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IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN
SOJOURNERS TO THE UNITED STATES
Claire B. Halverson, PhD
Ken Williams, PhDSchool for International Training Graduate Institute
World Learning
Brattleboro, Vermont 05301
Joseph R. Takougang, PhD
University of Cincinnati
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I E ES I I
Graduate Course: Social Identity; Racial Identity
Development ModelsPersonal experience
Research Question
What are the factors shaping the development ofCaribbean/African immigrants racial/ethnic identity?
Focus of this presentation on Africans
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LI E E B KG
African Immigration to the United StatesRefugees, professionals, winners of the U. S. Visa Lottery, or
studentsDiversity Visa Program of 1990 Immigration Act 50,000
Africans (Takougang, 2009)
Black and Arab Africans compose 70-75% of all Africanimmigrants
The most highly educated immigrant group in the history of theUnited States (African Immigrants in the United States arethe Nations Most Highly Educated Group, 1999-2000)
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Racialand Ethnic Identity evelopment odels
Cross (1971, 1978, 1991) African AmericanNon-Africentric,AfrocentricMulticultural Identity
Helms (1990) African AmericanPreencounter Idealization of whiteness; anxiety; poor self esteemEnmcounter Consciousneessof race; angerImmersion/Emersion Idealization of Blackness; rageInternalization/Commitment Racial transcendence; positive esteem
Hardiman and Jackson (1975, 1997, 2007) African and EuropeanAmerican
NavePassive/Active AcceptancePassive/Active ResistanceRedefinitionInternalization
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ME L G
y
Research Approach
Grounded theory genre: to discover atheory or create a model
Sample
Criterion sample born in Africa; lived inU.S. for at least 7 monthsy
y
y
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Demographics of Participants
Region of OriginCentral Africa- 4
Eastern Africa - 8West Africa - 10
Southern Africa - 2North Africa 1
GenderFemale 12
Male - 13
Length of Time (+ )7 months1 year 41-3 years 64-6 years - 57-9 year 610 years and over- 4
All lived in US; 5 also lived in
AgeLate 20s 330s 740s 650s 1Unknown 8
Education
Undergraduate and beyond - 25
Reasons Why Came to USHigher education, marriage, better jobs,refugees
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Data CollectionInterviews 1-1 hourQuestions focused on
Racial/ethnic identity, experiences and their responsesIn country of originIn countries prior to arrival in the U.SInteractions with family and friend from their country of originRecommendations for Africans coming to the U. S.
Data AnalysisOpen theoretical codingResults checked with participants
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RES L S
Identity Development Model ofAfrican Sojourners to the UnitedStates (AIDM)
Three stagesConsciousness about their own identityPerceptions of, and reactions to racismRelationships with other racial/ethnic groups
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S GE 1: E I I E IFI I
Racial/ethnic IdentityEthnic identity primary, intertwined with region in country, class, religion and
gender
Perceptions of, and Reactions to, RacismHistorical phenomenonOvert individual behaviors and institutional policies of discrimination
Relationships with African Americans and European AmericansAfrican AmericansCrime and drugs, lazy, overconcerned with racismEuropean AmericansFriendly and curious
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S GE 2: RACIAL AWARE ESS
Racial/ethnic IdentityBlack, African or from their country
Perceptions of, and Reactions to, RacismAware of micro-aggression and covert practicesDeep emotional impactLack of action
Relationships with African Americans and European AmericansUnderstood the concern of African Americans with racismDesire to connect with African AmericansBegan to recognize racist attitudes ofEuropean Americans
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S AGE 3: E IC/RACIAL I EGRATI
Racial/ethnic IdentityRedefined identity in unique way
Sense of pride in African identity
Perceptions of, and Reactions to, RacismNo longer shocked
Used variety of strategies to cope with racism
Relationships with African Americans and EuropeanAmericans
Selective friendships with both groups
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CONCLUSIONs
Factors Influencing DevelopmentGeographic region of initial settlement
Age when came to U.S.
Personal experiences: degree and nature of interaction in earlyentry
Length of time in U. S.
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Comparison to Other Models
Helms Black Racial IdentityDevelopment Model
Hardiman/Jackson SocialIdentity Development Theory
African IdentityDevelopment Model
Pre-encounterPoor self esteem andinternalization of negative view
of Black cultureDesire to emulate White culture
Passive/Active AcceptanceAcceptance of superiority andthe rightness of whiteness
Ethnic IdentificationPride in ethnic identityTrust White culture
Racism is historical
EncounterConsciousness of raceImmersion/EmersionIdealization of Blackness anddenigration of WhitenessCultural mistrust
ResistanceAwareness of systemic racismand their own privilege asWhitesSeek acceptance from BlacksStruggle with guilt
Racial AwarenessDeep understanding ofracismEmotional impact andquestioning of their worthInactionCultural mistrust
Internalization/
Commitment
Black and Pan-African identityand racial transcendence
Able to act
Redefinition/
Internalization
Acceptance of White IdentityAble to act
Racial Ethnic Integration
Integration of racial and
ethnic identityAble to act
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LIMITATI S F RESEARCHAND F TURE
RESEARCH
Sample included only those with graduate degrees
Study of Africans, European Americans of AfricanAmericans and Africans, Black immigrants fromthe Caribbean
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IMPLICATI NS F RHIGHER EDUCATI N
y Student-Student
y Student-Facultyy Counselor-Student
y Student Affairs
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REFERENCES
y
y .y African Immigrants in the United States Are the Nations Most HighlyEducatedy Group (Winter 1999-2000).The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 26.y Retrieved March 19, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable2999156.y Cross, M. (1971). Discovering the Black Referent: The Psychology ofBlack
y Liberation. In V. Dixon & B. Foster (Eds), Beyond Black or White: Any Alternate America (pp.23-66). Boston: Little, Brown and Co.y _____. (1978). Models of Psychological Nigrescence: A Literature Review.y Journal of Black Psychology, 5, 1, 13-31.y _____. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African American Identity.y Philadelphia: Temple University Press.y Helms, J. E. (1990). Black and White Racial Identity. Westport, CT: Praeger.y Hardiman, R. and B. Jackson (1997, 2007). Conceptual Foundations for Socialy JusticeCourses. In Adams, M., B. Bell & P.. Griffin. Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. New York: Routledge.
y Jackson, B. (1975). Black Identity Development. Journal of Educational Diversity,y 2, 19-25.y Takougang, J. (1995). Recent African Immigrants to the United States: Ay Historical Perspective. The Western Journal of BlackStudies. 19, 1.y ___________. & Tidjani, B. (2009). Settlement Patterns and Organizationsy Among African Immigrants in the United States. Journal ofy Third WorldStudies, 26, 1.