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Motivation,
Incentive &
Performance
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Motivation Some components
Inclination what I feel I want to do active/passive,conscious/sub-conscious Direction what I am trying to do Action what I do do Effort how hard I try Persistence how long I keep trying
How we construe expectations, needs, drives, efforts and results(actual & 'rationalised'/felt) - self & others
The employment concerns? How to "motivate people to give theirall"
Effort, performance, retention, loyalty, membership, commitment, trust,empowerment, participation, work design
Extrinsic & intrinsic rewards Expectancy & equity
Rhetoric vs. reality of management practice
Self-awareness & delusion "Mirror, mirror on the wall".
Motivation & "normal" behaviour vs. the well-motivated criminal.
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Who wants what from motivation?
The person Health & well-being, safety/order, social affiliation/acceptance,recognition & rewards (extrinsic/intrinsic, stimulus & incentive.Feelings of self-worth/value, command of destiny, realisation ofpersonal aspirations/expectations. Equity. Power. Affiliation
The employer
Trusted, reliable employees who give their all, Ability to construe employee motivation, needs & drives + relate to:
effort, economic efficiency, performance, retention, loyalty &commitment, membership culture, empowerment, obligation-duty,participation & contribution, work design, better teams
Others
Interpersonal confidence, liking and rapport, mutual confidence andcollaboration, shared values, not to be let down.
What is the problem?
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Idiosyncrasies and patterns
Idiosyncracies & perceptions of work, personal position andentitlements
Individual differences - the unique self - my construction Common patterns of cognition, behaviour, attitude
Group and cultural influences Me - myself, you
"you scheming, conniving, persistent, grabbing, selfish,
resentful person .. you . and .. you are a capitalist toboot...... one of 'them' ... a typical Lilliputian ...... I've read
all about you in Cosmopolitan."
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Pay-offs in the Employer-Employee Relationship(after Mumford 1972)
Task structureWork within firms policy, procedure & technical constraints. Jobroles, work arrangements & relationships
Knowledge & skillEmployer wants know-how, competence, experience. Employee
wants to be put to good use & be developed
PsychologicalManagement & co-workers want committed, loyal, motivated staff.
Individual wants satisfaction
Efficiency/rewardsEmployer wants performance & output to a quality standard.
Employee wants equitable, felt-fair rewards & opportunity
EthicalValues & ambiguities/inconsistencies in right/wrong behaviour
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Evaluate the following propositions:
Good pay helps to diminish problems of high absenteeism.
The buzz of high morale & emphasis on teamwork means thatthere is moral pressure not to let workmates down. This isreinforced by prominently displaying
costs of absenteeism
discussing reasons for absence with absentees saying how fellow team members are hurt by absenteeism.
There is no direct way motivation can be measured. Indicatorscan be obtained thru
observation, conversation and the stories people tell
attitude surveys
productivity data
absenteeism, retention
moans & gripes
analysis of performance reviews
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Role modelling theory Maier 1959
Role ambiguity may result from uncertainty about How one's work is evaluated Scope for advancement
Scope of responsibility
Others expectations of one's performance
It can cause Insecurity, lack of confidence,tension, irritation and even anger amongst
members of a role set
These will be communicated more often than satisfaction / feelings of beingwell motivated.
Natural critical/evaluative tendencies, blaming others, disgruntlement
Also consider
role underload/overload capacity & stress
demands, choices & constraints
conflict & ambiguity
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Examination Question
Evaluate the truth of the following proposition. How well does itpoint the way to robust, theoretically sound principles that guide
our understanding of employee motivation?
Proposition
"The acquisition and development of employee skills through
sophisticated and systematic selection, induction, training and
appraisal has a positive impact on quality & productivity. It will
lead to better motivation within the company"
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Would I really work for you without reward?
fundamental to employee contract traditional economic exchange model. Pay-effort
determinism
"rate for the job" occupational norms, expectations and choices
expediency - "suitable for my life package at the moment"
Etzioni & organisational membership Systems employers use
Coercive - Remunerative - Normative Employee responses
Alienated - Instrumental - Moral involvement
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The person-as-economist expects........
ROI - time, effort, commitment
"What's in it for me?" calculation Conscious subconscious (self image and comparisons)
Fairness (equitable socio-economic exchange) interpret rewards/pay-offs of others
judge what is fair/unfair
satisfaction if each party achieves a balance (relative equality)
Psychological extension to neutral, economic model Construing the value & importance of input-output
Social, psychological - individual & group Validation of personal perceptions & comparisons clear/distorted
internal/external
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Design Features of Reward Systems
Monetary
Time-based (not directly related to performance)
Performance-linked
Output, %, PRP, merit pay, commission, skill-based
collective-output schemes
Corporate performance-related bonuses + profit sharing
Monetary-equivalent
Car, phone, holidays, loans, accommodation, fees, vouchers
Deferred (promotion, pension)
Non-monetary / intrinsic benefits - safety, status, recognition,
plaques, contribution and empowerment
Negatives pressure, penalties, harassment, side-lining, dismissal
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Pay by time schemes - Components
simple to administer
defined time F/T, P/T, mixed-time, casual
no attendance, no pay? Hourly, weekly, monthly
premiums 1.5T, 2T, nights
Flexi-time schemes
Door knob syndrome
job grading/evaluation - evaluate the job not the person doing it
control mechanisms & tools clocks, supervision, time sheets?
performance assumptions
trust, competence, diligence, fidelity, care, good-will, cooperation
work forErin Er time vs ...in your time?
supervision & monitoring - When the cats away?
Is actual presence necessary? Off-site working.
life increments - pay & career progression, security?
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PRP, merit pay, skill-based schemes
Requires
targeting, information & measurement
manager appraisal & judgement
problems of "big scheme" rules and controls
Pay linked to individual merit (behaviours, traits & competencies:
flexibility, cooperation, punctuality, effort, skills/abilities).
concrete individual or group targets
Staff appraisal criteria, rating, and exchange/intervention
process
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Performance-Related Pay (PRP)
extensive but partial & sectoral
little research data on effectiveness
pay linked to specific aspect of performance intensity of MbO approach
problem of defining the group + outputs what if key results not achieved?
how is control and consistency achieved?
fairness + validation of "the manager's judgment"
merit pay or bonus addition to salary for this appraisal roundonly?
The neurosis of "targetitis"
"Fat cat bonuses" envy + "global market for stars" +formulae + intervention?
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Defining jobs
how can a manager operate effectively if he/she does notunderstand & cannot define staff jobs?
shared understanding about what the job is reliable, factual definition of scope of job & responsibilities
useful for organisational design & analysis of change?
help to clarify role & provide a reference point for induction,recruitment, performance assessment & grading?
a basis for the job advert & recruitment literature?
indicates competence required - generic + job specific
confining, time consuming, out-of-date in a flexible organisation
Contractual?"Job descriptions - - Burn the lot of 'em"
Robert Townsend, Up the Organisation
"Job descriptions - - Burn the lot of 'em"
Robert Townsend, Up the Organisation
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Job definition elements
Job definition Title, reporting relationships (up, down, sideways, external) job summary, responsibilities, duties, scope of authority
MbO/R: key result areas, yardsticks of performance, evaluation data
contractual provisions
Competence specification levels, range of situations, performance indicators,
knowledge/wisdom, experience, skills (psycho-motor, technical,
analytical, literary, spoken, numeric, social & emotional)
The competences this organisation values
Role & performance analysis
Personnel specification (person profile) characteristics of ideal candidate Essentials - desirables - disqualifiers. Motivators
Psychometric-objective selection - fit person to job Biodata, interviews, various tests, references
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MbO Record
Name Job/Role Date
Key Job Area Objective/Target to beAchieved
Data for
Monitoring
Training/LearningNeeds
1.
2.
3.
4.
Progress Review Dates
Notes on Achievements/Progress
Signed: (Post-holder)Signed: (Post-holder) Signed: (Manager)Signed: (Manager)
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Emotional & social dynamics & expectations
Important for employee belief & commitment Impact of rules-of the-scheme (formal contract) on
individual sensitivity (psychological contract).
personal expectations
+ formal/informal exchange Er Ee
my manager as
employer (by proxy)
as a person I like/dislike, respect?
How I "see" what others are getting - internally & externally
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Organisational "Culture" Problems
conscious calculation & instrumentality? Take-it or leave it + "9-5" sub-optimisation rangible over non-tangible rewards organisational rationalisation of effort-reward
relationship
structural inflexibility of reward packages constructing & controlling the performance review and
PRP system
genuine involvement & participation delegation, reliance & confidence
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How well has work-motivation theory dealt with this?
Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland - Herzberg- hygiene & motivators, job redesign
Concern with individual needs/goals
emphasis on what motivates
general, universal
Needs & satisfactions
Content (What it is & its elements)
Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland - Herzberg- hygiene & motivators, job redesign
Concern with individual needs/goals
emphasis on what motivates
general, universal
Needs & satisfactions
Content (What it is & its elements)
Attribution theory
Adams - Equity theory
Vroom, Lawler - Expectancy theory
Hackman & Oldham - job characteristics
McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y
"on managing . this approach is better"
dynamic, emphasis on process - how it occurs
prescriptive responses
Process
Attribution theory
Adams - Equity theory
Vroom, Lawler - Expectancy theory
Hackman & Oldham - job characteristics
McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y
"on managing . this approach is better"
dynamic, emphasis on process - how it occurs
prescriptive responses
Process
Behavioural
Focus on behaviour
Responses to stimuli - external
Avoidance learning & punishment
reinforcement & behaviour modification theory(operant conditioning)
Behavioural
Focus on behaviour
Responses to stimuli - external
Avoidance learning & punishment
reinforcement & behaviour modification theory(operant conditioning)
Cognitive
Consciousness/rationality
Goals & behaviour e.g. Locke - goal setting
Known & calculable
e.g. homo economicus
Learning
Cognitive
Consciousness/rationality
Goals & behaviour e.g. Locke - goal setting
Known & calculable
e.g. homo economicus
Learning
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Abraham Maslow 1954 - Need Satisfaction
Needs
Behaviour/
Action
Goals
achievedrive
satisfy
teleology
goal-orientation
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Abraham Maslow - Hierarchy of Needs
Influential Content of motivation (needs that
motivate) theory - not personality
Classified needs lower needs must be satisfied
before higher needs are activated
Chronic need deficiency (neurosis?)motivations action
gratified needs - equilibrium
snakes and ladders or lower needs mediated by higher
order consciousness?
simple descriptive, partial nb: Alderfer ERG - existence,
relatedness, growth)
cognitive & developmental
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What is Self Actualisation?
difficult to define
uniquely human motive? a way of life > a goal. not a need but on-going
growth/development process.
Example characteristics
accurate perception of reality.
accept selves & others.
spontaneous, open & natural
problem centred > self centred pacific calm, serene in nasty situations.
dont take things for granted.
peak experiences.
affection & regard for others
capable of deep satisfying relationships
democratic, ethical
creative, sense of humour.
independent of enculturisation
Example characteristics
accurate perception of reality.
accept selves & others.
spontaneous, open & natural
problem centred > self centred pacific calm, serene in nasty situations.
dont take things for granted.
peak experiences.
affection & regard for others
capable of deep satisfying relationships
democratic, ethical
creative, sense of humour.
independent of enculturisation
Becoming Self-Actualised?
Be willing to change. Take responsibility.
Examine your motives. Experience honestly & directly. Use positive experiences. Be prepared to be different.
Becoming Self-Actualised?
Be willing to change. Take responsibility.
Examine your motives. Experience honestly & directly. Use positive experiences. Be prepared to be different.
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Self-actualised? Human like everyone else..
displays frailty & failings, ups & downs. emotional, critical attitudes towards others urge to decide for themselves
may say "NO" & be unpredictable - own destiny.wants reasons without always wishing to conform. accepts need for conformity most of the time to serve
their interests
avoids being selfish & ego-centred (denying space toothers).
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wholeness (unity, tendency to oneness,interconnectedness)
perfection (just-right-ness, suitability) completion (fulfilment, finis & telos) justice (fair, orderly,ought-to-be-ness)
alive (process, self-regulation, full-functioning) richness (differentiation, complexity,
intricacy)
simplicity (honesty, openness, essentials)
beauty (rightness, form, wholeness,perfection, honesty)
goodness (rightness, ought-ness,benevolence)
uniqueness (individuality) effortlessness (ease, at-one-ness graceful)
playfulness (joy, humour, exuberance) truth, honesty, reality (open, clean,
unadulterated, essential)
self-sufficiency (autonomous, self-determining, transcendence)
Much to live up to
Maslow on (B)eing values - qualities of "ethical, virtuous person
Toward a Psychology of Being (1968)
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Critique of Maslow
simple, plausible, general useful descriptive value? fudgey, vague, nave, nice but untestable concepts hydraulic assumption : satisfy needs to boost bigger &
better "motivated" tendencies
pressures on people to Limit scope for self-actualisation
Be self-actualised (self-development movement)
cant predict behaviour in given situations. self actualisation : a positive, attractive, humanist concept We would all like to see ourselves as self-actualised.
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Eric Trist - what people want from their jobs
Reasonably demandingwork with some variety
Opportunity to learn Some decision making
Social support andrecognition Significance & meaning Some desirable future
Job design principlesAt the level of the individual
Respect
Contribution to product
Quantity & quality - feedback results
quickly Meaningful whole task
A whole job - plan, do, evaluate
Variety
Optimum cycle times
At the level of the group? Whole, meaningful task
Set standards, feedback on results
Ways of discussing jobs
Attractive future possibilities
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Work restructuring
Workgroup
empowerment
job enrichment
as enlargement
role of supervisor
rewardsystems
role of service
functions?
information
systems
technology
consultation unionisation?
management
style organisation
structure
organisation
culture
membership
commitments
out sourcingplace
matrix
Core - peripheral
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Job restructuring
Tasks
Add new & different tasks
Increase cycle time
Add ancillary & preparatory tasks
Work organisation
Job enrichment
Empowerment
Own work method
Planning/organising
Problem-solvingGoal setting
Flexible pace and hours
Flexible location
Information feedback
Opportunities
Flexible rewards
Further skills/learning
Challenge
Self supervision
Networking
Work/job attributes
Work variety
Use of skills/abilities
Meaningful/worthwhile
ContributionAdvancement prospects
Accountability &
responsibility
Discretion & decisions
Autonomy
Implications
Benefits
Disadvantages
Outsourcing?
Call centres?
Virtual teams?
Teleworking?Social impact
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Expectancy theory (the process of motivation)
Motivated to perform because ofexpectations relating to perceivedpayoffs from the performance.
______
Desirability of payoffs (valence),perception of expectancy + force ofexpression - intrinsic to the person.
______
Personal view of what is challengingor interesting, important to self +valuation of extrinsic payoffs - pay &
material rewards
expectancy - If I tried could I doit? Get away with it?
Instrumentality - if I did it will Iattain the outcome?
valence (subjective valuation) -do I really value what's
available?
Expressed as probabilities.
Path-goal relationships whichexplain motivation
performance.
assoc.. with Vroom & Lawler/Porter
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Expectancy Theory - Vroom et al
valence
A robust explanatory, predictive model?
How the individual construes it all?
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Adams & Equity - an impossible ideal?
Felt-fairness - how I am treated in relation to others
Equity balance sheet & "the last straw "What you gain on the swings.." Trust/good-will
No more thats it for me!
Internal & external comparisons (groups & individuals)
Feelings & perceptions - not synonymous with equality
Proposition better motivated if treated equitably & consistently
distributive equity
how I perceive I am treated & rewarded in comparison to others procedural equity
how I see organisational procedures being applied
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Equity and Justice
Distributive justicehow rewards are distributed in accordance with
my contribution & need
what was promised.
Procedural equityhow reward decisions are made & managed
adequate consideration of employees viewpoint
no personal bias
consistent application of criteria
early feedback on outcome of decisions adequate explanation of decisions made
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Organisational initiatives
job design & flexibility - matching people to jobs MbO - defining expectations and feedback teams & semi-autonomous groups, empowerment concern for staff development, competencies and accreditation
effort to refine & deliver reward packages that "motivate" -PRP managerial behaviours constant organisational vigilance & sensitivity a rewarding, supportive climate and cultures that foster confidence & identification (one-ness with the firm)
meaningful, practical commitment?