Memory Chapter 8 Unit 7 ~ Part 1 AP Psychology ~ Ms.
Justice
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Studying Memory: Information-Processing Models Studying Memory:
Information-Processing Models Encoding: Getting Information In
Encoding: Getting Information In Storage: Retaining Information
Storage: Retaining Information Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Forgetting Forgetting Memory
Construction Memory Construction Improving Memory Improving Memory
BIG IDEAS
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The Phenomenon of Memory Memory is any indication that learning
has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve
information.
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1: How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
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Information Processing Models Keyboard(Encoding)Disk(Storage)
Monitor(Retrieval) Computers process information in a speedy,
sequential process; the human brain is slower but does many things
at once Encoding getting information into the brain Storage
retaining information Retrieval getting information back out
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Information Processing The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968)
three-stage model of memory includes: a) sensory memory an
immediate recording of information information b) short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly (info. is either
stored holds a few items briefly (info. is either stored or
forgotten) or forgotten) c) long-term memory relatively permanent
and limitless storehouse of the memory system limitless storehouse
of the memory system
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Modifications to the Three-Stage Model 1.Some information skips
the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.
2.Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we
select information that is important to us and process it into our
working memory short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active
processing of information.
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2: What information do we encode automatically? What
information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution
of practice influence retention?
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Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode 1.Some
information (route to your school) is automatically processed.
2.However, new or unusual information (friends new cell-phone
number) requires attention and effort.
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Automatic Processing We process an enormous amount of
information effortlessly, such as the following: 1.Space: While
reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page. 2.Time: We unintentionally note the time that events
take place in a day. 3.Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
things that happen to you.
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Effortful Processing Committing novel (new) information to
memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a
textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit Bananastock/ Alamy Figure 8.4, page
331
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Rehearsal Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or
conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de The more times the nonsense
syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were
required to remember them on Day 2.
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Memory Effects 1.Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time. 2.Serial Position Effect: When your
recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for
middle items.
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3: What effortful processing methods aid in forming
memories?
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What We Encode 1.Semantic encoding - encoding by meaning
2.Visual encoding - encoding by images 3.Acoustic encoding -
encoding by sounds
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Encoding Meaning Semantic encoding, or processing the meaning
of information by associating it with what we already know (or
imagine), results in better recognition later than visual or
acoustic encoding. The time you spend thinking about material you
are reading and relating it to previously stored material is about
the most useful thing you can do in learning any new subject
matter. memory researcher Wayne Wickelgren
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Visual Encoding Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to
effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic
encoding. Showing adverse effects of meth use in a picture may be
more powerful than simply talking about it.
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Mnemonics Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and
organizational devices in aiding memory.
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Organizing Information for Encoding Break down complex
information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into
categories and subcategories. 1.Chunking 2.Hierarchies
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Chunking Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try
to remember the numbers below. 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 If
you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers
together and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812
1941.
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Chunking F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M The capacity of the working
memory may be increased by chunking. FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks
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Chunking Acronyms are another way of chunking information to
remember it. HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ROY
G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
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Hierarchy Complex information broken down into broad concepts
and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.
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4: What is sensory memory?
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Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of
memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory
Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events
Retrieval
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Sensory Memories Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long
Hepatic < 1 sec. long The duration of sensory memory varies for
the different senses.
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5: What are the duration and capacity of short-term and
long-term memory?
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Working Memory George Millers research suggested that working
memory has a limited capacity (72) and a short duration (20
seconds).
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Duration Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of
working memory by manipulating rehearsal. CH?? The duration of the
working memory is about 20 sec. CHJ MKT HIJ 100 97 94
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Test Your Working Memory! You should be able to recall 72
numbers. Ready? Short Term Memory Demonstration
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Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store. The
Clarks nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds
during winter and spring. R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
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Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-Term
Memory EncodingCopyPhonemicSemantic CapacityUnlimited72 ChunksVery
Large Duration0.25 sec.20 sec.Years
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6: How does the brain store our memories?
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Storing Memories in the Brain 1.Loftus and Loftus (1980)
analyzed vivid memories triggered by brain stimulation during
surgery: they found that what seemed at first to be flashbacks,
actually appeared to be invented, not relived 2.Using rats, Lashley
(1950) suggested that memories do not reside in single, specific
spots: even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain
partial memory of a maze.
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Synaptic Changes Experience modifies the brains neural networks
Increased activity in a neural pathway strengthens neural
interconnections When learning occurs, synapses become more
efficient at transmitting signals The sending neuron needs less
prompting to release its neurotransmitter, and the receiving
neurons receptor sites may increase
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Synaptic Changes Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) Long-Term
Potentiation (LTP) refers to an increase in a synapses firing
potential after learning (Lynch, 2002). Both Photos: From N. Toni
et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique
Muller
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Stress Hormones & Memory Flashbulb memories Heightened
emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant
moments or events Scott Barbour/ Getty Images
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Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare. Implicit memory Implicit memory
involves learning an action while the individual does not know or
declare what she knows. Fig. 8.14, p. 343
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No New Memories Anterograde Amnesia Surgery anterograde amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery to alleviate epilepsy,
patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation
but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia.
Memory Intact
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Implicit Memory HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his
surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact
that he has already played the game. HM is unable to make new
memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
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7: How do we get information out of memory?
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Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval refers to getting
information out of the memory store. Spankys Yearbook Archive Even
if Oprah and Brad hadnt become famous, their high school classmates
would likely still recognize their yearbook photos.
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Measures of Memory recognition In recognition, the person must
identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test
requires recognition.) 1.Name the capital of France. a.Brussels
b.Rome c.London d.Paris
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Measures of Memory recall In recall, the person must retrieve
information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires
recall.) 1.The capital of France is ______.
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Measures of Memory relearning In relearning, the individual
shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for
the second time. List Jet Dagger Tree Kite Silk Frog Ring 10 It
took 10 trials to learn this list List Jet Dagger Tree Kite Silk
Frog Ring 5 It took 5 trials to learn the list 1 day later Saving
Original Trials Relearning Trials Original Trials 10 5 50% X
100
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Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors that help
retrieve memory. Fire Truck truck red fire heat smoke smell water
hose
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Priming priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads
to it. This process is called priming.
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8: How do external contexts and internal emotions influence
memory retrieval?
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Context Effects Putting yourself back in the context where you
experienced something can prime your memory retrieval. Scuba divers
recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater,
while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on
land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Fred McConnaughey/ Photo
Researchers
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Moods and Memories mood-congruent We usually recall experiences
that are consistent with our current mood (state-dependent memory).
Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues. Our memories are
mood-congruent. Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
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9: Why do we forget?
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Forgetting Forgetting is an inability to retrieve information
due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
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Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we do not encode.
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Storage Decay Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of
forgetting and retaining over 50 years. Poor durability of stored
memories leads to their decay.
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Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the
memory store, it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue is a
retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells
red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).
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Proactive Interference When something you learned earlier
disrupts your recall of something you experience later.
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Retroactive Interference When new information makes it harder
to recall something you learned earlier. Sleep prevents retroactive
interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall.
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Motivated Forgetting Repression: Freud suggested that we have a
defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories from consciousness. **An increasing number
of memory researchers think this rarely, if ever, occurs. Sigmund
Freud
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Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We
filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages. Fig.
8.25, p. 355
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10: How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia
influence our memory construction? How real-seeming are false
memories?
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Memory Construction While tapping our memories, we filter or
fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more
coherent. Misinformation Effect: Misinformation Effect:
Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an
event.
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Misinformation and Imagination Effects Eyewitnesses reconstruct
their memories when questioned about the event. Depiction of the
actual accident.
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Misinformation Group A: How fast were the cars going when they
hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they
smashed into each other?
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Memory Construction A week later they were asked: Was there any
broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass
than Group A (hit). Depiction of the actual accident.
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Source Amnesia Source Amnesia Source Amnesia: Attributing an
event that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined to the wrong
source (misattribution). ?
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Childrens Eyewitness Recall Childrens eyewitness recall can be
unreliable if leading questions are posed. However, if cognitive
interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall
increases. In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower
percentage of abuse.
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11: What is the controversy related to claims of repressed and
recovered memories?
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Constructed Memories Elizabeth Loftus research shows that if
false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are
implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their
memories. Don Shrubshell
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Consensus on Childhood Abuse 1.Injustice happens. 2.Incest and
other sexual abuse happens. 3.People may forget. 4.Recovered
memories are commonplace. 5.Recovered memories under hypnosis or
drugs are unreliable. 6.Memories of things happening before 3 years
of age are unreliable. 7.Memories, whether real or false, are
emotionally upsetting. Leading psychological associations of the
world agree on the following concerning childhood sexual abuse: p.
362
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12: How can an understanding of memory contribute to more
effective study techniques?
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Improving Memory 1.Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
2.Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the
material. 3.Make material personally meaningful. *mindlessly
repeating someone elses words while taking notes is relatively
ineffective* 4. Use mnemonic devices: associate with something
already stored make up a story chunk acronyms
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Improving Memory 5.Activate retrieval cues mentally recreate
the situation and mood. 6.Recall events while they are fresh before
you encounter misinformation. 7.Minimize interference: 1.Test your
own knowledge. 2.Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet
know.