darwin read

154. Milne-Edwards,Elem ens de zoologie , I, 8.

155. H. Milne-Edwards,Histoire naturelle des crustac~es co m pre na nt l anato-

rnie, la physiologie, e t la classification d e ce s an im au x, 3 vols. (Paris: Librairie

Encyclopedique de Roret, 1834-1840). Vol I appeared in 1834, vol. II in 1837,

and vol. III in 1840. Darwin's annoted copies are at Cambridge University Library.

156. Ibid., I, 6.

252




v e r y c a r e f u l M i ln e - E d w a r d s' v o l u m e s o n t h e c r u s ta c e a n s is c l e a r f r o m

t h e l ar ge n u m b e r o f a n n o t a t i o n s h e m a d e in t h e t e x t . H e sc a n n e d t h e s e

vo lum es once aga in , p ro bab ly in 1856 , be fo re beg inn ing h i s long ve r sion

o f N a t u r a l S e l e c t io n a n d p i n n e d o n t h e b a c k c o v e r s r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e

m o s t u s e f u l p a r t s o f t h e b o o k s . T h e v o l u m e s d e a l t w i t h a l l t h e s u b j e c ts

t h a t w e r e o f p a r a m o u n t i n t e r e s t t o D a r w i n i n h i s b a r n a c l e w o r k :

phys io logy , compara t ive ana tomy, genera l p r inc ip les o f c l a s s i f i ca t ion ,

geograph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion . Pa r t i cu la r ly r evea l ing a re Darwin ' s comments

on Mi lne -Edwards ' d i s cus s ion o f the geograph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f

c rus taceans . Mi lne -Edwards had ind ica ted tha t in a ll l ike l ih oo d the

f a c t s d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h e e m a n a t i o n o f t h e se a n im a l s f r o m a sin gle

c e n t e r o f c r e a t i o n a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t d i s p er sa l t o d i s ta n t o c e a n s :

one s ees tha t the a rea occup ied by each spec ies has more o r l e s s

n a r r o w l i m i t s, a n d o n e d o e s n o t t a r r y t o c o n v i n c e o n s e l f t h a t t h e r e

ex i s t fo r these ma r ine an im als, ju s t a s fo r the p lan t s an d the t e r res -

t r ia l an imals , a ce r t a in n um ber o f d i s t inc t r eg ions charac te r i zed

b y p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n s . T h e f a u n a o f e a c h o f t h e s e r eg i o ns i s

c o m p o s e d i n p a r t o f s p ec ie s t h a t a r e n o t e n c o u n t e r e d e l s ew h e r e , a n d

in p a r t o f c om m on species.IS7

O n t h e t o p o f t h e p a g e , D a r w i n w r o t e , H o w e x p l ai n t h is , e x c e p t b y

sin gle c r e a t i o n , a n d o n t h e s i de o f t h i s p a g e D a r w i n c o m m e n t e d ,

w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o a n y t h i n g e l s e : m a k e a B a r r i e r & y o u w i l l h a v e

s p ec i es d i f f e r e n t o n d i f f e r e n t si d e . Y e t a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p a g e

D a r w i n a d d s , I d o n o t t h i n k r e a d w i t h su f f i c ie n t c a r e . H i s r e s p e c t f o r

Mi lne -Edwards was g rea t and we l l -dese rved , and the exp la na t ion o f the

g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r u s ta c e a n s w a s n o t w i t h o u t d i f f ic u l ti e s .

Darw in was a l so ind eb t ed to Mi lne -Edwards fo r r a is ing and c la r i fy ing

t a x o n o m i c q u e s t i o n s , a n d i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t D a r w i n s t u d i e d c a r e f u l l y

w h a t M i l n e - E d w a r d s h a d t o s a y o n t a x o n o m y t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 4 0 s

and 1850s and r ead a ll h i s wo rks as the y appe ared .

In Histoire naturelle des crustacbes Milne-Edward a l so succ inc t ly

s t a t e d h i s b i o l o g ic a l p h i l o s o p h y . T h e d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n s t h a t d e l in e a t e

the l i fe o f an o rgan i sm, he w ro te , can be r e la ted to th ree g rea t d ivis ions :

( 1 ) g e n e r a t i o n ( r e p r o d u c t i o n ) , w h o s e f u n c t i o n i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n

o f t h e s p ec ie s ; ( 2 ) n u t r i t i o n ( a n d r e l a t e d f u n c t i o n s ) , w h o s e r o l e is

the surv ival o f the ind iv idua l o f the spec ies ; and (3 ) o th e r fu nc t ion s

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e l a t io n o f o r g a n is m t o i ts e n v i r o n m e n t . M i ln e -E d w a r d s

157. Ibid., p. 555.

2 5 3



SILVA N S. SCHWEBER

w a s c a r e f u l t o n o t e t h a t t h is s e p a r a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n s w a s n o t a b s o l u t e ,

bu t i t was ve ry use fu l , pa r t i cu l a r l y i n cons ide r ing t hose o rga n i sms t ha t

m a n i f e s t h e t e r e o g e n e o u s f u n c t i o n s . A g a i n h e s t a t e d h i s p r i n c ip l e o f t h e

d i vi si o n o f la b o r : i n a w o r d , t h e p r i n c ip l e fo l l o w e d b y n a t u r e i n t h e

p e r f e c t i b i l i ty o f o r g a n i s m s is t h e s a m e a s t h e o n e s o w e l l d e v e l o p e d b y

m o d e r n e c o n o m i s ts , a n d i n t h is w o r k s a s i n t h e p r o d u c t s o f i n d u s t r y o n e

s ee s th e i m m e n s e a d v a n t a g e s t h a t r e s u l t f r o m t h e d i v is io n o f l a b o r . ls8

M i l n e - E d w a r d s t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o e l a b o r a t e t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n m u c h t h e

s a m e w o r d s h e h a d u s e d i n

Elem ens d e zoo log ie .

B u t M i l n e - E d w a r d s ' m o s t e x t e n s i v e a n d p h i l o s o p h i c s t a t e m e n t s o n

t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r a p p e a r e d i n h i s In tro duc t ion ~t la

zoolo gie gbnbrale. I n t h e p r e f a c e h e s a y s t h a t i n t h e b o o k h e h a s t r i e d

t o f a t h o m t h e p l ar t w h i c h h a s p r e s id e d o v e r t h e a n im a l k i n g d o m .

A l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t b e l ie v e t h a t h e w a s a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p a t h

f o l lo w e d b y t h e A u t h o r o f e v e r y t h in g i n th e e x e c u t i o n o f h is w o r k ,

n o n e t h e l e s s h e b e l i e v e s t h a t i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e h a r m o n y o f

t h a t c r e a t i o n i t i s a w o r t h w h i l e h y p o t h e s i s t o s u p p o s e t h a t n a t u r e h a s

p r o c e e d e d a s w e w o u l d h a v e , w e r e w e t o p r o d u c e a n a n a l o g o u s r e s u l t .

B y s t u d y i n g l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s a s i f t h e y w e r e m a c h i n e s c r e a t e d b y

h u m a n t e c h n o l o g y , h e h a s t r i e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e m a n n e r th e y w o u l d

h a v e b e e n i n v e n t e d a n d t h e p r i n c i p le s w h i c h w o u l d h a v e l e d t o a s i m i la r

e n s e m b l e o f v a ri e d i n s t r u m e n t s . ls9 C h a p t e r I o f t h e Zo olog ie gbnbrale

g iv es a g l o b a l v i e w o f t h e a n i m a l k in g d o m . N o t i n g t h a t t h e r e is n e v e r

c o m p l e t e i d e n t i t y b e t w e e n i n d iv i d u al s o f a sp e c ie s i n t i m e n o r i n

s p a c e , M i l n e -E d w a r d s s u gg e st s t h a t d i v e r s i ty o f p r o d u c t s is t h e f ir s t

c o n d i t io n i m p o s e d b y n a t u r e i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f o r ga n is m s . A l t h o u g h

o b e y i n g a

l aw o f d i vers it y o f o rgan isms

n a t u r e n o n e t h e l e s s h a s n o t h a d

r e c o u r s e t o a l l t h e p h y s i o l o g ic a l c o m b i n a t i o n s t h a t w e r e p o s s ib l e ; a n d

a s p r o d ig a l [ a s n a t u r e i s] i n t h e v a r i e t y o f h e r c r e a t i o n s , a s e c o n o m i c a l

s h e a p p e a r s in t h e m e a n s o f d iv e r s if y in g h e r w o r k s . T h i s i s t h e l a w o f

eco no m y. As an i l lu s t r a t i on , M i lne -Edw ards c i t e s t he case o f t he b i rds ,

f o r w h i c h o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 s p e c ie s w e r e t h e n k n o w n . Y e t

i n t h e s e t h o u s a n d s o f s p e c ie s a n d u n t o l d n u m b e r s o f v a r ie t ie s w h a t i s

es sen t ia l is i nvar i ab le . . . In o rde r t o d ive r s i t y a l l t hese o rgan i sms ,

n a t u r e d i d n o t h a v e r e c o u r s e t o a n y n e w o r g a n ic c r e a t i o n ; s h e h a s

l i m i t e d h e r s e l f t o c h a n g e , w i t h i n n a r r o w l im i t s , t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f

c e r t a i n p a r t s a n d t o v a r y t h e d e c o r a t i o n s w i t h o u t t o u c h i n g t h e

es sen t i a l cha rac t e r .

158. Ibid., p. 6.

159. Mflne-Edwards,

Zoo logie gdndrale p. 6.

2 5 4



D a r w i n nd t h e P o l it ic a l E c o n o m i s t s

T h e g e n e ra l t e n d e n c y o f n a t u r e , h e su gg es ts, h a s b e e n t o m u l t i p l y i n

g i g a n ti c p r o p o r t i o n s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s , w h i l e v a r y i n g m i n i m a l l y t h e

c o n s t i t u t e n t m a t e r i al s o f a n im a l s a n d t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e s e m a t e -

r ia ls h a v e b e e n p u t t o w o r k : S h e h as t h u s re c o n c i l e d t w o a p p a r e n t l y

c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r i n c i p le s , b e c a u s e s h e h a s s h o w n h e r s e l f s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

e c o n o m i c a l a n d p r o d i g a l . T o t h i s H e g e l ia n s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f

d i v e r si ty a n d f i x i t y , M i l n e -E d w a r d s a d ds t h e a n t i -L a m a r c k i a n s t a t e m e n t

t h a t n a t u r e h a s t e n d e d t o v a r y t h e d e g r e e o f p e r f e c t i b i l i t y a c h i e ve d

b y o r g a n i s m s . T h u s i n s e c t s a r e s u p e r i o r t o m o l l u s k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o

l o c o m o t i o n , b u t t h e l a t t e r a r e s u p e r io r i n t h e i r d ig e st iv e o r g an s a n d

c i r cu la to ry appara tus . Th e s ame p r inc ip le a l so ope ra tes fo r o rgans

w i t h i n o r g a n i s m s : m a n ' s n e r v o u s s y s t e m i s m o r e p e r f e c t t h a n h i s

ske le ta l sys tem.

C h a p t e r s I II a n d I V o f t h e ntroduction b la zoologie gbnbrale are

d e v o t e d t o t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e d i v is io n o f p h y si o l o g ic a l l a b o r in t h e

p e r f e c t i n g o f o r g a ni sm s . I n t e r e s ti n g l y , C h a p t e r I I I, w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s t h e

n o t i o n , i s n o t e x t e n si v e ly a n n o t e d b y D a r w i n ( in c o n t r a s t t o t h e o t h e r

c h a p t e r s o f t h e b o o k ) ; a n d t h i s s ug ge sts t h a t t h e p r i n c i p le w a s i n d e e d

n o t n e w t o h i m . D a r w i n dr e w a l in e n e x t t o M i ln e -E d w a rd s ' i n t r o d u c t o r y

s t a t e m e n t - i n t h e c r e a t io n s o f n a t u r e , a s i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f m e n ,

i t is m o s t l y b y t h e division of labor tha t pe r fec t ib i l i ty i s ob ta i ne d 16o _

a n d t w o l i n es n e x t t o t h e c o n c l u d i n g s e n t e n c e o f t h e c h a p t e r : i t i s

p r i n c i p a ll y b y t h e d i v is io n o f la b o r t h a t n a t u r e t e n d s t o p e r f e c t th e

o r g an i sm . 161 T h e o n l y o t h e r a n n o t a t i o n s D a r w i n m a d e i n t h e c h a p t e r

w e r e t o d r a w a li n e n e x t t o M i ln e - E d w a r ds ' d e s c ri p t io n o f N i c o l e t 's

e x p e r i m e n t s o n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f th e s t o m a c h c a v i ty in l o w e r an im a l s

( t h e c a v i t y b e in g s o m e w h a t a c c i d e n t a l l y f o r m e d a n d h a v i ng b u t a

t e m p o r a r y e x i s te n c e ) , a n d t o w r it e b e a u t i f u l g r a d a t i o n n e x t t o t h e

p assa ge r e c a l li n g t h a t T r e m b l e y h a d s h o w n t h a t a h y d r a c o u l d b e t u r n e d

i n si d e o u t w i t h o u t a f f e c t in g a n y o f i ts p h y s io l o g i c al f u n c t i o n s . D a r-

w i n 's r e a c t i o n se e m s to b e t o t h e b e a u t y o f N i c h o l e t 's a n d T r e m b l e y ' s

obse rva t ions .

C h a p t e r I V , w h i c h d e a ls w i t h t h e m e a n s n a t u r e e m p l o y s t o e f f e c t

the d iv is ion o f l abo r in an imal o rgan i sms , i s, by c on t ras t , heav i ly

a n n o t e d . D a r w i n n o t e d t h e p assa ge w h e r e M i l n e- E d w a rd s r e m a r k e d t h a t

in an o rgan i sm

t h e g r e a t e r t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s p e c ia l iz a t io n o f f u n c t i o n s an d t h e

160. Ibid., p. 35.

161. Ibid., p. 57.

2 5 5



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

d iv is io n o f la b o r , t h e m o r e t h e n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t p a rt s a n d t h e

c o m p l i c a t io n o f th e m a c h i n e ha s t o i nc re a se . . . t h e n u m b e r o f

d is simi la r pa r t s th a t m ake up an o rgan i sm an d the ma gn i tude o f the

d i f f e rences tha t these pa r t s p resen t a re the ind ices o f the degree to

wh ich the d iv is ion o f l abor has been ca r r i ed ou t . 162

D a r w i n a ls o c a r e f u l l y n o t e d M i l n e -E d w a r d s' i l lu s t r a ti o n o f t h e e x t e n t

o f t h e se rie s o f s p ec ia l p h e n o m e n a t h a t r e s u lt f r o m t h e s p e c ia l iz a t io n o f

v a r i o u s o r g a n s ( u s u a l l y f o r m e d f r o m p r e e x i s t i n g p a r t s ) . D a r w i n w a s

c lea r ly r ecep t ive to M i lne -Edw ards ' sugges tion tha t inc reasing phy -

s io log ica l spec ia l i za t ion ( such as the p resence o f r e sp i r a to ry , d igest ive ,

r ep roduc t ive o rgans ) a l lowed one to c las s i fy o rgan i sms and

rank

t h e m

( thou gh fo r Mi lne -Edwards th i s r ank i s s ti ll t i ed to a Cuver ian - llke t ab le

o f o r g a n i z a ti o n ) .

Lim oges has argued con vincin gly 163 tha t reading Milne-Edw ards

w as a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f D a r w i n 's c o n c e p t o f

d ive rgence o f cha rac te r . Mi lne -Edwards ' p resen ta t ion and d i s cus s ion o f

such impor tan t top ics a s c las s i f i ca t ion and d ive r s i ty were su re ly use fu l

to Darwin . In pa r t i cu la r , Mi lne -Edwards ' emphas i s o n the ro le o f

func t iona l spec ia l i za t ion may we l l have been r espons ib le fo r Darwin ' s

ke y ins igh t tha t the p r im ary f ac to r o f d ive rgence in eco log ica l d i f f e r -

en t i a t ion i s func t iona l spec ia l i za t ion . The i s sue fo r Darwin , however ,

w a s h o w t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e p r o c e s s o f f u n c t i o n a l s p e c ia l iz a t io n a n d h o w

t o f i t th e o t h e r p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l aw s M i ln e -E d w a r d s h a d a d v a n c e d

( s u c h a s l a w o f d i v e r s it y , t h e l a w o f e c o n o m y ) i n t o a n e x p l a n a t o r y

schem e based on d escen t v ia na tu ra l s e lec t ion .

Th e b io log ica l in s igh t tha t Darwin g o t f r om read ing Mi lne -Edwards '

Zoologie gbnbrale

w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y i m p o r t a n t . I w o u l d su gg est t h a t o f

e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e w a s t h e l ic e n s e D a r w i n o b t a i n e d f r o m i t t o u se t h e

m e t a p h o r o f th e i n d u s tr i a l e c o n o m y a n d i ts d ri vi ng f o r c e - c o m p e t i t i o n

a n d d i vi si on o f l a b o r - i n a b i o lo g i ca l c o n t e x t . T h e f r e e d o m w i t h w h i c h

Mi lne -Edwards was adduc ing indus t r i a l ana log ies ce r ta in ly ma de a

s t ro n g i m p a c t o n D a r w i n . I t a l l o w e d h i m t o a s cr ib e t h e p r in c i p le s o f

t h e p h y s io l o g ic a l d iv is io n o f l a b o r t o a n e m m i n e n t z o o l o g i s t a n d

p h i l o s o p h e r o f b i o l o g y , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m i s t s. T h i s

accords w i th the emphas i s D arwin p laces on M i lne -Edwards in h i s

d i s cus s ion o f d ive rgence o f cha rac te r in Natural Selection and in the

162. Ibid., p. 60.

163. Limoges,

a s~lection naturelle

and Da rwin , Milne-Edwards, et le

principle de divergence.

2 5 6




Origin.

( M o r e t h a n t h a t , t h e z o o l o g ic a l p h i l o s o p h y t h a t M i l n e -E d w a r d s

h a d p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Zoologie gbnbrale was e i t he r super f i c i a l o r t e l eo -

l o g i c a l , a n d D a r w i n w a s q u i c k t o p u n c t u r e h o l e s i n t h o s e a r g u m e n t s

w h i c h w e r e r e a d i ly u n d e r s t o o d i n a n e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n t e x t . ) B u t i n o r d e r

t o s u b s t a n t i a t e m y t h e si s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o l o o k m o r e c l o s e ly a t D a r w i n ' s

k n o w l e d g e o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y b e f o r e 1 8 52 .

D A R W I N A N D P O L I T I C A L EC O N O M Y

B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o n D a r w i n ,

we m us t f i r s t p l ace h im in h is soc i a l, i n t e l l ec tua l , po l i t i ca l , and eco no m ic

m i l ie u . W e k n o w t h a t h e v ~a s b r o u g h t u p i n a W h i g h o m e . H i s f a th e r ,

R o b e r t W a r i n g D a r w i n , w a s a U n i t a r i a n , a n d h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , E r a s m u s

D a r w i n , w a s a d e i s t a n d m a t e r i a l i s t . B o t h l e a n e d t o w a r d a g n o s t i c i s m ,

a n d h a d s t r o n g p r o c l iv i ti e s t o w a r d F r e n c h E n l i g h t m e n t v ie w s o n e d u c a -

t i on and po l i ti c s .

R o b e r t W a r i n g D a r w i n w a s v o l u b l e , v o l u m i n o u s , a n d o u t s p o k e n .

A s E r a s m u s D a r w i n ' s s o n , h e w a s c o n s i d e r e d a h e r e t i c a n d r a d ic a l i n

c o n s e r v a ti v e S h r e w s b u r y , w h e r e t h e f a m i l y l iv e d , m ¢ B u t s i n c e h e h a d

e a r n e d t h e r e s p e c t o f t h e l o c al p o p u l a t i o n b y h is m e d i c a l k n o w l e d g e

a n d h i s a b i l i t y t o e a r n t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e a n d t r u s t , h i s r e l i g i o u s a n d

p o l it i c al v i e w s d i d n o t i m p e d e h i s m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e . H e n e v e r g av e u p

h i s l i be ra l l ean ings , and i n 1823 o r 1824 h i s da ugh te r s , w i th h i s f'manc i a l

s u p p o r t , o p e n e d t h e f i rs t f r e e i n f a n t s c h o o l i n S h r e w s b u r y . T h e

s c h o o l w a s r u n o n t h e l in e o f R o u s s e a u ' s a n d P e s t a l o z z i' s e d u c a t i o n a l

p h i l o s o p h y a n d w a s e q u i p p e d w i t h b l a c k b o a r d s , a r it h m e t ic a l b e a d s

and f ram es , cons ide rab l e nove l t i e s i n t hose days . t6 s

T h e f a m i l y o f C h a r l e s D a r w i n ' s m o t h e r , th e W e d g w o o d s , w e r e c l o s e l y

a s s o c i a te d w i t h l ib e r a l t h o u g h t a n d i n i t ia l ly w e r e v e r y s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h

164. On Erasmus Darwin, see C. Darwin's introduction in Ernst Krause, ed.,

The Life of Erasmus Darwin Together with an Essay on His Scientific Works (New

York: D. Appelton, 188 0); see also Gruber's Essay on a Psychological Study of

Scien tific Crea tivity, in Darwin on Man; R. E. Colp, To Be an Invalid: The Illness

of Charles Darwin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 197 7), chap. 1 ; Desm ond

King-Hale,

Erasmus Darwin

(London: Macmillan, 1963); and Hesketh Pearson,

Doctor Darwin

(London : D ent, 1930). Fo r R ob ert W. Darw in, see Eliza M eteyard,

A Group of Englishmen 1895 to 1915), Being Records of the Younger Wedg-

woods and Their Friends (London: Longm ans, Green, 1871 ); where religious

creeds and political opinions were concerned, Meteyard wrote, the inhabitants

of Shrew sbury were Mike narrow and bigoted to excess (p. 257).

165. M eteyard, A Group ofEnglishmen, p. 265.

2 5 7



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

the aims of the Fre nch Revolu tion. 1~ The elder Josiah Wedgwood

was a close friend of Erasmus Darwin, of James Watt, and of Joseph

Priestley. He was on e of the few people who assisted Priesfley when he

fell victim to the poli tical upheavals in Birmingham in 1791.167 Two

of Wedgewood's sons, Thomas and Josiah (Uncle Jos), were close

friends of Godwin, Wordsworth, and Coleridge at the time they were

considered radical. Coleridge was offered a lifetime a nn un it y by Wedg-

wood 's sons, 168 and t he youn ger Josiah Wedgwood helped Godw in fi-

nanci ally when he fell on hard times in the first decade of the century.

The young er Josiah Wedgwood was on familiar terms with Henry

Brougham, James Mackintosh, and Sidney Smith, and was deeply

involved in the economic and political transfo~aation that took place

during his lifetime. He was a membe r o f Parliament during the turbule nt

years following Napoleon's downfall and participated in the attempt s to

repeal the Corn laws.

Darw in admired his Uncle Jos great ly 169 and visited his home , Maer,

ofte n while a youth. Sir James Mackintosh, Benth am' s close friend, was

Uncle Jos' brother-in- law and was of ten at Maer. In his Autobiography

Darwin described Mackintosh as the best converser I ever listen ed

to, t7o and recalled with ob vious pride that Mackintosh had said of

166. J. C. Wedgwood, A History of the Wedgwood Family (London: St.

Catherine Press, 1909); E. Meteyard, The

Life of Josiah Wedgwood,

2 vols.

(London, 1865-1866). For a brief introduction to this period, see Gruber and

Barrett,

Darwin on Man,

pp. 17-33; for another excellent study, see J. D. Y. Peel,

Herbert Spencer: The Evolution of a Sociologist (New York: Basic Books, 1971),

esp. chap. 2 on Erasmus Darwin.

167. Anthony Burton, Josiah Wedgwood - A Biography (New York: Stein

and Day, 1976), pp. 213-214.

168. See, e.g., W. J. Bate, Coleridge (New York: Macmillan, 1968), pp. 85-88,

126-127. Apparently, Darwin took a special interest in the group of radicals

who were close to the younger Josiah Wedgwood at the beginning of the century

Godwin, Southey, Wordsworth, Coleridge. Darwin was reading Godwin and

Shelley in 1841 and 1842; and his reading notebook for that period records:

1841 - July 23, Godwin's Answer to Malthus (Shelley says is victorious and

decisive). December 4, Godwin on Population. 1842 -September 26, Shelley's

Letters and Essays.

His liking of the poetry of Wordsworth is well known. In

1848 Darwin commented in his reading notebook: Cottle's Recollection of

Coleridge & Southey (very good).

169. Darwin, Autobiography, LLD, pp. 38-39: I was also attached to and

greatly revered my uncle Jos; he has silent and reserved . . . but he sometimes

talked openly with me. He was the very type of an upright man, with the clearest

judgment. I do not believe that any power on earth could have made him swerve

an inch from what he considered the right course.

170. Ibid., p. 38.

258




him, There is something in that young man that interests me, after

Mackintosh had met him at Maer in 1827. This, Darwin added,

must have been chiefly due to his perceiving that I listened with much

interest to everything he said, for I was as ignorant as a pig about his

subjects of history, politics and moral philosophy. '171 Mackintosh's

influence on Darwin was great. In 1839 Darwin carefully studied

Mackintosh's D i s s e r ta t i o n o n t h e P r o g re s s o f E t h i c a l P h i l o s o p h y a n d

while at Maer during the summer of 1840 he r e r e a d Mackintosh's

M e m o i r s . In January 1846 he read Mackintosh's L i f e o f M o r e a n d i n

July of that year he was reading Mackintosh's Misc. Works 3 vol. 172

After his return from the B e a g l e voyage, as an outstanding member

of the British scientific elite and of the English upper class, Darwin was

thoroughly acquainted not only with the developments in all scientific

fields but also with the political and economic issues that were then

being debated in Great Britain. Discussion of the important historical,

literary, and philosophic works of the day were usual at the dinner

parties he attended when he lived in London from 1837 to 1841.

Darwin kept abreast of all intellectual advances by voraciously and

assiduously reading not only the British and Continental scientific

journals, but also influential periodicals such as the E d i nb u r gh R e v i e w

t h e Q u a r te r ly R e v i e w and the A t h e n a e u m . As G. M Young has noted,

these were the organs writ ten by and for the articulate classes, whose

writing and conversations make opinion. 173 Darwin was an enthusiastic

member of the exclusive Athenaeum Club, to which belonged the most

influential members of British society. 17a

171. Ibid.

172. Vorzimmer, The Darwin Reading Notebooks, pp. 125, 134, 136.

James Mackintosh, Disser ta t ion on the Progress o f Ethical Phi losop hy Chie f ly

dur ing the Seven teen th and Eigh teen th Cen tury 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: Black,

1836); R. J. Mackintosh, ed.,

M e m o i r s o f t h e L i f e o f S i r J a m e s M a c k i n t o sh 2

vols. (London: E. Maxon, 1835); R. J. Mackintosh, ed., TheMiscellaneous Works

o f S i r J a m e s M a c k i n t o s h 3 vols. (London: Longman, Brown, 1846). James

Mackintosh's

His tory o f England from Ear lies t Time s to the Year 1588

(Lardner's

Cabinet Encyclopedia 1830) may have been aboard the Beagle. Fitz Roy and

Darwin quote from it in The Moral State of Tahiti, South Afr ican Chr is t ian

Recorder 2

(1836), 221-238. See Barrett, ed.

Colleeted P apers o f C harles D arw in

I, 19-38. See also E. Manier, The You ng Darwin an dH is Cultural Circle (Dordreeht:

D. Reidel, 1978).

173. G. M. Young, Vic tor ian England: Por trai t o f an Age (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1953), p. 6.

174. Francis Gled Stanes Waugh,M e m b e r s o f th e A t h e n a e u m C lu b 1 8 2 4 t o

1 8 8 7 (privately printed).

259



SILVAN S. SCHW EBER

I n h i s p e r s o n a l w r i ti n g s L y e l l d e s c r ib e s t h e a t m o s p h e r e a t t h e A t h e -

n a e u m : T h e A t h e n a e u m w a s v e r y e n t e rt a in i n g l as t n i g h t, s o m a n y

m e m b e r s o f t h e h o n o u r a b l e H o u s e c o m i n g t h e r e, af te r t h e n e w R e f o r m

b i ll w a s m o v e d , a n d g i v i n g t h e i r o p i n i o n s p r o a n d c o n .' 17s O n a n o t h e r

o c c a s io n L y e ll w r o t e , F o u n d t h e t a b le o f A t h e n a e u m th i s e v e n in g

c o v e r e d w i t h n e w b o o k s - i n th i s r e s p e c t a c l u b i s a r ea l e c o n o m y -

W h a t e l y ' s n e w le c t u r e s o n P o li ti a l E c o n o m y . 176 D a r w i n w a s f u l l

o f a d m i r a t io n a t t h e A t h e n a e u m , ''1 7 7 a n d i n 1 8 3 8 , L y e U w r o t e t o

D a r w i n :

I a m v e r y g l ad t o h e a r t h a t y o u l ik e t h e A t h e n a e u m . I u s e t o m a k e

o n e m i s t a k e w h e n f i rs t I w e n t t h e r e . W h e n a n x i o u s t o p u s h o n w i t h

m y b o o k , a f te r a ' t w o h o u r s ' s pie l, I w e n t t h e re b y w a y o f a l o u n g e ,

a n d i n s te a d o f t h a t , w o r k e d m y h e a d v e r y h a r d , b e in g e x a l te d b y

m e e t i n g w i t h c le v er p e o p le , w h o w o u l d o f t e n t a lk t o m e , v e r y m u c h

t o m y p r o f i t o n t h e v e r y s u b j e c t o n w h i c h I w a s w r i ti n g . 178

T h e d e s c ri p ti o n t h a t L y e U g av e o f P o u l e t t S c r o p e , a m e m b e r o f t h e

A t h e n a e u m a n d a p r o f e ss o r o f g e o l o g y a t O x f o r d w h o l a te r b e c a m e

a n e m i n e n t p o l it ic a l e c o n o m i s t w o u l d a p p l y e q u a l l y w e ll t o all t h e

m e m b e r s o f D a r w i n ' s c u l t u r a l c ir c le : S c r o p e . . . h a s a m o s t a c ti v e

i n t e l le c t u a l m i n d - a li ve t o e v e r y t h i n g , p o l i t ic s , p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y ,

H u m e , B e r k e l e y a n d R e i d ' s m e t a p h y s i c s , g e o l o g y , I r v in g , t h e R o w e i t e s ,

a n d p r o g r e s s o f f a n a t i c i s m . 179 T h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n c e r t a i n l y a p p li e s

t o L y e l l , W h e w e U , B a b b a g e , H e n s l o w , S e d g w i c k , J o h n H e r s ch e l , h i s

b r o t h e r E r a s m u s , h i s c o u s i n H e n s le i g h W e d g w o o d , C a r l y le , H a r r i e t

M a r t i n e a u , a n d , l a t e r , H o o k e r .

D a r w in w a s als o a fe ll o w o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y , a n d in a d d i t io n

f r o m 1 8 3 8 t o 1 8 4 1 h e w a s s e c r e t a r y o f th e G e o l o g ic a l S o c i e t y . A t t h e

e x e c u t i v e m e e t i n g s o f t h e G e o l o g i ca l S o c i e t y , h e c a m e i n t o r e gu l ar

c o n t a c t w i t h W h e w e l l , L y e l l , B a b b a g e , d e l a B e c h e , a n d o t h e r s w h o s e

i n t e r e s t a n d i n f l u e n c e e x t e n d e d t o a l l t h e i m p o r t a n t s c i e n t if i c s o c i e ti e s :

t h e R o y a l , t h e S t a ti s ti c a l, t h e A s t r o n o m i c a l . T h e f r u it s o f D a r w i n ' s

z o o l o g i c a l a n d b o t a n i c a l w o r k a b o a r d t h e B e a g l e h a d b r o u g h t h i m i n t o

175.

L i f e o f L y e l l ,

I, 356.

176. Ibid., p. 322.

177. Ibid., p. 264.

178. Ibid., p. 44.

179. Ibid., p. 356. In this conn ection see also M. Rudw ick, Po ulett Scrope

on the Volcanoes of Auvergne: Lyell ian Time and Poli t ical Economy, Brit. J.

Hist. Sci., 7 (1974), 205-242.

2 6 0




c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l e a d i n g B r i ti sh z o o l o g i s t s a n d b o t a n i s t s , a s w e l l as w i t h

t h e s c i e n ti f ic i n s t i t u t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e d i sc i p li n e s.

D u r i n g t h e 1 8 4 0 s , a l t h o u g h o f t e n i n c a p a c i t a t e d , D a r w i n fr e q u e n t l y

a t t e n d e d s c i e n t i f i c m e e t i n g s i n L o n d o n , a n d s t a y e d e i t h e r w i t h h i s

b r o t h e r E r a s m u s o r a t t h e A t h e n a e u m . H e al so w e n t t o s ev e ra l o f t h e

B A A S m e e t i n g s a n d w a s a v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e B A A S i n 1 8 49 .1 8 ° A t

t h e s e m e e t i n g s h e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s c i e n t i f i c a r i s t o c r a c y : H e r s c h e l ,

L y e l l , W h e w e l l , S y k e s , B a b b a g e , F i t t o n , S a b i n e , S t r ic k l a n d , P o r t e r -

m e n w h o w e r e i n f l u e n t ia l i n m a k i n g s c ie n ti fi c p o l i c y , a n d c e r t a in l y

i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e p o l i t ic a l a n d e c o n o m i c i ss u e s o f t h e d a y . 181

I t is n o a c c i d e n t t h a t w h e n S e d g w i c k , t h e d e a n o f B r i ti sh g e o l o g is ts ,

w a s u n a b l e t o a c c e p t t h e j o b o f w r i ti n g t h e g e o l o g ic a l s e c t i o n o f t h e

A d m i r a l t y ' s M a n u a l o f S c ie n tT f ic I n q u i r y , 182 J ohn H e r s c he l , i t s e d i t o r ,

t u r n e d , a t S e d g w i c k ' s s u g g e s t io n , t o D a r w i n f o r t h e t a s k . 183 T h e m a n u a l

is a f a s c i n a ti n g d o c u m e n t , a n d o n e o f i ts m o s t s t r i k in g f e a t u r e s is t h e

l i s t o f i t s c o n t r i b u t o r s : H e r s c h e l , A i r y , S a b i n e , W h e w e l l , D a r w i n , O w e n ,

H o o k e r , P r i c h a r d , P o r t e r , d e l a B e c h e - t h e m o s t ac t iv e , r e s p e c t e d , a n d

i n f l u e n t i a l E n g l i s h sc i e n t is t s o f t h e d a y .

D a r w i n ' s l i b e r a l - W h i g v i e w s a r e w e l l k n o w n . I n d e e d , h i s d i f f e r e n c e s

w i t h C a p t a i n F i t z R o y ' s T o r y v i e w s o f s la v e ry n e a r l y c o s t h i m h i s p l a c e

o n t h e B e a g l e . D a r w i n ' s v ie w s o n s l av e r y w e r e c o n s t a n t ) a4 A f t e r h e h a d

r e a d L y e l l ' s T r a ve l i n N o r t h A m e r i c a i n 1 8 4 5 , D a r w i n w r o t e L y e l l ,

Y o u r s la ve d i s c us s io n d i s tu r b e d m e m u c h ; b u t a s y o u w o u l d c a re n o

m o r e f o r m y o p i n i o n o n t h is h e a d I w i ll s a y n o t h i n g e x c e p t t h a t i t g av e

m e s o m e s le e pl es s, m o s t u n c o m f o r t a b l e h o u r s . 1as I n 1 8 4 5 , w h e n t h e

180. See Gavin de Bee r, ed., Darw in's

Journal, Bull. Brit. M us. (Nat. H ist.) ,

Hist . Set . , 2, no. 1 (1959), for a record of Darwin's at tendance at the various

BA AS m eetings.

181. See, e.g. , the let ter Darwin wro te fro m the 1849 Birmingham meeting

of the BAAS, L L D , I , 346-347.

182. John Herschel,

A Manual o f ScientTfic Inqu iry

(London: Jo hn Murray ,

1849).

183. J. W. Clark and T. M. Hughes,

L i f e a n d L e t t e r s o f t h e R e v e r e n d A d a m

S e d g w i c k

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1890), vol. I.

184. R. E. Colp, Charles D arwin: Slavery and the Am erican Civil W ar,

Harvard Lib. B ull. , 2 6,

no. 4 (1978), 471-489.

185.

L L D ,

I, 309-31 0. See also Darwin's imp assioned statement in the 2nd

edi t ion o f his Journal o f Researches, II , 302-304. Darwin's view o f the A merican

Civil W ar is recorded in Dupree,

Asa Gray .

By the end o f the conflict, Darwin was

the only Brit ish scientist to whom Gray could write about his antislavery views.

See also Colp, Charles Darw in: Slavery and the American Civil W ar, pp. 47 1-

489.

2 6 1



SILVANS. SCHWEBER

potato disease was coupled with a dismal corn harvest, Darwin followed

Henslow's suggestion that gentlefolk not buy potatoes. In the letter to

Henslow in which he approved of the latter's stand on this issue, Darwin

also noted that those infamous corn laws [would] be swept away if

one of u s . . . had to pay an additional 50 or 100£ for our bread. 186

Given Darwin's standing in the scientific community and his social

class, it is almost certain that he was familiar with the writings of

the major political economists of the day. Here I will consider at

length only Darwin's acquaintance with Benthamite-like statements of

Utilitarianism and his familiarity with the principle of division o f labor,

discussing much more briefly individualism, competition, and related

matters. I will furthermore limit myself to those sources for which

conclusive proof exists that Darwin read them, even though I believe

that sound, but more sweeping, inferences can be drawn from Darwin's

social standing and scientific status.

Mackintosh and Darwin's Uncle Jos had probably influenced Darwin

to be favorably disposed toward Utilitarianism as a philosophical

system and toward its deductive mode o f reasoning in addressing moral

and political issues. His father was Utilitarian in outlook and in practice.

These tendencies were certainly reinforced while Darwin an under-

graduate at Cambridge. For example, a knowledge of Paley's E v i d e n c e s

a n d M o r a l a n d P o l it ic a l E c o n o m y was required for passing the B.A.

examination, is7 Darwin said that his study of Paley was done in a

thorough manner and that the logic of these books and

o f h i s N a t u ra l

T h e o l o g y gave him as much delight as did Euclid. He added

The careful study of these works . . . was the only part o f the

academical course which, as I then felt, and as I still believe, was the

least use to me in the education of my mind. I did not at that time

trouble myself about Paley's premises; and taking these on trust,

I was charmed and convinced by the long line of argumentation, lss

186. Barlow, ed., Darwin andHens low , pp. 156-157.

187. Not until the early 1830s did Paley and his Utilitarianism fall into

disrepute among the clerics at Cambridge. See, e.g., the sharp attack on Paley in

Adam Sedgwick,

A Discourse on the S tudies o f the Universi ty

(Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1833). J. S. Mill's rebuttal is reprinted is Dissertations

and Discussions

(Boston: W. V. Spencer, 1864), pp. 121-185.

188. Darwin , Au tob iography , LLD, pp. 40-41. In 1859, writing to John

Lubbock, Darwin noted: I do not think I hardly ever admired a book more than

Paley's

Natural Theology.

I could almost formally have said it by heart

L L D ,

II,

219).

262



Darw in and the Po l i ti ca l Eco nom is t s

In C h a p t e r X I o f h is

M o r a l a n d P o l it ic a l E c o n o m y

Paley is succ inc t and

t o t h e p o i n t :

The f ina l v i ew o f a ll ra t iona l po l it i c s i s , t o p rom ote the g rea t es t

q u a n t i t y o f h a p pi ne s s i n a g iv en t r a c t o f c o u n t r y . . .

S e c o n d l y : A l t h o u g h w e sp e a k o f c o m m u n i t ie s a s o f s e n t i e n t

be ings ; a l thou gh w e asc ribe to the m happ iness and mise ry , desi res ,

in t e res t s and pass ions ; no th ing rea l ly ex i s t s o r fee l s bu t

i n d i v i d u a l s

[Pa ley 's i ta l i c s ] . T he happ iness o f a peo p le is m ade up o f t he happ i-

n e s s o f s in gle p e r so n s ; a n d t h e q u a n t i t y o f h a p p in e s s c a n o n l y b e

a u ~n e n t e d b y i n cre as in g t h e n u m b e r o f p e rc i p ie n t s, o r t h e p l ea su re

o f the i r pe rcep t ions .

Th i rd l y : N o t w i t h s ta n d i n g t h a t d i v er s it y o f c o n d i t io n , esp e c ia ll y

d i f f e r e n t d e g re e s o f p l e n t y , f r e e d o m , a n d s e c u r i ty , g r e a t ly v a ry th e

q u a n t i t y o f h a p p i n e ss e n j o y e d b y t h e s am e n u m b e r o f i n di v id u a ls

• . . y e t i t m a y b e a f fh a n e d , I th i n k , w i t h c e r ta i n t y t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y

o f happ iness p ro duc ed in any g iven d is t r ic t s o f a r d e p e n d s u p o n

t h e n u m b e r o f i n h a b i t a n ts t h a t , i n c o m p a r i n g a d j o in i n g p e r io d s i n

the same coun t ry , t he co l l ec t ive happ iness wi l l be nea r ly in exac t

p r o po r ti on o f th e n u m b e r s . . .

F ro m t h e se p r in c ip l es i t f o l lo w s , t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y o f h a p p i n es s

i n a g iv en d i s t r i c t . . , is c h ie f ly a n d m o s t n a tu r a l ly a f f e ct e d b y t h e

a l t e ra t i o n o f t h e n u m b e r s : t h a t , c o n se q u e n t l y t h e d e c a y o f p o p u la -

t ion is t he g rea t es t evil t ha t a s t a t e can su f fe r ; and the imp rovem ent

o f i t . . . t o b e a i m e d a t in p re f e r e n c e t o e v e ry o t h e r p o l it ic a l p u rp o se

w ha tso ev er. 189

S i nc e m a x i m u m h a p p i n e s s in a g iv en c o u n t ry fo l lo w s f ro m m a x i m u m

p o p u l a t i o n p e r u n i t a r e a, a n d sin ce i n t h e f e c u n d i t y o f t h e h u m a n , a s

o f eve ry o the r species o f an imal , na tu re has p rov ided fo r an indef 'mi t e

m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . . , i n c o u n t ri e s , a n d u n d e r c i rc u m s t a n c e s v e ry fa v o u rab l e

to subs i s tence , t he po pu la t ion has been doub led every twen ty - f ive

yea rs , ~9o Pa ley inqu i res in to the checks p reven t ing m ax im um popu la -

t ion and p roceeds to g ive the M al thus ian ana lys is . F r om h i s p remises

regard ing happ iness a nd p opu la t ion , Pa ley p roceeds to deduce h i s

p o s i ti o n s o n t h e p ro d u c t i o n a n d d i s t ri b u t io n o f w e a l t h , e m p l o y m e n t ,

t rade - t he a reas o f conc ern to po l it i ca l eco no m y. Those po li c ies w h ich

189. The

Works o f Wil liam Paley Moral and Poli tical Phi loso phy

pp. 149-

150.

190. Ibid ., p. 150.

263



SILVA N S. SCHWEBER

i n c re a s e p o p u l a t i o n a r e v i e w e d f a v o r a b l y , a n d c o n v e r s e l y ; f o r e x a m p l e ,

c o l o n i z a ti o n t e n d s t o a u g m e n t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e p a r e n t s t a te a n d is

t h u s t o b e e n c o u r a g e d , p a r ti c u la r l y w h e r e t h e p a r e n t c o u n t r y w o r k s

up goo ds wh i l e t he co lon i es cu l t iva t e ne w t r ac t s o f l ands . ~91 In al l,

P a l e y ' s M o r a l a n d P o l i ti c a l P h i l o s o p h y i s a p a r a d i g m f o r t h e d e d u c t i v e

U t i li ta r i a n a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f m o r a l s , t h e o l o g y , a n d la w .

H a p p i n e s s i s d e f' m e d a s t h e e x c e s s o f a s u m o f p l e a s u r e s o v e r a s u m o f

pains .

T h e p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e c o u l d n o t b e t a k e n b y D a r w i n a s a f u n d a -

m e n t a l

b i o l o g i c a l

p r i n c ip l e t o e x p l a i n t h e m o r a l o r d e r , b e c a u s e t h o u g h

i t i s pos s ib ly a neces sa ry cond i t i on , i t i s no t a su f f i c i en t one . Bu t s i nce

t h e q u a n t i t y o f h u m a n h a p p i n e s s is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e s iz e o f th e

p o p u l a t i o n , ~ e p r in c ip l e o f m a x i m u m p o p u l a t i o n p e r s q ua r e a r e a

c o u l d b e t a k e n ( a n d i n f a c t w o u l d d o m u c h b e t t e r ) as t h e f u n d a m e n t a l

p r i nc ip l e under ly ing a b io log i ca l bas i s fo r t he o rde r found i n t he l i v ing

w o r l d , in c l u d in g t h e s o c ia l a n d m o r a l o r d e r .

D a r w i n ' s e x t e n s iv e r e ad i n g d u r in g t h e 1 8 3 8 - 1 8 4 0 p e r i o d b r o u g h t h i m

in co n t a c t w i th Ut i l i t a r ian t r ac t s o n m ora l and po l i t i ca l ph i l o so phy . 192

I t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d th a t a t t h a t t i m e m o r a l a n d p ol it ic a l e c o n o m y

w e r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e s u b je c t . A l t h o u g h h i s c o n c e r n d u r i n g th a t p e r i o d

w a s p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e

e v o l u t i o n

of t he m ora l sense , t hese r ead ings d id

a c q u a in t h im m o r e i n t im a t e l y w i t h t h e B e n t h a m i te a t t e m p t s t o

f o u n d a s o c ia l sc i en c e o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e e x a c t s c ie n c e s, t h e s c ie n c e

o f m e a s u r e m e n t , g e o m e t r y a n d m e c h a n i c s ; b u t . . . t h e eg o is ti ca l

p l e a s u re s a n d p a i n s w h i c h c o n c e r n t h e w e l l b e i n g o f o u r i n d i v id u a l i ty ,

a r e t h e o n l y o n e s w h i c h a d m i t o f o b j e c t i v e e q u i v a le n t s , a r e t h e o n l y

o n e s w h i c h c a n b e m e a s u r e d . M o r e o ve r , t h e B e n t h a m i t e s , m o r e o r

l e s s c o n s c i o u s l y , c o n c e i v e d o f e v e r y s c i e n c e a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n b y

r e d u c t i o n , b y d e c o m p o s i t i o n i n t o s i m p l e e l e m e n t s . W h e r e t h e n ,

e x c e p t i n i n di v id u a ls , w h o a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e e g o i s t ic m o t i v e ,

w e r e t h e j u r is t a n d e c o n o m i s t t o f r e d t h e s i m p l e e l e m e n t s w h i c h

we re ne ces sa ry fo r t he o rgan i za t i on o f t he i r knowledge.~93

P a l ey i n h i s M o r a l a n d P o l it ic a l P h i l o s o p h y h a d r e f l e c t e d A d a m

S m i t h 's v i e w o f t h e b e s t u s e t o b e m a d e o f t h e n a t u r a l w e a l th a n d o f

191. Ibid., p. 156.

192. See for exam ples the N an d the M notebooks, transcribed in Gruber and

Barrett, Darwin on Man. See also E. Manier, The You ng Darwin a nd His Cul tural

Orc le (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1978).

193. Hal~vy , The Growth o f Philosophical Radicalism p. 467.

2 6 4




t h e m e a n s n e c e s sa r y t o p r o d u c e t h e m a x i m u m o f h a p p i n e ss , i n s o

f a r a s t hi s m o r e g e n er al e n d is p r o m o t e d b y t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e

m a x i m u m o f w e a lt h a n d t h e m a x i m u m o f p o p ula tio n . 1 9 4 W e c a n

l e g i t i m a t e l y i n f e r t h a t D a r w i n r e a d S m i t h ' s W e a lt h o f N a t i o n s a t s o m e

s ta g e o f h i s s tu d i e s a t E d i n b u r g h , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o r e c o r d o f i t. T h a t

h e s t u d ie d D u g a l d S t e w a r t ' s L i f e o f A d a m S m i t h is n o t e d i n t h e

M a n d N n o t e b o o k s . T h e s e n o t e b o o k s a ls o r e c o r d D a r w i n ' s r e ad i n g

o f S m i t h ' s

E s s a y s o n P h i l o s o p h i c a l S u b j e c t s a n d h i s T h e o r y o f M o r a l

S e n t i m e n t s . 19s D a r w i n ' s R e a d i n g N o t e b o o k s i n d i c a t e t h a t o n J a n u a r y

1 5 , 1 8 4 2 , h e o n c e a g ai n s k i m m e d p a r t s o f S m i t h 's

M o r a l S e n t i m e n t s .

T h e r e i s h o w e v e r , o n e p i e c e o f c ir c u m s t a n t i a l e v id e n c e . O n l y A d a m

S m i t h s p e a k s o f d i v e rg e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r . I n T h e W e a lt h o f N a t i o n s h e

s a y s t h a t t h e d i f f er e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m o s t d i ss im i la r c h a r a c t e r s,

b e t w e e n a p h i l o s o p h e r a n d a c o m m o n s tr e e t p o r t e r f o r e x a m p l e , is n o t

s o m u c h t h e c a u s e a s t h e e f f e c t o f t h e d i v is io n o f la b o u r . 196 S m i t h ,

t o g e t h e r w i t h H u m e - w h o m D a r w in h a d re a d i n 1 8 3 9 - c o n s i d e re d

e a c h h u m a n b e i n g a s b e in g a t b i rt h a l m o s t e x a c t l y th e s a m e in c a p a c i t y

a s e v e r y o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g : i t is d i v is io n o f l a b o r t h a t a lt e rs c h a r a c t e r ,

n o t c h a r a c t e r t h a t d e t e r m i n e s a m a n ' s s e l e ct io n o f h i s p a r t i c u la r t a sk

i n t he d i v i s i on .

T h e r e a re t w o s o u rc e s f r o m w h i c h D a r w i n h a d d e f in i te l y b e c o m e

f a m i li a r w i t h S m i t h ' s d o c t r i n e o f t h e d i v is io n o f l a b o r , M c C u l i o c h ' s

P o l i ti ca l E c o n o m y a n d t h e w r i t in g s o f h i s w i f e ' s U n c l e S i s m o n d i - J e a n

C h a r le s L e o n a r d S i m o n S i s m o n d i , t h e e m i n e n t S w i ss p o l i ti c a l e c o n -

o m i s t. D a r w i n ' s re a d in g n o t e b o o k s i n d i c a te t h a t h e r e a d M c C u l lo c h ' s

P r in c ip l es o f P o l it ic a l E c o n o m y i n M a y 1 8 4 0 . 1 9 7

D a r w i n m u s t h a v e f o u n d M c C u l l o c h 's b o o k c o n g e n ia l , f o r i t t r e a te d

t h e s u b j e c t f r o m a h i st o r ic a l a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y p o i n t o f vi ew . P o li ti c al

e c o n o m y , M c C u l l o c h s ai d, r e a ll y a d m i t s o f as m u c h c e r t a i n ty i n i ts

194. The Works o f Wil liam Paley pp. 149 f.

195. Fo r Stewart 's Life o f Ad am Sm ith, see Stewart's edi t ion of Sm ith 's

Essays on Philosophic Subjects (Lo ndo n: T. CadeU and W. Davis , 1795); Sm ith 's

Theory o f Moral Sen t imen t s

was published in 1759 (Edinburgh, A. Millar).

196. Adam Smith, The Weal th o f Na t ions (New York: Modern Library,

1937), chap. 2.

197. J. R. McCulloch, The

Pr inc ip le s o f Po li ti ca l Eco nom y w i th a Ske tch o f

the R i s e and Progres s o f the Sc ience 2nd edi t ion (London: Longman's , 1830) .

The reading notebook indicates that Darwin also read Mandevil le 's

F a b l e o f t h e

Bees in May 18 40 and abstracted i t. F or a recen t assessment of McC ulloch,

see D. P. O'Brien, J . R. McCul loch: A S tu dy in Class ical Eco nom ics ( L ondon :

George Allen & Unw in, 1970). See also Louis D um on t, From M andevi lle to M arx

(Chicago: University o f Chicago Press, 197 7 ).

2 6 5



SILVA N S. SCHWEBER

c o n c l u s i o n a s a n y s c i e n c e f o u n d e d

o n f a c t a n d e x p e r i m e n t

c a n p o s s i b ly

do . 198 Bu t he s t r e s sed t ha t t he re i s how ev er a m a t e r i a l d i s t i nc t i on

b e t w e e n t h e p h y s i c a l a n d m o r a l a n d p o l i ti c a l s c ie n c e s. T h e c o n c l u s i o n s

o f t h e f o r m e r a p p l y i n e v e r y c a s e , w h i le t h o s e o f t h e l a t t e r a p p l y o n l y

in the ma jor i t y o f c a s e s . 199 I n o t h e r w o r d s , p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y h a s

o n l y s ta t is t ic a l c e r t a i n t y , b e c a u s e t h e p r i n c ip l e s o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y

e x e r t a p o w e r f u l , b u t n o t a l w a y s t h e same , d e g r e e o f i n f l u e n c e , o v e r

t h e c o n d u c t o f e v e r y i n d i v id u a l . M c C u l lo c h d e f in e s t h e o b j e c t o f

p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y in w h a t w a s b y t h e n t h e c a n o n i c a l f a s h io n :

t o p o i n t o u t t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h th e i n d u s tr y o f m a n m a y b e

r e n d e r e d m o s t p r o d u c t iv e . . . o f w e a l t h ; t o a s ce r ta i n t h e c i rc u m -

s t a n c e s m o s t f a v o u r a b l e f o r i t s a c c u m u l a t i o n ; t h e p r o p o r t i o n s i n

w h i c h i t i s d i v id e d a m o n g t h e d i f f e r e n t c l as se s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ;

a n d t h e m o d e i n w h i c h i t m a y b e m o s t a d v a n t a g e o u sl y c o n s u m e d .

T h e B e n t h a m i t e o p t i m a l p r i n c i p le f o r m u l a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c d o c t ri n e

i s c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f t h e b o o k : a c a p i ta l i st e m p l o y s h is s t o c k s o a s t o

y i e l d t h e

h ighes t

r a t e o f p ro f i t ; a w ork er spec i a li zes h i s sk il ls t o m ax i -

m i z e t h e e f f i c a c y o f h i s p o w e r s a n d t h u s h i s p r o f i t s , a n d s o o n .

M c C u U o c h ' s P r in c ip le o f P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y c o n t a i n e d a lo n g e x p o s i -

t io n o f t h e d i vi si o n o f e m p l o y m e n t a m o n g i n di v id u a ls . M c C u l lo c h

i n t r o d u c e d t h e p r i n c i p l e f i r s t f r o m a h i s t o r i c a l a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y p o i n t

o f v i ew , a n d t h e n f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i ew o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f th e f re e

m a r k e t . E a c h i n d iv i d u a l se r ve s h i s o w n i n t e r e s t b e s t b y d e v o t i n g h i m s e l f

t o a n o c c u p a t i o n th a t m a x i m i z e s t h e e ff i c a c y o f h is p o w e r s , a n d th u s

h i s g a in s . A d a m S m i t h ' s c l as si c th e s is w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f

t he d iv is i on o f l abo r - (1 ) t h a t i t inc reases t he sk i ll and d ex t e r i t y o f t he

w o r k m e n ; ( 2 ) t h a t i t s a v e s t i m e ; a n d (3 ) t h a t i t fa c i li ta t e s t h e i n v e n t i o n

o f m a c h i n e s a n d p r o c e s se s f o r a b r id g i n g a n d sa v in g l a b o r - i s e x p o u n d e d

a t l e n g t h . M c C u l l o c h t h e n p r o c e e d s , a g a i n f o l l o w i n g A d a m S m i t h , t o

o b s e r v e t h a t t h e a d v a n t a g e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e d iv i si on o f l a b o r c a n

o n l y b e c a r r i e d t o t h e f t f u l l e x t e n t w h e r e t h e r e i s a g r e a t p o w e r o f

e x c h a n g i n g , o f a n e x t e n s i v e m a r k e t ; a n d i n f a c t t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s a r e

d e p e n d e n t u p o n a n d re g u la te d b y , t h e e x t e n t o f th e m a r k e t .

Of pa r t i cu l a r i n t e res t i s McCul loch ' s d i s cus s ion o f t he t e r r i t o r i a l

d iv is i on o f l abo r :

Bes ides enab l i ng each i nd iv idua l i n a l im i t ed soc i e ty t o con f ine

198. McCulloch,Principles o f Political Econ omy , p. 15.

199. Ibid., p. 16.

2 6 6




h i m s e l f t o s o m e o n e e m p l o y m e n t , t h er e is a n o t h e r a n d m o s t im -

p o r t a n t b r a n c h o f t h e d i vi si on o f l a b o u r , w h i c h n o t o n l y e n a b le s

p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v id u a l s , b u t t h e i n h a b i t a n t o f e n t i r e d i s t ri c t s , a n d e v e n

n a t i o n s , t o a d d i c t t h e m s e lv e s , i n p r e f e r e n c e , t o c e r t a in b r a n c h e s o f

i n d u s t r y . I t i s o n t h i s territorial division of labour, a s i t h a s b e e n

a p p r o p r i a t e l y t e r m e d b y C o l o n e l T o r re n s , th a t t h e c o m m e r c e c a r ri e d

o n b e t w e e n d i f fe r e n t d i s tr ic ts o f th e s a m e c o u n t r y a n d b e tw e e n

d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , i s f o u n d e d . T h e v a r i o u s s o i l s , c l i m a t e s a n d

c a p a c i ti e s o f p r o d u c t i o n , p o s s e s se d b y d i f f e r e n t p r o v i n c e s o f a n

e x t e n s iv e c o u n t r y , f it t h e m f o r b e in g a p p r o p r i a t e d , i n p r e f e r e n c e to

c e r t a in s p ec ie s o f i n d u s t r y . ' ' 2 ° °

M c C u l l o c h , a f t e r d i s c u ss i n g t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s t e r r i t o r ia l d i v i s io n o f

l a b o r , a n d t h e c o m m e r c e t h a t c a n r e s u lt t h e r e f r o m , s t re s s ed t h e i m p o r -

t a n c e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a s e p a r te m e r c a n t i le c la ss t h a t i s r e s p o n s ib l e

f o r t h e p r o m o t i o n o f c o m m e r c e . ( I t is t h e y in f a ct w h o giv e a n u n -

i n te r r u p te d m o t i o n t o t h e p l o u g h a n d th e l o o m . ) F u r th e r m o r e , a n y

e a sy m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n d i f fe r e n t p a r ts o f a c o u n t r y

c o n t r i b u t e s p o w e r f u l l y t o f a c i li ta t e c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d is

i n t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e b e n e f i c i a l. F o r a d ec r e a se i n t h e e x p e n s e o f

c o n v e y a n c e h a s t h e s a m e e f f e c t o n p r i c e s a s a d e c r e a s e i n t h e e x p e n s e

o f p r o d u c t i o n . I n f a c t , it h a s a g re a t e f f e c t , b e c a u s e i n c re a s in g c o m m u -

n i c a t i o n w i ll s er ve m a n y d i f f e r e n t e n te r p r is e s a n d h e l p c e m e n t t h e

c o u n t r y t o g e t h e r b y e x c i ti n g a s p ir it o f e m u l a t io n a n d c o m p e t i t i o n

a m o n g s t t h e c i ti z e n s o f t h e r e m o t e s t d i st r ic t s a n d t h u s w i ll i m p a r t

n e w l i fe a n d v i g o u r t o s o c i e t y .

D a r w i n w a s d e a r l y c o n v i n c e d o f th i s a rg u m e n t , f o r h e i n v e st e d

h e a v i l y ( a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y ) i n r a i l r o a d s a n d c a n a l s .

T

T h e r e i s o n e

200. Ibid. , p. 137.

201. A. Keith, Darwin Revalued (L on do n: W atts, 1955), particularly chap. 18.

O f course oth er Englishmen did l ikewise with ou t having read McC ulloch. The point

is that McC ulloch reflected a viewpoint th at the elder and the y oun ger W edgwood

had acted upon earl ier in the century. See, e.g. , the Correspondence o f Josiah

Wedgwood, 1781-1794 with an appendix containing some letters on canals and

Bentley s pamphlet on island navigation, (Manchester: E. J. Molten, 1906). See

also G. R. Porter, The Progress o f the Nation, in Its Various Social and Economical

Relations

(Lo nd on : Charles Knight, 1838), sections III and V I in particular, fr om

which th e following is taken : The re is no t an y circumstance con nected with the

internal con dit ion o f England which more strongly excites the admiration and the

envy of fore igners than the degree of perfect ion to which we have brought our

means o f internal comm unication. Th e skill and labour that have bee n applied to

this object are amo ng the chief cause s of that high degree of activity which

characterizes an d pervades the productive classes in every part o f the co un try .

2 6 7



SILVA N S. SCHWEBER

f u r t h e r p o i n t t o b e s t re s s e d w i t h re s p e c t t o M c C u U o c h 's b o o k . T h e

w o r k w a s i m b u e d w i t h t h e s p i ri t o f in d i v id u a l is m 2 °2 t h a t w a s c h a r a c-

t e r i s t i c o f B r i t i s h p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i c t h o u g h t f r o m A d a m S m i t h u p t o

the 1830s :

e v e r y i n d iv i d u a l is c o n s t a n t l y e x e r t i n g h i m s e l f to f i n d o u t t h e m o s t

a d v a n t a g e o u s m e t h o d s o f e m p l o y i n g h i s c a p i t a l a n d l a b o r . I t is t r u e ,

t h a t i t i s h i s o w n a d v a n t a g e , a n d n o t t h a t o f t h e s o c i e t y , w h i c h h e

h a s i n v i e w ; b u t a s o c i e t y b e i n g n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a c o l l e c t i o n

o f i nd iv idua l s , i t i s p l a in t h a t each , i n s tead i l y pu rsu ing h i s ow n

a g g r a n d i s e m e n t , i s f o l l o w i n g t h a t p r e c i s e l i n e o f c o n d u c t w h i c h i s

m o s t f o r t h e p u b l i c a d v a n t a g e . 2 °3

I t i s t h i s i nex t i ngu i shab l e pas s ion fo r ga in wh ich l ed cap i t a l is t s t o

e m p l o y th e i r c a p i ta l i n th o s e i n d u s t r ie s t h a t w o u l d y i e l d , a l l t h in g s

c o n s i d e r e d , t h e h i g h e s t r a t e o f p r o f i t , a n d t h o s e [ i n d u s tr ie s ] w h i c h

y i e l d t h is h i g h e s t r a t e a r e t h o s e i n w h i c h i t is m o s t f o r t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t

t h a t t h e c a p i t a l sh o u l d b e i n v e s t e d . T h e b o o k e n d s w i t h t h e fo l lo w i n g

r e c a p i t u l a t i o n ' q ' h e t r u e l in e o f p o l i c y i s to l e a v e i n d iv i d ua l s t o p u r s u e

t h e i r o w n i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r o w n w a y , a n d n e v e r t o lo s e s ig h t o f t h e

maxim pas trop gouverner. I t i s b y t h e s p o n t a n e o u s a n d u n c o n s t ra i n e d

• . . e f f o rt s o f in d iv id u als t o i m p r o v e t h e ir c o n d i t i o n s . . , a n d b y t h e m

o n l y , t h a t n a t i o n s b e c o m e ri c h a n d p o w e r f u l . 2o 4

T h e o t h e r m e a n s b y w h i c h D a r w i n a l m o s t c e r t a in l y h a d b e c o m e

f a m i l ia r w i t h A d a m S m i t h ' s d o c t r i n e o f t h e d i vi si o n o f l a b o r is h i s

r e a d i n g o f S i s m o n d i . D a r w i n ' s w i f e ' s f a v o r i t e a u n t w a s J e s s i e A l l e n

W e d g w o o d . I n 1 8 1 6 , S i s m o n d i h a d p r o p o s e d t o J es s ie , b u t s h e r e f u s e d .

S i s m o n d i p e r s e v e r e d a n d t h e y w e r e m a r r i e d i n A p r i l 1 8 1 9 . I n 1 8 2 6 - 2 7 ,

E m m a , w i t h h e r s is te r F a n n y , s p e n t e ig h t m o n t h s i n G e n e v a w i t h t h e

S i sm o n d i s. S i sm o n d i b e c a m e v e ry f o n d o f E m m a a n d t h e S i s m o n d is

spen t s evera l we eks du r ing 1841 a t t he Darw in res idence i n G ow er

S t r e e t in L o n d o n , a l th o u g h D a r w i n h i m s e l f w a s n o t t h e re .

A f t e r S i s m o n d i ' s d e a t h i n 1 8 4 2 , t h e Quarterly Review in 1843

car r i ed a l eng thy a r t i c l e by P a lg rave on t he

Life and Works o f Sisrnondi

w h i c h D a r w i n u n d o u b t e d l y r e a d . T h i s a r t i c l e i n c l u d e d a n e x t e n s i v e

d i s c u s s i o n o f S i s m o n d i ' s w o r k s o n p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r

h i s d i f f e rences w i th A da m S m i th and t he Br i t ish schoo l o f c l as s ica l

202 . Hal6vy, The Rise of Philosophical Radicalism.

203• McCuUoch,

Principles of Political Economy

p. 149.

204• Ibid., pp. 536-537.

2 6 8




e c o n o m i c s . T h e o p p o s i n g v i e w s o f S i s m o n d i a n d A d a m S m i t h o v e r

d iv is i on o f l ab o r a re spe l l ed ou t :

D i v is io n o f l a b o u r , a c c o r d i n g t o A d a m S m i t h , is t h e g r e a t s o u r c e o f

n a t i o n a l , o f g e n e r a l p l e n t y , d if f u s in g i t s e lf

t h r o u g h a ll t h e

d i f f e r e n t

r a n k s o f s o c i e t y . S i s m o n d i s a y s , N o - D i v i si o n o f l a b o u r is a

s o u r c e o f n a t io n a l p o v e r t y : i f y o u m a k e m a n a m a c h i n e , a m a c h i n e

w i ll r e p l a c e h i m . H e w h o i s e m p l o y e d a ll d a y i n m a k i n g p i n s ' h e a d s ,

w i ll n o t h a v e a h e a d w i t h a p i n a t t h e c l o s e o f h i s c a r e e r. B y t h is

d i vi si o n m a n l o s es m e n t a l a n d b o d i l y v i g o u r, h e a l t h , c h e e r f u l n e s s, a ll

t h a t r e n d e rs l i fe d e s i r a b l e . . .

U n l i m i t e d c o m p e t i t i o n , a c c o r d in g t o t h e p o p u l a r t h e o r y , i s t h e

g rea t sou rce o f ~aa tiona l f i ches . S i sm ond i s ays N o - U n l im i t ed

c o m p e t i t i o n r e n d e r s t h e w h o l e s y s t e m o f c o m m e r c e a v a s t g a m e

o f b e g g a r - m y - n e i g h b o r . . .

P e r m i t e a c h p e r s o n - q u o t h t h e p o li ti c a l e c o n o m i s t c a ll h i m

A d a m S m i t h , c a ll h i m M c C u l lo c h , c a ll h i m C h a l m e r s , it i s a ll th e

s a m e - t o s e e k h i s o w n i n t e r e s t i n t h e w a y w h i c h s u it s h i m b e s t ,

a n d y o u m u s t b e , si nc e s o c i e t y c o n s i s ts o n l y o f in d i v id u a l s, p r o m o t i n g

t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t o f s o c i e t y . S i s m o n d i c o n t r a d i c t s t h i s d o c t r i n e

b y t h e r e m a r k , th a t a t h i e f s ee k s h is o w n i n te r e st w h e n h e r o b s . . .

M e r c h a n t s o v e r r e a c h , m a s t e r s ty r a n n i z e - t h e p o s it iv e i n t e r v e n t i o n

o f t h e l a w i s n e e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p r e v e n t i n g i n j u s t i c e . T h i s w a s

[ S i s m o n d i ' s ] d o c t r i n e i n t h e N o u v e a u x P r i n ci p e s. 2 0s

I n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 4 7 D a r w i n r e a d S i s m o n d i 's P o li ti ca l E c o n o m y a

c o l l e c t i o n o f S i s m o n d i ' s e s s a y s t h a t h a d b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h .

T h e n o t e s b y M A g ne t t h a t r e v ie w S i s m o n d i ' s w o r k s t r es s S i s m o n d i ' s

d i f f e re n c e s w i t h B r it is h p o l it i c a l e c o n o m y :

W a s it n o t S i s m o n d i w h o w a s f i r s t i n d i g n a n t a t t h e l a i s sez fa i re

l a i s s e z pas s e r o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y ? . . . I t w a s S i sm o n d i w h o w a s

i n d ig n a n t a t t h e s y s t e m b y w h i c h s o m e l a b o r , t h a t o t h e r s m a y e n j o y

• . . h e , w h o c r i e d t h a t t h e a d v a n t a g e o f a ll o u g h t t o l i m i t t h e f ig h t s

o f a l l; t h a t p r o p e r t y i s t h e r i g h t to u s e , n o t t o a b u s e . . . T h e r e i s

s p o l i a ti o n , w h e n [ t h e ] r i ch m a n d r a w s f r o m a fe r t il e a n d e a s il y

205. Francis Palgrave, Life and W orks of Sismondi,

Quart. Rev. 72

(1843),

299-356. See also E. Hal6vy, Si smondi (Paris: Librairie Felix Alcan, 1935).

2 6 9



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

cultivated soft his idle opulence, while he who has raised this income

• dies of hunger without being able to touch it. 2°6

One of the essays included in the collection was Sismondi's preface

to his

N e w P n n c ip le s o f P o l i t ic a l E c o n o m y . T h e

preface was written in

1826, when the crisis England was then experiencing was in Sismondi's

mind, and in Sismondi: inv oked . . . the interference of social power to

regulate the progress of wealth, instead of reducing Political Economy,

to that most simple and apparently most liberal maxim, to l e t a l o n e ( d e

l a i ss e z f a i r e e t l a i z z e z p a s s e r ) . 2 ° 7

Commenting on the content of the

book to which the essay is the preface, Sismondi wrote:

I have shown that territorial wealth is more productive in proportion

to the greater share which the cultivator has in the property of the

soil . . . that, although the invention of machines, which increases

the power of man, may be a benefit to humanity, yet the unjust

distribution which we make of profits obtained by their means,

changes them into scourges to the po o r . . , that the natural limits

of population are always respected by men who have something, and

always passed over by men who have nothing. 2°s

Darwin labeled Sismondi's book Poor in his reading notebook.

His liberalism did no t go that far. He was clearly committed to the

British philosophy of individualism, with a minimum of government

interference; l a i s s e z - f a i r e a n d l a i s s e z - p a s s e r were political ideals he

believed in. Also he had recently purchased as an investment a farm in

Lincolnshire.2 o9

One other likely source that introduced Darwin to the concepts of

the division of labor was Charles Babbage's influential book O n t h e

E c o n o m y o f M a c h i n e r y a n d M a n u f a ct u re s . 21° Published in 1832, it

206. J. C. L. de Sismondi, Pol it ical Eco nom y and the Phi losophy o f Govern-

m e n t with a historical notice of his life and writings by M. Mignet (London: John

Chapman, 1847).

207. Sismondi, preface to N ew Pr inc ip les o f Pol it ical Econ om y and the l ight

Which Th ey M ay Cast on the Cris is Which England Is at This T ime Experiencing,

reprinted in Sismondi,

Pol i t ical Economy.

208. Sismondi,Pol i t ical Economy, p. 72.

209• In

Darwin Revalued

Keith says that Darwin purchased the farm of

Beesby in Lincolnshire as an investment in 1845. His father advanced him £ 3,529

for the purchase. See alsoL L D , I, 311-312.

210. C. Babbage, O n t h e E c o n o m y o f M a c h i ne r y a n d M a n u f a c tu r es (London:

J. Murray, 1832).

270




w e n t t h r o u g h s e ve ra l e d i t i o n s i n t h e e a r l y 1 8 3 0 s , a f o u r t h e n la r g e d

e d i t i o n a p p e a r in g i n 1 8 4 6 . I t w a s t h e r e s u l t o f B a b b ag e 's in v o l v e m e n t

w i t h h i s c a l c u l a ti n g e n g i n e , w h o s e c o n s t r u c t i o n h e h a d b e e n s u pe rv is in g

s in c e 1 8 2 2 . H e v i si te d a c o n s i d e ra b l e n u m b e r o f w o r k s h o p s in E n g la n d

a n d C o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e i n o r d e r t o b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e s ta t e

o f t h e a r t o f t h e a p p l ic a t io n o f m a c h i n e r y t o m a n u f a c t u r e . A c o n -

s id e ra b le p o r t i o n o f t h e b o o k w a s d e v o t e d to d i sc u s si o n o f t h e d i v is io n

o f l a b o r , s in c e B a b b a g e c o n s i d e r e d i t p e r h a p s th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

p r i n c ip l e o n w h i c h t h e e c o n o m y o f m a n u f a c t u r e d e p e n d s . I n d is cu ssin g

h o w t h e p r in c i p le e v o l v e d , B a b b a g e n o t e d t h a t s o c i e t y m u s t h a v e

m a d e c o n s i d e ra b l e a d v a n c e s b e f o r e t h i s p r in c i p l e c o u l d h a v e b e e n

c a r ri e d i n t o t h e w o r k s h o p ; f o r i t is o n l y i n c o u n t r i e s w h i c h h a v e a t t a i n e d

a h igh degree o f c iv i l i za t ion , and in a r t i c l e s in wh ich the re i s a g rea t

c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g s t t h e p r o d u c e r s , th a t t h e m o s t p e r f e c t s y s te m o f

t h e d i v is io n o f la b o u r is t o b e o b s e r v e d . C o m m e n t i n g o n A d a m S m i t h 's

s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r in c i p le o f d i vi si o n o f l a b o r , B a b b a g e w r o t e t h a t

a n y e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e c h e a p n e s s o f m a n u f a c t u r e d ar ti c le s , b a s e d u p o n

the d iv is ion o f l abor , i s inco m ple te un less the fo l low ing p r inc ip le is

a d d e d :

T h a t t h e m a s t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r , b y d iv id in g th e w o r k t o b e e x e c u t e d

in to d i f f e ren t p roces ses , each r equ i r ing d i f f e ren t deg rees o f sk i l l o r

o f f o r c e , c a n p u r c h a s e e x a c t l y th a t p r e c i se q u a n t i t y o f b o t h w h i c h is

n e c e s s a r y f o r e a c h p r o c e s s ; w h e r e a s i f t h e w o r k w e r e e x e c u t e d b y

o n e w o r k m a n , t h a t p e r s o n m u s t p o ss es s s u f fi c ie n t s kill t o p e r f o r m

t h e m o s t d i f f ic u l t , a n d s u f f ic i e n t st r e n g t h t o e x e c u t e t h e m o s t

l abor iou s , o f the ope ra t ions in to wh ich the a r t i s d iv ided . 211

M y d i sc u ss io n u p t o t h is p o i n t h a s b e e n p r im a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h

D a r w i n ' s r e a d in g s in t h e f i e ld o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y . T h e r e is a n o t h e r

p o i n t w h i c h m u s t b e s tr es se d . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e e c o n o m i c

bases o f Br i t a in th a t was t ak ing p lace in ea r ly V ic to r i an times be fo re

D a r w i n ' s e y e s - t h e r e s u lt o f th e r a m p a n t i n d u s tr i a li z a t io n a n d th e

i n te n s iv e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f a g ri c u lt u r e - m u s t h a v e d e e p l y i m p r e s s e d

Darw in . O rgan ized s c ience was no t a neu t r a l obse rve r in th i s p roces s .

T h e B A A S , f o r e x a m p l e , w a s a c ti v e i n e n li st in g t h e s u p p o r t o f i ts m e m -

b e r s h ip i n p r o j e c t s t o h e l p a c c e l e r a t e t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f i n d u s t r y

a n d a g r i cu l t u re . T h u s i n 1 8 4 0 t h e B A A S c o m m i s s io n e d L i e b ig t o w r i t e

211. C. Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery 4th ed. enlarged (London:

J. M urray, 1846), pp. 17 5-176.

271



SILV AN S. SCI- IWEBER

a r e p o r t o n t h e s t a te o f o r g a ni c c h e m i s tr y . H e r e s p o n d e d w i t h Organic

Chemist ry in Its Appl ica tion to Agriculture and Physiology. 212 D a r w i n

b o u g h t a c o p y o f t h e b o o k i n 1 8 4 1 . z13 T o j u d g e f r o m h i s m a r k i n g s i n

t h e b o o k , D a r w i n ' s i n t e re s t i n t h e s u b j e c t p r o b a b l y s t e m m e d f r o m h is

g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n b o t a n i c a l m a t t e r s a t t h e t i m e . 214 A n o t h e r r e a s o n

f o r h i s i n t e r e s t w a s t h a t a g r i c u l tu r e w a s t h e l a rg e s t e n t e r p r i s e in w h i c h

a r t i f ic i a l s e l e c t i o n w a s p r a c t i c e d .

I n h i s p r e f a c e , L i e b ig i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e h a d e n d e a v o r e d t o p r e s e n t

t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n ci p le s o f c h e m i s tr y i n o r d e r to e l u c i d a te th e

c h e m i c a l p r o c e ss e s in v o l v e d i n a g r i c u lt u r e a n d p h y s i o l o g y . P e r f e c t

a g r i c u l t u r e , L i e b i g s t re s s e d , i s t h e t r u e f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l t r a d e a n d

i n d u s t r y - i t i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e r i ch e s o f s t a te s . '2 ~ s H i s a p p r o a c h

w a s u t i l i ta r i a n :

The general

o b j e c t o f a g r i c u l t u re i s t o p r o d u c e i n th e m o s t a d v a n -

t a g e o u s m a n n e r c e r t a i n q u a l i ti e s , o r a m a x i m u m s iz e , i n c e r ta i n

p a r t s o r o r g a n s o f p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t s . N o w , t h i s o b j e c t c a n b e a t t a i n e d

o n l y b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th o s e s u b s ta n c e s w h i c h w e k n o w t o b e

i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e p a r t s o r o r g a n s , o r b y

s u p p l y i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e ss a ry t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e q u a l i ti e s

d e s i r e d . 216

D a r w i n d r e w a l i n e n e x t t o t h i s p a s s ag e .

O n t w o o c c a s i o n s , o n c e in 1 8 4 4 a n d a g a i n i n 1 8 5 1 , D a r w i n re a d

L i e b i g ' s

Familiar Letters on Chemistry.

2~7 T h i s l i t t l e b o o k w a s w r i t t e n

212. Liebig ' s Organic Chemistry was publ ished in 1840.

213. Da rwin ' s co py is in the Cambr idge Univers i ty Library. Most of the

anno ta t ions were mad e in 1841 . Upon r e read ing the boo k in 1856 , the on ly fac t

which war r an ted a no te p inned in the back of the boo k r e la tes to the f ac t tha t the

b loo d of th e d i f f e ren t races o f m an have d i f f e r en t odour .

214. Darwin ' s growing in te r es t in bo tany i s a t t e s ted by box 49 of Darwin ' s

papers a t Cambr idge Univers i ty Library. For a del ightful overview of Darwin ' s

botanical works , see M. Allen,

Darwin and His Flowers: The Key to Natural

Selection (New Y ork: T apl inger , 1977) .

215. Liebig,

Organic Chemistry

preface .

216. Ibid . , pp . 129-130.

217. J . Liebig,

Familiar Letters on Chemistry and lts Relation to Commerce

Physiology and Agriculture

(New Yo rk : App e l ton , 1843). Darwin read th i s bo ok

on N ov. 20, 1844, a nd O ct . 14, 1851, according to his reading no tebo ok s; see

Vorz imm er , The Darwin Reading No teboo ks . On Oct . 3 ,1851 , whi le in Lond on

vis i t ing the G reat Ex hibi t io n, Darwin w rote to his son Wil liam, I am reading a

Book on Chem is try ca l led Familiar Letters on Chemistry and th i s makes me of ten

2 7 2




f o r t h e s p ec ia l p u r p o s e o f e x c i t in g t h e a t t e n t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t s , a n d

o f t h e e n l i g h t e n e d p u b l i c , t o t h e n e c e s s i ty o f e s ta b l is h i n g S c h o o l s o f

C h e m i s tr y a n d o f p r o m o t i n g , b y e v e r y m e a n s , t h e s t u d y o f a s cie n ce

s o i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e a r t s, p u r s u i t s , a n d s o c ia l w e l l b e i n g

o f m o d e m c iv il iz e d n a t i o n s . 21s T h e l e t t e rs p r e s e n t e d in m o r e p o p u l a r

f a sh i o n m a n y o f t h e t o p ic s f o u n d in L i e b ig ' s v o l u m e

Organic Chemistry.

L e t t e r X d e a l t w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a g r i c u lt u re a n d t h e

m u l t i p l ic a t i o n o f th e h u m a n s p e c i e s ; a n d i n it L i e b ig i n d i c a te s t h a t

T h e c u l ti v a ti o n o f o u r c r o p s h a s u l t im a t e l y n o o t h e r o b j e c t t h a n t h e

p r o d u c t i o n o f a m a x i m u m o f th o s e s u b s ta n c e s w h i c h a r e a d a p t e d f o r

a s s im i l a t io n a n d r e s p i r a ti o n , in t h e s m a l le s t p o s s ib l e s p a c e . . . M a n

• i s c o m p e l l e d t o c o n s u m e f o r c e m e r e l y i n o r d e r to s u p p l y m a t t e r

fo r r e sp i ra t i on .

C u l t i v a t io n i s t h e e c o n o m y o f f o r c e . S c i en c e t e a c h e s u s th e

s i m p l e s t m e a n s o f o b t a i n i n g t h e greatest e f f e c t w i t h t h e smallest

e x p e n d i t u r e o f p o w e r , a n d w i t h g iv e n m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a m a x i m u m

o f fo rc e .219

A s n o t e d a b o v e , D a r w i n h a d a n n o t a t e d a s im i l a r p a s sa g e i n L i e b ig ' s

Organic Chemistry. D a r w i n f o u n d ' o p ti m a l i z a t io n a p p r o a c h e s a t tr a c -

t iv e . T h e s e p a s s ag e s a ls o i n d i c a t e t h e w i d e d i f f u si o n o f s u c h f o r m u l a t i o n s

b y t h e e a r ly 1 8 4 0s . D a r w i n ' s e nt r ie s o n p a ge s 9 5 - 9 7 o f t h e E n o t e b o o k

d a t e f r o m 1 8 3 9 , a n d c o n s t i t u t e

independent

e v i d e n c e o f t h e p e r v a si v e

in f l uence o f such op t im a l i za t i on p r i nc ip l es . C l ea r ly , t he i r ro o t s l ie i n

the soc i a l and m ora l s c iences .

E v e n i f t h e i m p a c t o f i n d u s t r a l i z a t i o n h a d n o t b e e n a p p a r e n t t o

D a r w i n i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f h i s p h y s i c a l a n d i n t e ll e c t u a l en v i r o n -

m e n t - a d u b i o u s a s s u m p t i o n -

the

e v e n t o f 1 8 5 1 , t h e G r e a t E x -

h i b i t i o n o f t h e W o r k s o f I n d u s t r y a t t h e C r y s t a l P a l a c e , w o u l d h a v e

d o n e s o . I t s p u r p o s e w a s t o p r e s e n t a t r u e t e s t a n d l iv in g p i c t u r e

o f t h e p o i n t o f d e v e l o p m e n t a t w h i c h t h e w h o l e m a n k i n d h a s a r r i v e d

. . . a n d a n e w s t a r ti n g p o i n t , f r o m w h i c h a l l n a t i o n s w i ll b e a b l e t o

think of yo u in the evenings. Liebig's

Familiar Letters

was very popular and

went through several editions. The fo urth edition had as its title

Familiar Letters

on Chemistry in Its Relation to Physiology Dietetics Agric~dture Commerce

and Political Economy

(London : W alton and M aberly, 1859). It is very likely that

Darw in read two different editions in 1843 and 1851.

218. Liebig,

Familiar Letters p. 1.

219. Ibid., p. 8.

2 7 3




d i r e c t t h e i r f u r t h e r e x e r t i o n s . ' 2 2 ° I t s s u cc e ss w a s h u g e . A s D a v i d

B r e w s t er n o t e d ,

T h e E x p o s i t i o n o f 1 8 51 - t h e g r e a t e x p e r i m e n t o f m o d e m t i m e s

. . . n o w s t a n d s b e f o r e u s , g i ga n t i c a n d s u b l im e , c o m m a n d i n g t h e

a d m i r a t i o n . . . o f t h e c i v il iz e d w o r l d . . . I n i t s m o r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l

. . . a s p e c t , i t i s . . . p r e g n a n t w i t h m a t c h l e s s r e s u lt s . W i t h i n t h e

p r e c i n c t s o f t h e l o f t y b a z a a r a re d i s p l a y e d . . . t h e n o b l e s t e f f o r t s

o f h u m a n g e n iu s . . . t h e w o n d r o u s m e c h a n i s m s w h i c h s c ie n ce a n d

a r t h a v e c o m b i n e d t h e i r p o w e r s t o c r e a t e . 221

N o o n e a r t i c u l a t e d th e m e a n i n g o f t h e G r e a t E x h i b i t i o n a s a m o u m e n t

t o t h e g r o w i n g p o w e r o f m a n o v e r h i s p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d a s a

r e c o r d o f t h e m a t e r i a l p r o g r es s o f t h e a g e m o r e s u c c i n c tl y th a n t h e

P r in c e C o n s o r t . P r in c e A l b e r t , w h o h a d o r i g i n a te d t h e i d e a o f t h e

e x h i b i t i o n , a n d w h o o v e rs a w i ts c o m i n g i n t o b e i ng , d e c la r e d :

N o b o d y w h o h a s p a i d a n y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p e c u l i a r f e a tu r e s o f o u r

p r e s e n t e r a w i ll d o u b t f o r a m o m e n t t h a t w e a re l iv in g a t a p e r i o d o f

m o s t w o n d e r f u l t r a n s i t i o n , w h i c h t e n d s r a p i d l y t o a c c o m p l i s h t h a t

g r e a t e n d t o w h i c h i n d e e d a l l h i s t o r y p o i n t s -

the realization o f t he

unity of mankind . . . T h e d i s t a n c e s w h i c h s e p a r a t e d t h e d i f f e r e n t

n a t i o n s a n d p a r t s o f t h e g l o b e a r e r a p i d l y v an i s h in g b e f o r e t h e

a c h i e v e m e n t s o f m o d e r n i n v e n t io n , a n d w e c an t ra v e rs e t h e m w i t h

i n c r e d i b l e e a s e ; t h e l a n g u a g es o f a ll n a t i o n s a r e k n o w n , a n d t h e i r

a c q u i re m e n t s p l a ce d w i t h in t h e r ea c h o f e v e r y b o d y ; t h o u g h t i s c o m -

m u n i c a t e d w i t h t h e r a p i d i t y , a n d e v e n b y t h e p o w e r o f l ig h t ni n g . O n

t h e o t h e r h a n d , the great principle of the division of labour w h i c h

m a y b e c a ll e d t h e m o v i n g p o w e r o f c i v il iz a t i o n , i s b e i n g e x t e n d e d

t o a ll b r a n c h e s o f s c i e nc e , i n d u s t r y a n d a r t . . . G e n t l e m e n , t h e

E x h i b i t i o n o f 1 8 51 i s t o g iv e u s a t r e e t e s t o f a l iv i n g p i c t u r e o f t h e

p o i n t o f d e v e l o p m e n t a t w h i c h t h e w h o l e o f a n a n k i n d h a s a r r iv e d i n

220. Qu oted in Asa Briggs , Victorian People: A Reassessment o f Persons and

Themes 1851-67

rev. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press , 1972), p. 16.

The f i r s t e s s ay in th i s book i s C rys ta l Pa lace and the Men o f 1 851 .

221. David Brew ster 's review o f Charles Babbage, The Exposition of 1851 or

Views of the Industry the Science and the Government of England London

1851

2nd ed . , appea red in the

North Brit. Rev. 15

(1851) 529. C. Babbage ' s

The Exposition of 1851 (Lon don : J . M ur ray , 1851) was a lso rev iewed in the Jun e

14, 1851, issue of the

Atheneaum

and in m any o the r V ic to r i an pe r iod ica ls .

2 7 4




t h i s g r e a t t a s k , a n e w s t a r t in g p o i n t f r o m w h i c h a l l n a t i o n s w i l l b e

a b l e t o d i r e c t t h e i r f u r t h e r e x e r t i o n s . 2 22

D a r w i n a t t e n d e d t h e e x h i b i t i o n o n J u l y 3 0 , 1 8 5 1 , a n d e n j o y e d i t

i m m e n s e l y . 223 I f t h e e x h i b i t d i d n o t d r iv e h o m e t h e v i r tu e s o f c o m -

p e t i t i o n a n d t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e d i v i si o n o f l a b o r i n s a t is f y i n g m a n ' s

n e e d b y p r o d u c i n g it s m a t c h l e s s r e s u lt s , t h e o p e n i n g c e r e m o n i e s -

w i d e l y r e p o r t e d i n t h e p r e ss - c e r t a i n l y d i d s o .

T h e I n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n a f f e c t e d e v e r y a s p e c t o f V i c t o r i a n so c i e ty .

U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d y n a m i c s o f it s d e v e l o p m e n t , i n o r d e r t o g u a r a n t ee

t h e c o n t i n u e d p r o g re s s o f t h e n a t i o n , w a s a v i ta l a n d i m p o r t a n t t a sk .

T h e a r t ic l e s in t h e V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d i c a l s r e v e r b e r a t e w i t h t h e i n t e n s i t y

o f t h e e n s u i n g d i s c u s si o n s . D a r w i n a s a m e m b e r o f t h e u p p e r c l as s

a n d o f t h e s c i e n ti f ic e li t e h a d b o t h a n e c o n o m i c s t a k e a n d a m o r a l

r e s p o n s i b i li t y i n k e e p i n g i n f o r m e d o f t h e se i ss ue s. A k n o w l e d g e o f

p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y w a s a p r e re q u i s it e f o r i n f o r m e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e

d e b a t e .

P O L I T I C A L E C O N O M Y , S T A T IS T IC S , A N D E V O L U T I O N A R Y

T H E O R I E S

M y i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e v a r i o u s s t r a n d s t h a t D a r w i n h a d t o in -

t e r t w i n e t o a r ri v e a t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d i v e r g e n c e h a s y i e l d e d a c o m p l e x

w e b . B u t t h a t i s n o t s u r p r is i n g . T h e p a t h l e a d i n g t o a m a j o r s c i e n t if i c

d i s c o v e r y is r a r e l y li n e a r o r p r e d e t e r m i n e d . I t w o u l d b e t o o f a ci le t o

a s c r ib e a o n e - t o - o n e c a u s a l i n f lu e n c e o f D a r w i n ' s s t u d y o f p o l i t i c a l

e c o n o m y a n d h i s t h e o r i z in g a b o u t s p e c i a t i o n . P e r h a p s h is v ie w s b e f o r e

222. Pr ince Alb er t ' s speech was del ivered a t a b anq uet a t the Mansion Hou se

on M arch 21, 1850. I t i s qu oted in J . B. Bu ry, The Idea of Progress ( L o n d o n :

Macm illan, 193 2), p. 330. See also T. M artin, The

Life of the Prince Consort 5

vols . (Lo nd on: Sm ith, Elder , 1975-1980), I I I , 247. F or an acc oun t of Pr ince Al-

be r t ' s involvement in the Grea t Exhib i t ion and i t s r e la t ion to h i s a r t is t i c in te r es t s,

see R . F u l ford , The

Prince Consort

(Lon don : M acmil lan, 1966), par t icu lar ly pp.

203-225; and W. Ames,

Prince Albert and Victorian Taste

(New York: Viking

Press, 1968).

223. Darwin ' s daughte r reca l led tha t on Ju ly 30 th [185 1] , my f a the r and

mo ther spen t a week wi th Erasmus Darwin a t h i s house in Park S t r ee t in o rde r to

see the Exh ib i t ion . George and I were a lso taken , bu t I a t any r a te d id no t make

much of i t , and r emem ber s tay ing a t ho me to sc rub the back s ta i rs , a s be t te r f un

• . . M y f a th e r e n j o y e d i t im m e n s e l y ; E m m a Da r wi n , e d .,

A Century o f Family

Letters

2 vols . (pr ivate ly pr inte d, 1904), I I , 153. The pu bl ic edi t io n was pub l ished

by J . Murray (Lond on, 1915).

2 7 5



SILVA N S. SCHWEBER

1 8 4 4 , w i t h t h e i r g e o g r a p h ic e m p h a s i s , w e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y h i s r e a d i n g o f

M c C u U o c h . S i m i l a r l y , p e r h a p s t h e G r e a t C r y s t a l E x h i b i t i o n i n f l u e n c e d

h i s t h e o r iz i n g i n t h e 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 5 2 p e r i o d . W h a t d o e s s t r ik e m e a s c h a r a c -

t e r i s ti c o f D arw in ' s r e sea rch s t y l e i s h i s wi l li ngness t o a pp rop r i a t e

e x p l a n a t o r y p r in c ip l e s a n d m o d e l s f r o m w h a t e v e r so u r ce s h e c a m e

a c r o s s . T h u s t h e M a l t h u s i a n p o p u l a t i o n s t a t e m e n t s , t h e B e n t h a m i t e

o p t i m a l i z a t i o n c a l cu l u s, A d a m S m i t h ' s d i v is io n o f l a b o r a ll b e c a m e

i n c o r p o r a t e d o r t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o b i o lo g i c a l p r i n c ip l e s t h a t w e r e to

b e t h e b a si s f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e g r o w t h o f

d i v e r si ty o f l i f e o v e r t i m e . S u c h h e u r i st ic a l t r a n s fe r s a r e , o f c o u r s e , n o t

unusua l . 224 B u t i n D arw in ' s case these t r ans fe r s were be tw een f i e ld s

t h a t h e s a w a s h a v i n g a s p e c ia l r e la t i o n s h ip t o o n e a n o t h e r . T h e e v o l u -

t i o n o f p o l i t ic a l , s o c ia l , a n d m o r a l s y s t e m s w e r e b i o l o g ic a l p r o b l e m s t o

D a r w i n . T h e M a l t h u s i a n l a w s o f p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h a n d A d a m S m i t h ' s

d i vi si o n o f l a b o r w e r e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l la w s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y s h o u l d b e

exp la ined b y b io log i ca l p r i nc ip l es .

B y t h e 1 8 3 0 s t h e p r o b l e m o f e x p l a in i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s o c ia b i li ty ,

a n d m a n ' s e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , h a d , o f c o u r s e , a l o n g

h i s t o r y . D a r w i n h a d i m m e r s e d h i m s e l f i n t h a t l i te r a t u re , a n d m o r e

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e S c o t t i s h a t t e m p t s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n a n d

s t a bi li ty o f t h e m o r a l a n d e c o n o m i c o r d e r .

B u t i t s e e m s t o m e t h a t M a r x ' s f a m o u s o b s e r v a t i o n th a t i t i s r e -

m a r k a b l e h o w D a r w i n r e c o g n i z e d a m o n g b e a s t s a n d p l a n t s h i s E n g l i s h

s o c i e t y w i t h i t s d i vi si o n o f l a b o u r , c o m p e t i t i o n o p e n i n g u p o f n e w

m a r k e t s , i n v e n t i o n , a n d t h e M a l t h u s ia n ' st ru g g l e f o r e x is t e n c e ' ' 2 2 s i s

c e r t a i n ly n o t t h e w h o l e s t o r y .

I b e l i e v e i t is c o r r e c t t o a s s e r t t h a t D a r w i n f o r m u l a t e d h i s t h e o r y i n a

m etap ho r i c l anguage t h a t was charac t e r i s t i ca l l y B r i ti sh . Gi l li sp i e has

s u g g e st e d t h a t n o n e b u t a V i c t o r i a n E n g l i s h m a n c o u l d h a v e e x p r e s s e d

h i m s e l f a s D a r w i n d i d i n t h e O r ig in o / S p e c i e s :

S o o r d i n a r y i s t h e l a n g u a g e [ t h a t i t a l m o s t s e e m s a s i f w e c o u l d b e i n

t h e m i d s t ] o f r e a d i n g a la y s e r m o n o n s e lf -h e lp i n n a t u r e . A ll t h e

p r o v e r b s o n p r o f i t a n d l o ss a re t h e r e , f r o m p u l p i t a n d f r o m c o u n t i n g -

h o u s e - . . . O n th e r a ce b e i ng t o th e s w i f t . . . O n p r o g re s s [ be in g ]

224. See G. Holton, Thematic Or igins o f Sc ient i f ic Thought: Kepler to

Eins te in (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973); and Holton, The

Scient i f ic Imagination: Ca se S tudies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1978).

225. Karl M arx and Friedrich Engels, Sele cted Correspondence 1846-1895

(New York: International Publishers, 1936), p. 000.

2 7 6




t h r o u g h c o m p e t i t i o n . . . I t is , a s a G e r m a n c r i ti c s a id i n a r e m a r k

m e a n t t o b e s c a th i n g , c la ss ic a l p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y a p p l i e d t o b i o l o g y .

O r a s D a r w i n s a id h i m s e l f , T h i s is t h e d o c t r i n e o f M a l t h u s a p p l i e d

t o t h e w h o l e a n i m a l a n d v e g e t a b l e k i n g d o m . 226

O n e c a n a d d t o G i U i s p ie 's l is t . F o r e x a m p l e , D a r w i n c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e

l a r g e s t f a v o ra b l e a r e as in w h i c h t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t a n i m a ls e vo lv e

a s th e m o s t e f f i c ie n t w o r k s h o p s ' 2 2 7 f o r n e w s p e c ie s , b e c a u s e t h e y

h a v e t h e l a r g e s t p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e m o s t k i n d s o f an i m a l s , a n d t h e m o s t

i n t e n s e c o m p e t i t i o n . P l a c e s , t h a t i s , e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e s , a r e c o m p a r e d

t o c o l o n i z i n g e n t e r p r i se s . I t i s a ls o c e r t a i n l y c o r r e c t t o s a y t h a t D a r w i n

r e c o g n i z e d t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t w o u l d a c c r u e t o t h e individual in the

c o m p e t i t i v e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r i n

laissez-faire

e c o n o m i c s a n d t h e n a t u r a l

e c o n o m y . O r g a n i sm s t h a t m o v e i n t o u n o c c u p i e d n i c h e s w i l l e n j o y

r e d u c e d c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d w i l l h a v e a d i f f e r e n t i a l a d v a n t a g e in t h e

s t ru g g l e f o r s u rv i v a l a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n .

B u t D a r w i n c l e a r l y d i d m o r e t h a n t r a n s c r i b e B r i ti s h p o l i t i c a l e c o n -

o m y . I b e l ie v e t h a t h e a l s o r e f le c t s t h e s h a r p c o n c e p t u a l b r e a k t h a t

o c c u r r e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 2 2s A l t h o u g h i t i s o f

c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t o f a s c e r t a in w h e t h e r t h i s b r e a k i s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l ,

a s F o u c a u l t w o u l d h a v e u s b e l i e v e , 2 29 o r n o t , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a

c o n s e n s u s t h a t a p r i m a r y f a c t o r i n t h e f r a c t u r e is t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e

h i s t o r i c a l e l e m e n t i n a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e o b s e r v e d c h a n g es . T h e v ie w s

a n d c o m m i t m e n t s a s t o t h e r o le o f h i s t o r y i n e f fe c t in g ch a n g e c o u l d b e

r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t - c o m p a r e C o n d o r c e t a n d H e r d e r 23° - b u t t h e r e

i s l i t t le q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s . I a l so

c o n t e n d t h a t , i n b r o a d t e r m s , i t w a s C o n d o r c e t ' s p h i l o s o p h i c o u t l o o k

226. C. Gil l ispie , The Edge of Objectivity (Pr inceton: Pr inceton Univers i ty

Press , 1960) , pp. 303-304.

227. Darwin, Origin p. 27 . The no t ion of a workshop may wel l have had

i ts or igin in Darwin ' s t rans la t ion of Milne-Edwards ' Ate l iers , in the la t ter ' s

discuss ion o f the divis ion o f labor .

228. O f the m any b oo ks on th e subject , see , e .g ., J . B. Bury, The Idea of

Progress

(Lo nd on : M acmillan, 1932); F. E. Manuel,

Shapes of Philosophical

History

(S tanfo rd: S tanford Unive rs i ty Press, 1968) ; and M. M andelbaum ,

History

Man and Reason (Bal t imore: Johns Hopkins Press , 1971) . I thank Erns t Mayr

for cal ling M ande lbanm ' s bo ok to my a t ten t ion .

229 . M. Fou caul t ,

Les mots et les choses

(Paris: GaUimard, 1966).

230. See, e .g . , the chapter on Condorcet in F . Manuel , The Prophets of

Paris (Cambr idge: Harvard Un ivers i ty Press, 196 2) , and the in trod uc t ion by F .

Manuel to J . C. Herder ,

Reflections on the Philosophy o f the History o f Mankind

(Chicago: Un iversity of Chicago Press, 1968).

2 7 7



SILVAN S. SCHW EBER

- - w i t h i ts u n d e r l y i n g c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e m a t h e m a t i z a t i o n o f n a t u r e ,

i t s e q u a t i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s w i t h c e r t a i n t y , i t s p r o g r e s s i v e v i e w o f

h i s t o r y - t h a t a n i m a t e s t h e d o m i n a n t s e c t o r o f B r i ti sh s c ie n c e i n t h e

f ir st h a l f o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . D a r w i n w a s c e r t a in l y s y m p a t h e t i c

t o t h i s o u t l o o k .

A c h a r a c te r i st i c f e a t u r e o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y , g e o l o g y , a n d n a t u r a l

h i s t o r y a f t e r 1 8 1 5 i s t h e r e c o g n i t io n b y m a n y o f th e f o r e m o s t t h e o -

r e t i c ia n s t h a t b e c a u s e t h e e n t i t i e s t h e i r s c i e n c e d e a l t w i t h ar e c o m p l e x ,

t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e s e e n ti ti e s m u s t b e t a k e n i n a c c o u n t : t h e ir h i s t o r y

h a d s h a r p e d t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e i r p r e s e n t c o m p l e x s tr u c t u r e .

I t w a s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e i r s ci e n ce h a d t o b e b a s e d o n e l e m e n t s

t h a t h a d a h i s t o r y , h e n c e w e r e ch a n g i n g i n t im e , t h a t f o r m e d a c o m m o n

d e n o m i n a t o r . T h a t w i t h i n t h e n a t u r a l h i s to r y c o m m u n f t y v a li an t

a t t e m p t s w e r e b r i n g m a d e t o a d h e r e t o u n c h a n g i n g F ix ed e l e m e n t s ,

s u c h a s th e f i x e d ' s p e c i e s , o h l y t r a n s fe r re d t h e p r o b l e m s o f h o w t o

a c c o u n t f o r t h e o b s e r v e d , h i s to r i c al , c h a n g e s o f a n im a l p o p u l a t i o n s t o a

d i f f e r e n t l ev e l, a n d m a d e t h e e v e n t u a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n m o r e c a ta c l y s m i c .

B u t t h e h i s to r i ca l c o m m i t m e n t c u t s d e e p e r . S t a ti st ic s a n d p r o b a b i l i ty

p l a y e d a s p e c ia l r o le in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e s c i e n c e s, p a r t i c u l a r l y

t h e s o c i a l s c ie n c es . B y t h e 1 8 2 0 s , p r o b a b i l i ty w a s w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a s

t h e c o r r e c t c a lc u l u s f o r th e d e s c r i p ti o n o f complex p h e n o m e n a , a n d

s t a ti s ti c s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d t h e r a w d a t a u p o n w h i c h t h e s ci e n c e s d e a l in g

w i t h c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n a w e r e t o b e b a s ed . 231

R e c e n t r e s ea r c h e s h a v e m a d e i t a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r t h a t t h e i n f lu e n c e

o f t h e s t a ti s ti c a l m o v e m e n t i n E n g l a n d w a s p e r v a si v e . 2 32 D u r i n g t h e

1 8 3 0 s t h e m o s t i n f lu e n t ia l p o l it ic a l e c o n o m i s t s s a w s t a t is t i c s n o t

o n l y a s t h e r a w , i n d u c t i v e d a t a u p o n w h i c h t h e i r s c i e n c e w a s t o b e

b a s e d , b u t a l s o a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u p o n w h i c h t o b u i l d p o l i t i c a l e c o n -

o m y i n t o a q u a n t i t a ti v e , r i g o r o u s , o b j e c ti v e s c ie n c e. 2 33 T h e y h o p e d

231. Statist ics had m an y differen t senses, ranging fro m the m ere compila-

t ion o f data to the handling o f experimental data, bu t I sh all no t elaborate here

on these differences. See Merz,

History of European Thought,

vol. II, the chapter

Th e Statist ical V iew o f Na ture.

232. See Philip Abrams, The

Origins of British Sociology, 1834-1914: An

Essay with Selected Papers (Chicago: U niversity o f C hicago Press, 1968); M . J .

Cullen, The

Statistical Movement in Early Victorian Britain

(Hassocks: Harvester

Press, 1975); V icto r L. Hilts, Aliis Extererendum, or, the Origins of the Statist ical

S oc ie ty o f L o ndon , Isis, 69 (1978), 21-43.

233. The tradition, o f course, goes bac k to Ad am Smith and to the Phy-

sioerats . One of the aspects in which Adam Smith differs from Senior, Jones,

and McCul loch is in his view of the object ivi ty o f poli tica l econom y. The

later political economists were at greater pains to separate political actions from

2 7 8




that such a science would transform the process by which Parliament

legislated. The problem was to separate the

science

of political economy

from the

politics

of the legislative procedure.

The people of the circle in which Darwin moved were, however, in

a quandary. They had strong and often-expressed reasons for wishing to

separate the science of political economy, with its topical and useful

stress on statistics, from the intrigues and compromises of politics. And

yet their mouthpieces - the periodicals that appeared on the tables of

the Athenaeum - advocated a combined discipline in which there was

no clear dividing line between the two disciplines. WheweU, as president

of the BAAS in 1833, defended the format ion of the Statistical Section

of the BAAS

T

against the possibility of political philosophy intruding

into the Society:

By science, then I understand the consideration of all subjects,

whether of a pure or mixed nature, capable of being reduced to

measurement and calculation. All things comprehended under the

category of space, time, and number properly belong to our investi-

gation, and all phenomena capable of being brought under the

semblance o f law are legitimate objects o f our inquiry.

Can then statistical inquiries be made compatible with our sub-

jects, and taken into the bosom of our society? I think they unques-

tionably may, so far as they have to do with matter of fact, with

mere abstractions, and with numerical results. Considered in this

light they give what may be called the raw material for political

economy and political philosophy; and by their help the lasting

foundat ions o f these sciences may be perhaps ultimately laid.

T

The use of statistics was not confmed to the social sciences. In the

1820s geology was emerging from its descriptive phase and greater

political economy, and to clarify the relation of political economy to legislative

political acts. Adam Smith also thought of each human being as at birth almost

exactly the same in character and capacities as every other being: for him, it was

the division of labor that alters characters. The later economists accepted greater

variability and differences in people.

234. For an account of the formation of the Statistical Section of the BAAS,

see Hilts, Aliis Extererendum ; Cullen, The Statistical Movement; and C. Bab-

bage,

Exposition of 1851

2nd ed. (London: J. Murray, 1851).

235. W. Whewell,

Report of the Ninth Meeting of the British Association for

the Advancement o f Science 3 (1833), xe-xci.

279



SILVAN S . SCHW EBER

e m p h a s i s w a s b e in g p l a c e d o n c e a g a i n o n t h e d y n a m i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f

t h e s c ie n c e. R u d w i c k h a s c o n v i n c i n g l y p r e s e n t e d L y e U ' s v i si o n o f a

s t a t i s t i c a l p a l e o n t o l o g y ,

T

a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y i n

a r ri v in g a t h i s c h r o n o m e t e r f o r t h e t e r t ia r y s tr a ta . A n d b y t h e 1 8 2 0 s

p h y t o g e o g r a p h y h a d a w e l l -d e v e l o p e d s t a ti s ti c a l a s p e c t . 2 37

W h e t h e r o r n o t o n e a c c e p ts t h e t he si s t h a t t h e c o m m u n a l i t y o f

t h e n a t u r a l h i s t o r i a n , g e o l o g i s t , a n d p o l i t ic a l s c i e n ti s t d e ri v e s f r o m a

c o m m o n c o m m i t m e n t t o a p p r e h e n d t h e ro l e o f h i s t o r y as a c au s at iv e

a g e n t i n a f f e c t i n g c h a n g e , t h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t h e u r i s t i c t ra n s f e r s w e r e

t a k i n g p l ac e b e t w e e n p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y a n d g e o l o g y a n d n a tu r a l h i s t o r y .

T h i s tr a n s f e r w a s a c c e l e r a te d o w i n g t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e se c o m m u n i t i e s

h a d o v e r l a p p i n g m e m b e r s h i p .2 a 8 F o r e x a m p l e , B a b b a g e , P o u l e t t S c r o p e ,

a n d W h e w e l l w e r e i n f lu e n t i a l a n d a c t iv e in b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s . L y e l l w a s

a g o o d f r i e n d o f N a s s a u S e n i o r . J o h n H e r s c h e l o f t e n v i si te d t h e E a s t

I n d i a C o l le g e a t H a i l e y b u r y a n d w a s a c l o se f r ie n d o f R i c h a r d J o n e s .

I t s h o u l d b e a d d e d t h a t t h e s e w e r e h i g h l y g if t e d i n d iv i d u al s - m o s t

o f t h e m h a d g o n e t h r o u g h C a m b r i d g e U n i v e rs it y a n d w e r e e i th e r

W r a ng l er s o r h a d o b t a i n e d h o n o r d e g r e e s b a s e d o n v e r y s t i ff m a t h e -

m a t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s - a n d t h a t i t w a s e a si er t o b e a p o l y m a t h i n t h e

f i rs t h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a n a t t h e p r e s e n t t im e .

T h e i n t r o d u c t o r y l e c tu r e t h a t R i c h a r d J o n e s ga v e o n F e b r u a r y 2 7 ,

1 8 3 3 , o n b e c o m i n g t h e p r o f e s s o r o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y a t K i n g ' s C o l le g e ,

L o n d o n , 2 39 g iv e s a p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v e al in g g l i m p s e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e s e d i s ci p li n e s. F o r J o n e s t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f p o l i t ic a l

e c o n o m y is t h e w e a l t h o f n a t io n s . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e

p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s tr i b u ti o n o f w e a l th ,

236. Rudw ick, Charles Lyell 's Dream o f a Statistical Palaeontology, pp.

225-244.

237. Janet Browne in an Imperial College Ph.D. dissertation (1978) has

inves tigated p hytoge ograph y in the early nineteenth century.

238. I have not compared the m embership o f the Poli tica l Eco nom y Club

and that o f the Geological Society. See the centennial publication o f the Poli tical

Economy Club: P o li ti ca l E c o n o m y C lu b F o u n d e d in L o n d o n 1 8 2 1 , M i n u t e s o f

P r o ce e d in g s , 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 2 0 : R o l l o f M e m b e r s a n d Q u e s t io n s D is c u ss e d , 1 8 2 1 - 1 9 2 0 ,

w i t h D o c u m e n t s B e a r in g o n t h e H i s t o r y o f th e C l u b , 6 vols. (Lo nd on : Macmillan,

1900); M. J. Rudwick, Th e Fo und at ion o f the Geological Socie ty of Lond on:

Its Scheme for C o-operative Research and Its Struggle for Indep end ence , Bri t . J .

Hist . 8ci . , 1 (1963), 325-355; and J . B. Morrell, L on do n Insti tutions and Lyell's

Career, 18 20 -18 41 , B r i t . J . H i s t . Sc i ., 9 (1976), 132-146.

239. L i t e r a r y R e m a i n s C o n s i s t i n g o f L e c t u r e s a n d T r a c t s o n P o l it i ca l E c o n -

o m y o f t h e L a te R e v. R i c h a r d J o n e s , ed. W ill iam W hewell (Lond on: Joh n Murray,

1859), pp. 537-539; reprinted in 1964 b y Augustus M. Kelley, New York.

2 8 0




w e m u s t s t u d y . . , t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t io n s in th e p a st a n d p r e se n t

s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d a t l a r g e ; a n d t o c o n d u c t t h a t s t u d y e f f i c i e n t l y ,

w e m u s t m a k e o u rs e lv e s t h o r o u g h l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h . . . t h e

e c o n o m i c a l s t ru c t u re o f n a t i o n s . . . [ b y w h i c h ] I m e a n t h o s e

r e l a t io n s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t c la s se s w h i c h a r e e s t a b l is h e d in t h e

f i rs t in s t a n c e b y t h e i n s t i tu t i o n o f p r o p e r t y i n t h e s o il , a n d b y t h e

d i s t r ib u t i o n o f i t s s u r p lu s p r o d u c e ; a f te r w a r d s m o d i f i e d a n d c h a n g e d

( t o a g r e a t e r o r le s s e x t e n t ) b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c a p i ta l is t s, a s

a g e n t s i n p r o d u c i n g a n d e x c h a n g i n g w e a l t h , a n d i n f e e d i n g a n d

e m p l o y i n g t h e l a b o r in g p o p u l a t i o n

J o n e s i s a t p a i n s t o s t r e s s t h a t o n l y a n a c c u r a t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e

e c o n o m i c a l s t r u c tu r e o f a n a t i o n s c a n

g iv e u s t h e k e y t o t h e p a s t f o r t u n e s o f th e d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e o f t h e

e a r t h , b y d i s p la y i n g t h e i r e c o n o m i c a l a n a t o m y , a n d s h o w i n g t h u s , t h e

m o s t d e e p l y - s e a t e d s o u r c e s o f t h e i r s t r e n g t h , t h e e le m e n t s o f t h e i r

i n s t it u t i o n s , a n d c a u s e s o f t h e i r h a b i t s a n d c h a r a c t e r . I t i s t r u e w e

m u s t l e a r n th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h d iv i de t h e m i n t o c la s se s , e s t a b li s h

o r c h a n g e t h e t ie s w h i c h c o n n e c t t h o s e c l a ss e s, a n d t h e v al u e a n d

i n f l u e n c e o f e a c h , a s c o m p o n e n t p a r t s o f a s t a te o r a g e n t s i n p r o -

duc ing i t s wea l t h .

T h a t t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s u p o n w h i c h J o n e s w a n t e d t o

e s ta b li sh t h e s ci en c e o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y h a v e m u c h in c o m m o n w i t h

t h o se t h a t t h e y o u n g C h a r l es D a r w i n w o u l d c o m m i t h i m s e l f t o w h il e

s tr u g g li n g w i t h s i m il a r a i m s f o r e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y i n t h e 1 8 3 7 - 1 8 3 9

p e r i o d s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p ri si n g. B o t h w e r e p r o d u c t s o f C a m b r i d g e ,

b o t h w e r e d e e p l y in f l u e n c ed b y H e r s c h e l 's Preliminary Discourse z4°

b o t h t r ie d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r u n i v e rs e in t e r m s o f i ts c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s ,

a n d b o t h s a w t h e se c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s a s c h a n g in g s t r u c t u r e s w i t h a

h i s t o r y . B o t h r e c o g n i ze d t h a t a n y c o m p l e x s y s t e m h a s a h i s t o r y a n d

t h a t h i s t o r y w i ll s h a p e i ts d e v e l o p m e n t . B o t h w e r e t r y i n g t o f r e d g e n e r a l

l aw s , b u t b a s e d t h e i r i n v e s t i g a ti o n s u p o n e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s . F o r a s

J o n e s i n d i c a t e d , i f w e w i ll n o t t a k e t h i s t r o u b l e ; i f w e w i ll b e c l o s e t

p h i l o s o p h e r s , t a k e a p e e p o u t o f o u r l i tt l e w i n d o w , a n d f a s h i o n a w o r l d

o f o u r o w n a f t e r t h e p a t t e r n o f w h a t w e se e t h e n c e , h o w e v e r in g e n io u s

a n d c l e v e r w e m a y b e , w e r u n a g r e a t r i sk o f b e in g s a d l y m i s t a k e n , a n d

a re s u re t o r e m a i n e x t r e m e l y i g n o r a n t . A n d J o n e s c o n t i n u e d :

240. J. Herschel,

Preliminary Discourse on Natural Philosophy

(London:

Lardner's Cabinet, 1831 ).

281



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

S u p p o s in g , h o w e v e r , t h a t w e d e t e r m i n e t o k n o w a s m u c h a s w e c an

o f t h e w o r l d a s it h a s b e e n , a n d o f t h e w o r l d a s i t is , b e f o r e w e l a y

d o w n g e n e r a l la w s as t o t h e e c o n o m i c a l h a b i t s a n d f o r t u n e s o f

m a n k i n d o r o f cl as se s o f m a n : t h e r e a re o p e n t o u s t w o s o u rc e s o f

k n o w l e d g e , - h i s t o r y a n d s t a ti s ti c s , t h e s t o r y o f t h e p a s t , a n d a

d e t a il o f th e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n o f th e n a t i o n s o f t h e e a r t h . F r o m

t h e s e a l o n e th e t e a c h e r o f p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y c a n d r a w t h e in f o r m a -

t i o n a n d t h e k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s h i s d u t y t o a r r a n g e , t h a t h e m a y

p r e s e n t t h e m t o t h e s t u d e n t . E a c h s o u r c e h a s i ts d e f e c t s , a n d e a c h it s

p e c u l i a r p o w e r s o f d i f f u s i n g l i g h t , w h i c h w o u l d b e s o u g h t i n v a i n

f r o m t h e o t h e r . I n o b s e r v i n g t h e l o n g t ra i n s o f e v e n ts r e c o r d e d

b y h i s t o r y , w e d e t e c t t h e i m m e d i a t e a n d r e m o t e e f f e c ts o f t h e

e c o n o m i c a l s t r u c t u r e s w e a r e a n a l y s i n g . B u t h i s t o r y h a s s u f f e r e d t o

d r o p f r o m h e r p a g es , p e r h a p s h a s n e v e r r e c o r d e d , m u c h o f th e

i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h n o w b e m o s t p r e c io u s to u s. F o r m a n y w h o l e

c l as ses o f f ac t s , neces sa ry t o i l l u s t r a t e p r i nc ip l es o f wh ich t he im-

p o r t a n c e h a s o n l y l a t e ly b e c o m e k n o w n , w e s h o u ld t o il t h r o u g h h e r

p a g e s i n v a i n . Y e t t h is d e f e c t d o e s n o t a l w a y s e x i s t w h e n w e t h i n k

i t d o e s . . . T h e l a b o r s o f N i e b u h r , S a v i g n y , H e r d e r , M u l l e r h a v e

p r o v e d t h a t t h e re is m u c h k n o w l e d g e , m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o o u r su b -

j e c t , i n h i s t o ri c a l r e c o r d s , w h i c h h a s f a d e d f r o m t h e m i n d s o f m e n ,

a n d m u s t b e l a b o r i o u s l y r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e r e ce s se s o f n e g l e c te d

l i t e r a t u r e . . .

S t a t i s t i c s , un l i ke h i s t o ry , p resen t s a l l t he f ac t s e s sen t i a l t o ou r

r e a so n i n g s in i n e x h a u s t i b l e d e t a il a n d a b u n d a n c e ; b u t l ea v e s u s t o

s p e c u l a te u p o n c a u s e s, a n d t o g u e ss a t e f f e c t s a s w e c a n . I t i s n o t

p l e a s a n t t o r e f l e c t h o w l i t tl e h a s b e e n d o n e i n E n g l a n d t o s y s t e m a t i s e

s t a ti s ti c a l i nq u i ri e s, o r t o p r e s e rv e a n d s p r e a d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h

s t a t i s ti c s can g ive us . In t h i s r e spe c t , a s i n ma n y o the r s , the cu l t i va to r s

o f p h y s i c a l s c ie n c e h a v e s e t a b r il l a n t a n d u s e f u l e x a m p l e . T h e r e i s

h a r d l y a d e p a r t m e n t in t h e ir p r o v i n c e w h i c h h a s n o t t h e a d v a n t a g e

o f b e i n g p u r s u e d b y s o c ie ti es o f m e n a n i m a t e d b y a c o m m o n o b j e c t ,

a n d c o l le c t i n g a n d r e c o r d i n g f a c t s u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f p h i lo s -

o p h i c a l v i ew s . W e m a y h o p e s u r e ly , t h a t m a n k i n d a n d t h e i r c o n c e r n s

w i ll s o o n a t t r a c t i n t e r e s t e n o u g h t o r e c ei v e s im i l a r a t t e n t i o n ; a n d

t h a t a s t a t is t ic a l s o c i e t y w i ll b e a d d e d t o t h e n u m b e r o f t h o s e w h i c h

are advanc ing t he s c i en t i f i c knowledge o f Eng l and .

N o t e t h e m e t a p h o r s a n d t h e l an g u a ge J o n e s u s ed . H e u r g ed t h e s t u d y o f

the comp r tive n tomy o f t h e e c o n o m i c a l s t r u c tu r e s t o b e f o u n d

in d i f f e ren t soc i e ti e s a t d i f f e ren t s t ages o f t he i r deve lopm en t , t ha t i s ,

2 8 2




t h e s t u d y o f e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s e st r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s - e v e n t h o u g h

h i s t o r y h a s p e r h a p s n e v e r r e c o r d e d m u c h o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h

w o u l d n o w b e m o s t p r e c i o u s t o u s . T h e g a p s i n t h e p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l

r e c o r d c a m e i m m e d i a t e l y t o m i n d . J o n e s s t r e s s e d c o n s t a n t l y t h a t h e

w a s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

dyn mics

o f t h e e c o n o m i c c ha n g es ,

h o w t h e s e c h a n g e s a l te r t h e m a n a g e m e n t a n d p r o d u c t i v e n e s s o f l a b o r

a n d h o w t he s e in t u r n p r o d u c e a ch a n ge i n t h e ti es w h i c h c o n n e c t t h e

d i f f e re n t c la sses o f soc ie ty :

T h e t ie s w h ic h f o r m e r l y b o u n d t h e c o m m u n i t y t o g e t h e r a re w o r n

o u t a n d f a ll t o p i e c e s; o t h e r b o n d s , o t h e r p r in c i p le s o f c o h e s i o n

connec t i t s d i f f e ren t c la s ses ; new economica l r e la t ions sp r ing in to

b e i n g , f r e s h a n d p o t e n t p o l i t i c a l e l e m e n t s m i n g l e i n t h e n a t i o n a l

s y s t e m , a n d t h e t r a c in g o f th e g r a d u a l i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e e f f e c t s

o f t h es e is o n e o f ~ e m o s t im p o r t a n t t a s k o f p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y ,

w h e n u n f o l d i n g t h e c a u s e s w h i c h r e g u l a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o r t h e

d i s t r ib u t i o n o f t h e r e v e n u e s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e o f th e e a r t h .

B u t , h e w a r n s , T h e a p p r o a c h t o a s t a te o f s o c i e t y l ik e o u r o w n ,

w h e r e i t c a n b e p e r ce i v ed , is , i n m a n y i n st a nc e s, e x t r e m e l y s l o w . . .

Whi le som e [ soc ie t ie s ] a re thus s t a t io nary , an d o the r s chang ing the i r

e c o n o m i c a l e l e m e n t s b y g r a d a t i o n s s o m i n u t e , t h a t i t m u s t t a k e a g e s

b e f o r e a n y d i s t in c t c h a ng e b e c o m e p r o m i n e n t . O n e c a n l o o k a t

J o n e s ' s p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m y a s a t r a n s c r ip t i o n o f t h e L y e l l ia n g e o lo g ic a l

r e s ea r c h p r o g r a m , i n cl u si v e o f i t s u n d e d y i r t g p o l i ti c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d

m e t a p h y s i c s :

O u r i n q u i r i e s a n d r e a s o n i n g s a b o u t t h e f u t u r e p r o g r e s s a n d c o n d i -

t o n s o f c o m m u n i t ie s o f m e n m u s t , i f t h e y a re t o h a v e a n y p ra c t ic a l

c h a r a c t e r , b e c o n f i n e d t o t h e a d v a n ce a n d f o r t u n e s o f n a t i o n s ,

d u r i n g p e r i o d s s o m e w h a t l i k e t h o s e w h i c h t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p a s t

a n d o u r k n o w l e d g e o f m e n ' s n a t u r e s t e a c h us a re li k e ly t o b o u n d t h e

d u r a t i o n o f e m p i r e s , a n d p e o p l e , a n d s t a te s o f c iv i li z a ti o n . D u r i n g

s u c h p e r i o d I s e e n o g r e a t c h a n c e o f t h e w o r l d c o l l e c ti v e l y b e i n g

a n y t h i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t i t h a s b e e n a n d i s.

J o n e s ' m e t h o d o l o g i c a l su g g e st io n s f o r t h e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f th e f o u n d a -

t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y a p p l y e q u a l l y w e l l t o a n y e v o l u t i o n a r y

s c ie n c e , a n d t o g e o l o g y a n d n a t u r a l h i s t o r y i n p a r t ic u l a r .

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , J o n e s m u s t h a v e m a d e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e s p e e c h a t

t h e t h i r t i e t h a n n i v e rs a r y o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y in 1 8 3 8 , m a k i n g t h e

2 8 3



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

c o m m u n a l i t y b e t w e e n t h e v a r io u s e v o l u t i o n a r y s c ie n c es e v e n m o r e

exp l i c i t . I n a l e t t e r to h i s fa the r -in - law , Le ona rd Ho m er , Lye l l gave a

s h o r t a c c o u n t o f t h a t m e e t i n g , w h i c h h e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s

n o t s o f u l l as u su a l , a n d m o s t o f t h e M . P .'s a b s e n t o n t h e I r is h P o o r

law ques t ion ; never the les s a g rand d i sp lay o f t a l en t . Whewel l in the

cha i r , Sedgwick , Buck land , S i r P . Eger ton , Darwin , Owen (who i s

w o n d e r f u l l y p l e a se d a t r ec e iv i ng t h e W o l la s to n m e d a l ) , F i t t o n ,

G r e e n o u g h , H a l l a m , M i l m a n , M u r c h i s o n , L o r d B u r l i n g t o n , P r o f ,

J o n e s , L u b b o c k , B a il ey , C l if t, H a m i l t o n . . .

L ye U c o m m e n t e d t h a t J o n es m a d e a t ru l y e l o q u e n t s p e e c h . . , o n t h e

s i m i la r it y o f t h e p r o s p e c t s o f t h e t w o n e w s c ie n c e s, d i f f e r e n t a s t h e y a r e

in the i r sub jec ts , geo log y and po l i t i ca l ec on om y. 24~

T h e p r e s e n c e o f D a r w i n i n t h e a u d i e n c e i s o f i n t e re s t . B u t it i s e v e n

m o r e n o t e w o r t h y t h a t R i c h a r d J o n e s s h o u l d b e c a l l e d u p o n t o d e l i v e r

a s p e e c h o n t h a t o c c a s io n . T h a t t h e h o l d e r o f M a l t h u s ' c h a ir a t t h e

E a s t I n d i a C o l l e g e , a n d t h u s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t r e s p e c t e d p o l i t i c a l

e c o n o m i s t i n E n g l a n d , f o r m a l l y a d d r e s s ed t h e G e o l o g ic a l S o c i e t y o n i ts

t h i r t i e t h a n n i v e rs a r y o n t h e s i m i la r it ie s o f t h e p r o s p e c t s o f th e tw o

scienc es i s s t r ik ing .

In h i s inaugura l addres s in 1833 in Lo nd on , Jone s ha d bee n s ens i tive

t o t h e p o l it i ca l d i m e n s i o n o f h i s v i ew s , a n d h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t s o m e

p e r so n s m a y p e r h a p s b e s ta r tl e d a n d o f f e n d e d b y t h e c o n n e c t i o n I

h a v e p o i n t e d o u t b e t w e e n ' p o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y a n d t h e p o l it ic a l e l e m e n t s

o u t o f w h i c h g o v e r n m e n t s ar e f o r m e d , a n d b y w h i c h th e y m u s t b e

m a i n t a i n e d . H a v in g a r g u e d t h a t t h e m u t u a l r e l at i o n s a n d i n f lu e n c e s

o f d i f fe r e n t o rd e r s o f m e n [ ar e] d e t e r m i n e d b y d i f f e re n t m o d e s o f

p r o d u c i n g a n d d i s tr i b u ti n g p u b l i c w e a l t h , a n d t h a t p o l it ic a l e c o n o m y

is the s tud y w hich t eaches the l aws tha t r egu la te the d i s t r ibu t ion and

p r o d u c t i o n o f w e a l t h , J o n e s w e n t o n t o s a y t h a t o u r s u b j e c t [ p o li ti c a l

e c o n o m y ] is t h u s b r o u g h t i n t o i m m e d i a te c o n t a c t w i th t h e p h il o s o p h y

o f l eg i s l a t ion . Bu t Jone s be l i eved tha t the l ine wh ich di s tingu ishes

t h e m i s s u f f i c ie n t l y o b v i o u s . N o m a t t e r w h a t p o l it i ca l c o n v i c t io n s

po l i t ica l econ om is t s he ld as ind iv idua l s , a s po l i t i ca l econ om is t s they d id

n o t d e c i d e , d i d n o t e v e n d isc uss t h e m e r i ts o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t i t u t i o n s

o r f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t c o n s i d e r e d a b s t r a c t l y . A s p o l i ti c a l e c o n o m i s ts ,

I t i s n o t o u r p r o v i n c e t o p r a i se o r b la m e t h i s o r t h a t f o r m o f g o v e rn -

241. Life Lyell I1, 37-3 9.

2 8 4




m e n t . . , b u t t o s h o w i n w h a t c a se s t h e e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f e a c h i s o r

i s n o t p o s s ib l e ; w h y i n s t i tu t i o n s a n d l aw s w h i c h e n d u r e a n d f l o u r is h

u n d e r o n e s t a t e o f e c o n o m i c c o n f o r m a t i o n , w i t h e r a n d d i e a w a y

w h e n t r a n s p l a n t e d w h e r e s o c i e t y d o e s n o t p r e s e n t th e m a t e r ia l s t o

g iv e t h e m l if e a n d s u p p o r t . O u r s u b j e c t th e n i s , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , t h e

m o t h e r s c ie n c e o n w h i c h t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l e g is l a t io n

r e s t s .

B u t t h o u g h t h e l in e s e p a r a t i n g p o l i t i c s a n d p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e w a s c l e a r t o

J o n e s , - i t w a s n o t s o r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t t o t h e r e a d e r s o f t h e

Edinburgh

Revi ew, the Quarterly Review, and the Westminster Revi ew, in

w h i c h

t h e g r e a t is su e s o f e c o n o m i c t h e o r y a n d e c o n o m i c p o l i c y w e r e b e i n g

d e b a t e d d u r i n g t h e f i rs t h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 242 A r t i c l e s o n

p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y i n t h e

Edinburgh Review

c a r d e d w i t h t h e m a s t r o n g

W h i g b ia s , t h o s e i n t h e

Quarterly Review an

o v e r t T o r y b i a s, a n d t h e

Westminster Review

h a d b e e n f o u n d e d i n 1 8 24 b y J e r e m y B e n t h a m

a n d J a m e s M i l l f o r t h e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f a d v a n c i n g U t i l i t a r ia n i s m .

E c o n o m i c , p o l i t ic a l , a n d s o ci a l p h i l o s o p h y w e r e f r ee l y i n t e rm i n g l e d

i n t h e s e a r ti c le s , a n d i n t h e i n f l u e n t i a l V i c t o r i a n m a g a z i n e s p o l i t i c a l

e c o n o m y h a d c e r ta i n l y b e c o m e p o l i t i c i ze d .

I s u g g es t t h a t i t w a s D a r w i n ' s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s f a c t t h a t m a d e h i m

a t t r i b u t e t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e p h y s i o l o g ic a l d i vi s i o n o f l a b o r to M i l n e-

E d w a r d s , t h e z o o l o g i s t , r a t h e r t h a n t o A d a m S m i t h , t h e p o l it i c a l

e c o n o m i s t . 243 I f o n e a s k s , W h y t h e n w a s D a r w i n n o n e t h e l e s s w i ll in g

242 . See F rank W . Fe t te r , Econ om ic Cont rover sy in the Br it ish Review,

1802-1850 ,

Economica, 0

(1965) , 4 24 .437; John Leona rd Cl ive ,

Scotch Re-

viewers: The Edinburgh Rev w, 1802-1815

(London: Faber and Faber , 1957) ;

W. Graham,

English Literary Periodicals

(New Yo rk : Thom as Ne lson , 1930); and

Michael W olf f, Vic tor ian Reviewers and C ul tur a l Resp ons ib i l i ty , in P . Ap ple ton ,

W. A. M adden, and M . W olf f , ed. ,

Eighteen Fifty-Nine: Entering and Age of Crisis

(Bloom ington: Ind iana Un ivers i ty Press, 1959) , p p. 269-289.

243. Inc iden tal ly , G. H. Lewes and H erber t Spencer were a lso s t ruck in

1852 by M i lne -Edwards ' concep t o f the phys io log ica l d iv is ion of l abor . I n h i s

Autobiography,

S p e n c e r wr i te s : L e w e s . . . h a d b r o u g h t w i t h h i m a v o lu m e b y

Milne-Edwards , an d in i t for th e f i r s t t ime I me t with the express ion - ' the

phys io log ica l d iv i sion of l abou r . ' Though the concep t ion was no t new to m e , a s i s

s h o wn t o wa r d s th e e n d o f

Social Statics,

y e t t h e m o d e o f f o r m u l a t in g i t wa s ; a n d

the phrase the rea f te r p layed a pa r t in my cour se of thought ; Herber t Spencer ,

An Autobiography,

2 vols. (New Y ork: A pp el to n, 1904) , I , 436-437. See a lso J .

A . T h o m s o n ,

Herbert Spencer

(New York: E. P . Dutton, 1906) , p . 30. In

hisSea

Side Studies

(Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1890) , p . 408 , G. H. Lewes po in ted ou t

t h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o n i s t o b e f o u n d i n Go e t h e ,

Zur Morphology

(1807) : the

Fren ch natura l is t [Milne-Edwards] having the m er i t of appl icat io n and abu nd ant

2 8 5




t o r e f e r e x p l i c i t l y t o M a l t h u s i n t h e

O r i g i n ?

a p a r t i a l a n s w e r i s t h a t

D a r w i n s a w t h e M a l t h u s i a n l a w s a s r e s t i n g o n b i o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s .

B y c o n t r a s t , d i v i si o n o f l a b o r a n d m o r e p a r t i c u l a rl y o p t i r n a li z a t io n p r in -

c i p l e s w e r e c o n c e p t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h U t i l it a r i a n is m , a n d U t i l i t a r i a n i s m

h a d a d e c i d e d p o l i t i c a l f l av o r .

I n F r a n c e , M i l n e - E d w a r d s f e l t p e r f e c t l y f r ee t o g iv e c r e d i t f o r h i s

i n s ig h t t o t h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s , t o J e a n - B a p t i s t e S a y , i n p a r t i c u l a r . 244

S a y ' s d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e a n d p o l i t i c s a r e s e p a r a te s c i e n c es

i s a s v i g o r o u s a s t h a t o f h i s E n g l is h c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e s

o f h i s f a m o u s

T r a i t b

r e a d a s f o l l o w s : O n e h a s l o n g c o n f u s e d

P o l i t i c s ,

t h e s c ie n c e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f so c i e t ie s , w i t h

P o l i t i c a l E c o n o m y

w h i c h e x p o u n d s h o w t h e w e a l t h t h a t s a t is f ie s t h e n e e d s o f s o c i e ti e s

i s p r o d u c e d , d i s t r i b u t e d a n d c o n s u m e d . N o n e t h e l e s s , w e a l t h i s e ss e n-

t i a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p o l i t ic a l o r g a n i z a ti o n . U n d e r a ll f o rm s o f

g o v e r n m e n t a s t a te c a n p r o s p e r , i f p r o p e r l y a d m i n i s te r e d . ' 2 4 s A n

e s se n t i a l d if f e re n c e b e t w e e n F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d i s t h e p a u c i t y o f m a g a -

z in e s i n w h i c h e c o n o m i c i s su e s c o u l d b e p u b l i c l y d e b a t e d i n F r a n c e ,

a n d t h e f a c t t h a t U t i l it a r i a n i s m t h e r e w a s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p o l i t i c a l

o u t l o o k . 246 E n g l a n d , b e c a u s e o f i t s l e ss s p e c i a l i z e d s c i e n t i f i c c e n t e r s ,

i t s m o r e o p e n s c i e n t if i c so c i e ti e s , i t s p o l y m a t h s , i t s s i za b l e l i te r a t e

i l lu s tra t ion o f the l aw . Fo r an in fo rma t ive and ins igh tfu l d i s cuss ion o f the back-

g round o f Spence r ' s evo lu t iona ry theo ry , s ee J . D . Y . Peel , H e r b e r t S p en c e r : T h e

E v o l u t i o n o f a S o c io l o g i s t (New Yo rk: Bas ic Books , 1971 ) .

244. J . B . Say , in turn , was inf luenced by A . P. de Cando l le ; see Can dol le ' s

M d m o i r e s e t s o u v e n ir s d e A P d e C a n d o l l e,

(Geneva, Paris : J . Ch erbu liez, 1862).

See a lso J . E. E. D. A. Acton,

H i s t o r ic a l E s s a y s a n d S t u d i e s ,

ed. J . N. Figgis and

R. V. La urence (Fr eep ort , N. Y. : Bo oks for Lib rary Presses , 1967) .

245. J . B. Say, T r a i t d d ' d c o m o m i e p o l i t i q u e o u s i m p l e e x p o s i t i o n d e l a

m a n i k re d e n t s e f e r m e n t , s e d i s t r i b u e n t e t se c o n s o m m e n t l es ri ch e ss e s, 5th ed . ,

(Par is : RapiUy, 1826) . The 4 th edi t ion was t rans la ted by C. R. Pr insep and

appea red a s J . B . Say , A T r e a t is e o n P o l it i c a l E c o n o m y (Ph i l ade lph ia : C lax ton ,

Remsen, and Haffe lf 'mger , 1880); i t has bee n rep r in te d by A ugus tus M. Kel ley

(New Yo rk, 1964). Th e preface is of pa r t icular in te res t because in i t Say discusses

h is v iews o f h i s to ry and s t a ti s ti c s . The con t ra s t be tween h i s F rench v iew and

the v iews o f the Br i t i sh i s no tewor thy . For ano the r ind ica t ion o f how wide ly

his to ry and s ta t i s t ics were conf la ted in the Cam bridge c i rc le see A. Sedgwick, A

D i s c o u r s e o n t h e S t u d i e s o f t h e U n i v e r s it y

(Cambridge, 1830), p. 74.

246. Exc ep t fo r a r t ic l e s by S i smond i and S ay , p r imar i ly in the R e v u e E n -

c y c l o p e d i q u e , o n l y t h e R evue U n i ver se l l e i n Geneva carr ied a r t ic les in French

comp arab le to those fou nd in the Vic to r i an pe r iod ica l s. Thom as Sowe ll , S a y ' s

L a w : A H i s t o r ic a l A n a l y s i s (Pr ince ton: Pr inc e ton U nivers i ty Press , 1972), wh ich

chron ic le s the deba te ove r Say ' s law in the Eng li sh and Frenc h p e r iod ica l s .

2 8 6




p u b li c , w h i c h s u p p o r t e d b o t h a n e t w o r k o f V i c to r i an m a g a z in e s a n d a

pop u la r s c ien t if i c -book-pub l i sh ing en te rp r i s e , w i tnes sed a d i f f e ren t

f lower ing o f i t s s c ien t i f ic ac t iv i ti e s than d id F ran ce du r ing the f i r s t ha l f

o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e g r e a t s uc c es s o f E n g l a n d 's i n d u st r ia l a n d

g e n e ra l e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g t h a t s a m e p e r i o d , w h i c h it s

l e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i s t s a t t r i b u t e d t o i t s a d h e r e n c e t o a p o l i t i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y o f i n d iv i d u al is m , r e i n f o r c e d t h e B r i t is h c o m m i t m e n t t o a n

i n d iv i d u al is ti c a n d a t o m i c o u t l o o k i n o t h e r f ie l ds .247

I h a v e n o w r e t u r n e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n I s t a r t e d w i t h : T o w h a t e x t e n t i s

D a r w i n ' s e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y B r i t is h i n i ts c o n c e p t i o n a n d e x e c u t i o n ?

M y i n v e s t ig a t io n o f o f D a r w i n 's d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r i n c ip l e o f d iv e r-

g e nc e o f c h a r a c t e r h as t o u c h e d u p o n s o m e as p ec ts o f th e p r o b l e m . B u t

b e f o r e a n a n s w e r c a n f u l l y b e g i v e n , o t h e r s t u d i e s o f e v o l u t i o n a r y

b i o l o g y i n F r a n c e , B r i ta i n , a n d G e r m a n y w i ll h a v e t o b e u n d e r t a k e n .

S u c h f u t u r e w o r k s w i l l h a v e t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l

a s p e c ts o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s c ie n c e in t h e se c o u n t r i e s , t h e i m p a c t o f

ph i losoph ica l v iews , and espec ia l ly , the e f f e c t o f the i r d i f f e ren t v iews

conce rn ing h i s to r ic i sm. 24s

C O N C L U S I O N

Severa l s t ages can be iden t i f i ed in Darwin ' s e f fo r t to fo rmula te

na tu ra l s e lec t ion . Th e f i rs t s tage co r resp on ded , rough ly speak ing , to th e

p e r i o d u p t o 1 8 4 4 . I t w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y D a r w i n 's a t t e m p t t o b a s e h i s

m o d e l o f g e o g r a ph i c s p e c i a t io n o n a n i n d iv i d ua l is ti c d y n a m i c s , w i t h

s p ec ie s u n d e r s t o o d a s re p r o d u c t i v e l y i s o l a te d p o p u l a t i o n s . T o w a r d t h e

e n d o f t h i s p e r i o d , D a r w i n 's i g n o r a n c e o f t h e l aw s o f v a ri a ti o n s a n d

h e r e d i t y l e d h i m t o a d o p t v a r ie t ie s a n d s p ec ie s as t h e u n i t s o f v a r i a ti o n s.

T h i s h a d t h e e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o f st im u l a t in g h i m t o c o n s i d e r

t h e p r o c e s s o f s p e c i a t i o n a s involving p o p u l a t i o n s . A t t h e e n d o f t h is

pe r iod , Darw in a l so began to r egard ada p ta t io n as be ing exc lus ive ly

t o w a r d p la c es in t h e e c o n o m y o f n a t u r e . T h u s h e f a c e d t h e p r o b l e m

o f i n t e g ra t in g t h e p r o c e s s o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t io n w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f

spec ia t ion . Ind iv idua l va r ian t s were the un i t s tha t fue led the f i r st

p roces s , whereas va r ie t i e s p roduced new spec ies . There was no l ink

b e t w e e n a d a p t a t i o n a n d s p e c i a t i o n , e x c e p t w h a t e v e r c o u l d b e s u p p l ie d

247. J. B . Morrell, Individualism and the Structure o f British Science, Hist.

Stud. Phys. Sci. 3 (1971), 183-204.

248. M. J. Rud wick, Historical Analogies in th e G eological W ork o f Charles

Lyell, Janus 66 (1977), 89-107.

2 8 7



SILVAN S. SCHWEBER

b y a q u a s i - h i s t o r i c a l , d e v e l o p m e n t a l i d e a o f o p t i m i z i n g t h e a m o u n t

o f l i f e .

In the s econ d s t age , I co n te nd , Darwin s r ead ing o f Mi lne -Edwards

c rys tz l l i zed h i s p rev ious in sigh ts in t o a coh ere n t wh o le . Mi lne -Edwards

c o m m e n t s o n t h e a d v a n ta g e o f f u n c t i o n a l sp e c i a li z a ti o n c o u l d r e a d i ly

b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f t h e a d v a n ta g e a cc r u in g t o t h e indiv idual

r e la t iv e t o o t h e r m e m b e r s o f i t s sp e c ie s , f r o m o c c u p y i n g a d i f f e r e n t

n iche . Mi lne -Edwards d i s cuss ion o f the d iv is ion o f l abor sugges ted tha t

o rg a ni sm s w h i c h m o v e d i n t o u n o c c u p i e d n i c he s w o u l d e n j o y r e d u c e d

co m pe t i t ion , and hen ce a d i f f e ren t i a l advan tage in surv ival and r e -

p r o d u c t i o n ; t h u s t h e y w o u l d i n d u c e t h e s p e c i e s t o d o l i k e w i s e . R a t h e r

t h a n b a se h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o n a n a n a l o g y w i t h t h e a rt if ic i al e c o n o m y ,

D a r w i n c h o s e t h e p r i n c i p le o f . t h e o p t i m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f l if e

pe r u n i t a r ea as the overa l l ex p la na t o ry p r inc ip le . Th e d i f fi cu l t i e s

c o n n e c t e d w i t h i n t e g r a ti n g d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f d e s c r i p t i o n w e r e t h e r e f o r e

c i r c u m v e n t e d , i n s o f a r a s t h e p r o b l e m o f d i v e r s i t y a n d s p e c i a t i o n w a s

concerned . A l though na tu ra l s e lec t ion cons ide red ind iv idua l s a s the

un i t s o f s e lec t ion , an d the u n i t s o f va r i a t ions were va r i e ti e s and spec ies ,

t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e p r o c e s s u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f n a t u r a l s e l e c ti o n ,

c o m p e t i t i o n , d i vi si o n o f l a b o r a n d n i c h e s c o u l d g iv e a p l a us ib l e a c c o u n t

o f h o w i n d iv i d u a l a d v an t a g e c o u l d b e t r a n s f e r re d t o t h e s p ec ie s , a n d

h o w d i v e rs i ty r e s u lt e d f r o m t h is m e c h a n i s m . T h e p r o b l e m o f t h e d i f-

f e r e n t l e v e l s o f d e s c r i p t i o n s w a s c o n f i n e d t o h o w t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f

va r ia t ions in ind iv idua ls ( in p a r t i cu la r , the f r eq ue ncy o f va r i a t ions

and the i r t r ansmis s ion ) w ere r espons ib le fo r the as sumed va r iab il i ty

charac te r i s t i c o f va r i e t i e s and spec ies . Th i s p rob lem Darwin never

solved.

A t h i r d s ta g e o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 5 8 w i t h t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n o f t h e t re e -

o f - li f e v izua l iza t ion o f the p roces s o f spec ia t ion . Spec ia t ion , geograph ic

d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d s y s t e m a t i c s w e r e a l l t h e n e m b e d d e d i n a c o n c e p t u a l

m a t r i x w i t h v a s t e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r s .

A c k n o w l e d g m e n ts

M y s p ec ia l t h a n k s g o t o C a m i ll e L i m o g e s a n d E r n s t M a y r . T h e i r

w r i ti n g s a n d m y d is c us si o ns w i t h t h e m w e r e t h e p r i m a r y i n s p i ra t i o n f o r

th i s paper . Jo n Ho dge and M ichae l Gh ise l in generou s ly gave me the

b e n e f i t o f t h e i r v a s t k n o w l e d g e o f b i o l o g y , D a r w i n , a n d t h e h i s t o r y o f

b io logy . I have benef i t ed a l so f rom d i s cus s ions w i th and sugges t ions

f r o m J o h n B e a t t y , R a l p h C o l p , S te v e G o u l d , D a v id K o h n , D o v O s p o v a t,

D iane Pa t ti , and Ma r t in Rud wick ; I than k them . D iscus sions w i th J ane t

2 8 8




B r o w n e , w h o i n d e p e n d e n t l y h a s w o r k e d o n D a r w in s g e ne sis o f t h e

d i v er g e nc e o f c h a r a c t e r , w e r e p a r t i c u l a rl y h e l p f u l a n d s t im u l a t in g . I a m

i n d e b t e d t o h e r f o r t h e s e a n d f o r h e r c r i ti c a l c o m m e n t s o n t h e f ir s t

d r a f t o f t h i s p a p e r . T h e h e l p f u l c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s b y t h e

r e f e r e e f o r t h i s j o u r n a l h a v e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e f i n a l v e r s i o n o f

the paper . Th i s wo rk w as begun whi le I was a r e sea rch as soc ia te in the

D e p a r t m e n t o f H i s t o r y o f S c i e n c e a t H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y . I a m g r a t e f u l

f o r t h e w a r m h o s p i t a l it y s h o w n m e b y t h e m e m b e r s o f th e d e p a r t m e n t

a n d e s p e c i a ll y f o r t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d h e l p o f E r w i n H i e b e r t .

I t i s aga in a r ea l p leasu re to tha nk P e te r G au t r ey fo r h i s a ss i st ance in

m a k i n g t h e D a r w i n m a t e ri a ls a t t h e C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s it y L i b r a r y

a v ai la b le t o m e a n d f o r g u i d in g m e t o u s e f u l s o u rc e s . I t h a n k t h e S y n d i c s

o f C a m b r i dg e U n i v e r si t y L i b r a r y a n d t h e L i b r a ri a n s o f t h e H o u g h t o n

L i b r a r y a n d o f t h e M u s eu m o f C o m p a r a ti v e Z o o l o g y a t H a rv a rd f o r

pe rm is s ion to qu o te f rom m ate r i a l s in the i r a r ch ives. F ina l ly , I g ra te fu l ly

a c k n o w l e d g e t h e f in a n c i a l s u p p o r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o f L e a r n e d

Socie t ies .

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