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Linking Teacher Behaviors to CulturalKnowledgeDr. Rosa Hernández Sheets & Adrienne FongPublished online: 30 Jan 2008.

To cite this article: Dr. Rosa Hernández Sheets & Adrienne Fong (2003) Linking Teacher Behaviorsto Cultural Knowledge, The Educational Forum, 67:4, 372-379, DOI: 10.1080/00131720308984586

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Linking Teacher Behaviorsto Cultural I<nowledge

by Rosa Hernandez Sheetsand Adrienne Fong

Man y scholars place high expe ctationson the theoretical understandings of di ver­sity ideologies as solu tions to improve thequ ality of schooling for more students (Gay1994; Gollnick and Chinn 1990; Irvine andYork 1995; Nie to 2000). Likewise, a bod yof research maintains that knowled ge ofd iversi ty is cri tic al to improving theaca demic and social growth of di versestuden ts (Da rder 1993; Ladson-Billings1994; Shee ts 1995). Therefore, profession al­development and teacher-cred en tial pro­grams often provid e training and prep ara­tion in divers ity to help teachers improveservices to children. Howe ver, prep aringteachers to internalize the role of culture inthe teaching-learning process and provid­ing them with the skill s needed to sus tainand apply thi s knowledge in classroomshas proven to be "easier said than done"(Pang and Sablan 1998; Sleeter 2001).

Though teach ers can acknow ledge theimpo rtance of di versity, competency inclassrooms is often determined by teach­ers' abil ity to apply th eir own cultu ra lknowled ge in ways that enable students tolearn. Though complex, extensive theoriz­ing of diversity ideologies in education hasins tilled hope of improving schooling con­diti ons for child ren (Gay 2000; Ladson­Billings 2001; N ieto 2000). Yet multi-

culturalists conced e that the application ofmulticultural theory to schooling is ofteninconsistent and in effective (Gay 1995;Sleeter 2001).

Though the commi tmen t to add ressdivers ity issues seems pervasive in the fieldof educati on, a formidable chasm amo ngthe promises of multicultural educa tion,the intentions of teach er educators, thesk ills of teach ers, an d the realities ofachievement ou tcomes for underr epre­sented children persists (Sheets in press).Widespread informa tion about di versitydoes not seem to influence the achievementof underrep resented children attendingpublic schools (Gay 1995; Sleeter 2001).

Most teacher s in the field act with thebest intentions, and much of the responsi­bility for improving the learning outcomesof diverse children lies with them. How doteachers conceptualize "multicultural ed u­cation"? How do they try to implement it?We studied two kindergarten teachers in anurban public school in Northern Californiato investigate the issues contributing to themulticultural theory-p ractice gap .

RESEARCH DESIGN

We felt that teacher inquiry (Cochran­Smith and Lytle 1993) provided a non ­threatening approach for teachers to qu es-

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tion their positions about culture and ex­amine their practice. In this case, teacherinquiry helped teachers identify their cul­tural knowledge, recognize the diversitypresent in their classrooms, and constructmeanings to their pedagogical responses tothe particular diversity elements in theirclassrooms. We followed rigorous qualita­tive methodology (Miles and Huberman1984; Silverman 1993).

Each of the two kindergarten teacherswe selected had 15 years' teaching experi­ence and exposure to at least one univer­sity / college course and one in-serviceworkshop on diversity. "Claire" (ChineseAmerican) and "Gwen" (European Ameri­can), each taught 20 children in separate,adjacent rooms. They planned colla­boratively and often grouped children forvarious activities.

Claire, in her early 40s, has a Cantonesebilingual credential. Claire's class included16 Chinese Americans, three EuropeanAmericans, and one Armenian American; 12of the children were labeled English­language learners (ELL). Gwen, in her mid50s,has a Cross-Cultural Language and Aca­demic Development (CLAD) certificate andhas also taught for 15 years. Gwen's classincluded 14 Chinese Americans, four Euro­pean Americans, and two Asian Americans;

Rosa HernandezSheets is Associate ProfessorofEducation at Texas Tech University inLublxxk. Her research examines preparation ofteachers ofcolor and successful teacherresponses to children's cultural displays ofcompetency. Dr. Sheets is a member ofthe NuSigma Chapter ofKappa Delta Pi.

AdIienne Fong is an instructor ofearlychildhood and diversity courses at SanFrandsco State University. Her research focuseson issues ofdiversity as they relate to families,

young children, and preparation ofearlychildhood caregivers.

12 children were identified as ELL.The study took place during the spring

semester in an urban public school districtin northern California. The school was oneof the more desirable schools in the district,with standardized test scores above the dis­trict mean.

We gave Claire and Gwen a question­naire, conducted teacher interviews, andobserved their classroom practices using aDiversity Pedagogy Instrument (Sheets2000). The questionnaire, given at the be­ginning of the study, inquired about teach­ing background, formal preparation indiversity, and how these teachers concep­tualized "multicultural education." Theyalso described how their attempts to teachmulticulturally were supported. In the in­terview, we encouraged reflection on pos­sible issues hindering and/or advancingimplementation of multicultural theory.Informal conversations (during recess andafter school) provided another valuabledata source.

Observations took place during a 40­minute afternoon "Plan, Do, and Review"activity, in which children selected from abroad range of offerings: social, hands-on,manipulative, and academic activities.These observations documented thechildren's choices, social interactions, andrelated teacher responses. We used the Di­versity Pedagogy Instrument to record theteachers' and children's complementarybehaviors. Teaching practices that adaptedinstruction and curriculum in response tothe cultural knowledge and experiences ofchildren were recorded as diversity peda­gogical behaviors. Children's cultural dis­plays revealed culturally influenced com­petencies, behaviors, and attitudes.

The data, organized and analyzed ac­cording to procedures recommended byMiles and Huberman (1984), used data re­duction and data display to draw andverify emerging conclusions from multiple

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data sources. In the first phase of data re­duction, an initial coding scheme with key­words and phrases identified the types ofpossible teacher conceptualizations ofmulticultural education. The same processlabeled and coded children's cultural dis­plays. Key words and phrases from bothsets of data were color coded, further re­duced, and recorded on two separate ma­trices as data displays. Recording the cat­egories generated by the data on teacherconceptualization of multicultural educa­tion and children's cultural displaysgraphically on a matrix allowed us to ex­amine the emerging themes visually. Con­clusion drawing and verification involveda careful analysis of the emerging patterns.

R ELIABILITY OF INFORMATION

The small sample size and short dura­tion period are limitations of this study. Ourfindings reflect these limitations and canonly be generalized to this sample. Addi­tionally, because "multicultural education"may be perceived as controversial, andteachers may feel uncomfortable, unin­formed, and/or sensitive when discussingdiversity issues, the reliability of the infor­mation, particularly during the interviews,could be compromised if the teachers feltcompelled to offer perceived socially ac­ceptable and/or "politically correct" re­sponses. We tried to minimize this effect byestablishing a cordial and trusting relation­ship with the teachers, emphasizing col­laboration and use of multiple data sources.

FINDINGS

Trained in early childhood methods,these experienced teachers were keen ob­servers of children's behavior. They used achild-centered teaching approach. Thoughthey expressed desire to implement"multicultural theory," they considered itburdensome, confusing, intrusive, andfrustrating. They viewed their teaching

skills as developmental and welcomed theinquiry/ collaborative approach as a wayto improve their practice.

Their cultural knowledge and linguis­tic skills directly influenced the ways theteachers implemented specific diversitypedagogical dimensions (Sheets 2000). Forexample, teachers and students experi­enced the diversity pedagogical dimensionon language expansion and maintenancedifferently. Both teachers valued languageacquisition and encouraged second­language development.

CLASSROOM CONTEXT

"Plan, Do, and Review" was a free­choice period. It involved the self-selectionof friends and activities. Students oftenworked and played in groups of two orthree.

In Gwen's classroom, the walls werecovered with children's artwork and pho­tos of recent field trips. Bright rugs and acomfortable reading sofa gave it a home­like atmosphere. A substantial collection ofaccessible resources provided children withmath manipulatives, puzzles, games, artmaterials, and books and posters in Chi­nese, Spanish, English, and American SignLanguage (ASL). During "Plan, Do, andReview," Gwen circulated around theroom. She organized library books, helpedchildren set up group activi ties, and joinedchildren in board games. She was relaxedand warm with the children, who oftenwalked up and hugged her. The emotionalsafety in Gwen's classroom encouragedchildren to develop friendly and respect­ful social interactions.

Claire's classroom, formally a facultyoffice, was quite small. This inviting class­room also offered multiple resources-aplay kitchen, four computers, shelves withmath manipulatives, puzzles, and boardgames. A large bookcase full of multicul­tural children's literature and a collection

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education is."

Teachers argued that

no one "really knows

what multicultural

of posters filled one wall. The ASL alpha­bet was prominently placed over the black­board, and a wall hanging with a pictureof diverse children hung from the frontdoor. Children made Chinese paper lan­terns, and valentines were strung across theroom. The play kitchen had a set of Chi­nese plates, bowls, andteacups as well as regulardishes and plastic pizzaand spaghetti.

Claire spent this pe­riod at a small table,working with individualchildren to review lettersand sounds from work­sheets. She maintained aformal relationship withchildren, who seemed re-laxed, happy, and com-fortable. This classroomfeatured less socializingbehavior and more task-related interac­tions. Claire, kind but firm, often gave di­rect instructions.

STUDENT EXPRESSIONS OF CULTURE

While the teachers struggled with"how to teach multiculturally," the childrenfreely displayed their own expressions ofculture. In structured play, storytelling, andrecess, children initiated dialogue aboutculture and "cultural displays" (Sheets2000). These culturally influenced behav­iorsreflected and displayed the competen­cies valued in the children's home cul­ture; as such, they provided the teacherswith valuable information to enhance theteaching-learning process. The children ex­pressed a willingness to share and exploretheir background experiences. They sharedthis knowledge without defensiveness andcompetitiveness. The interaction, an exten­sion of pla y, demonstrated a desire to es­tablish and share a cultural frame ofreference.

BARRIERS TO IMPLEMENTATION

We noted several barriers to implemen­tation of multicultural education. First, theteachers argued that no one "really knowswhat multicultural education is." They con­cluded that this lack of agreement or con­sensus on a definition caused the confusion

leading to fragmentationor dismissal in the field .Gwen noted that the con­stant "debate and discus-sion" about multiculturaleducation left her "dumb­founded." She describedher "multicultural" teach­ing as "choppy." Clairewondered whether multi­cultural education meant"setting aside a specifictime of the day or not set­ting a particular time.Maybe we just incorpo-

rate it into our curriculum."During discussions, both teachers used

a broad application of multiculturalism.According to these teachers, multiculturalcould mean "hundreds of cultures" (e.g.,Chinese, feminist, and individual). Teach­ing about different world cultures andteaching differently to culturally diversechildren were viewed as a single construct.For example, the discussion of ways to in­corporate multicultural curricular contentincluded topics such as taking the childrento see a performance of Balinese dance andrecognizing children's different learningpreferences.

Without a clear understanding of"multicultural education," the teachers of­fered defensive responses. They describedmulticultural education as just anotherforced "set of standards." Gwen arguedthat all standards seem "prearranged orpredetermined." She maintained, "The artof education cannot thrive this way." Clairesuggested her teaching would simply end

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up " foll ow in g district's mandatedschedules."

The teachers' misconceptions affectedth eir ability to recognize their own re ­sponses to the role of culture in their teach­ing, undermining confidence in their effortsto teach multiculturally. In the initial inter­view, when asked about their multiculturalteaching practice, Gwen blurted out, "Idon't do anything cultural." Claire stated,"I don't have time for multicultural educa­tion." Several times during informal con­versations, Claire stated that she often feelsthat she does no t know whether or not sheis teaching multiculturally, but guessed thatshe might be "without realizing it." Gwenstated, "Inside of me, I feel there's a cross­cultural education going on . .. [but] I'mnot doing what I believe is [multiculturaleducation] ."

Second, the teachers felt overwhelmedand resentful that the classroom wasviewed "by others" as a place to addresssocietal issues (racism, homelessness, vio­lence, drugs). They complained that teach­ers were expected to carry the burden ofsolving the country's political and socialproblems through multicultural education.Acknowledging that racism and other so­cietal issues affect children, these teacherssaid that the solution to those issues restedon multiple social agencies-family, com­munity, churches, government-ratherthan teachers. Both dismissed an y desire forsocial or political activism.

Finally, these teachers discussed culturalknowledge. Differences among languageskills and experiential backgrounds of teach­ers and children, coupled with the ability touse personal knowledge and experiences inthe classroom, influenced the teachers' per­ception of how to implement multiculturaleducation in their classrooms. They under­stood the need to acknowledge"differences"in classroom instruction and respond to dif­ferent children's needs accordingly.

Claire's shared cultural knowledge, lin­guistic skills, and similar childhood expe­riences with half of the children in her classand bilingual teaching preparation influ­enced her practice. She remembered learn­ing English in primary school: "Maybe be­cause I was a second-language learner, I canpretty much understand how the studentsare learning English." She particularly fo­cused on developing written and spoken­language skills. While children indepen­dently participated in "Plan, Do , andReview," Claire worked with individualchildren who were having difficulties withletter and sound concepts. She made de­liberate efforts to ensure "proper" Englishpronunciation.

For Claire, recognition of the children'shome culture helped them be "proud to bewho they are ." Claire consciously linkedchildren's prior cultural and linguisticknowledge to new concepts. She sawmulticultural education as "being awareand understanding that students comefrom different backgrounds and culturesand that they may need different types oflearning tools."

Gwen viewed multicultural practice as"children of different cultural backgroundsgetting to know each other, learning to play,work, and work out conflicts together. " Shefocused on enhancing socialization oppor­tunities among the children and saw herrole as promoting cross-cultural relation­ships and awareness and understanding ofdifferences. She did not share a culturalbackground with the majority of the chil ­dren in her class and recognized the differ­ence. She often marveled at how theCantonese-speaking children wouldswiftly focus on their work after a shortCantonese phrase from Claire. Gwen usedher own knowledge and strengths to fos­ter what she valued. Because she encour­aged first-language maintenance andviewed languages as different forms of

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communication, she found ways to enrichclassroom communication. This child­centered teaching approach and her strongobservational skills helped her respond toclassroom diversity. She often commentedthat she took cues from the children.

INSIGHTS TO IMPLEMENTATION

These teachers understood that theirpractice improved with hard work, newknowledge, and experience. Aware of howthey developed as educators-reflection,collaboration, professional development,classroom experiences, observation ofchildren's behaviors, acceptance of andexperimenting with new approaches, re­sources, and ideas-they recognized thattheir understanding of "multicultur al edu­cation" affected its implementation.

Claire noted that there are multiple ap­proaches to multicultural education: "Youhave to be aware of it. [It's] a little part ofeverything. I don't think there's just oneway. You have to find out where you areand what would be the best way for you."Gwen, conscious of her inability to commu­nicate in Chinese to parents during teacherconferences, learned to use concise wordsand phrases in the "comments" section ofthe written report card to parents. Shehoped that this would meet the needs ofparents who do not read English and whomight use a translator to explain theirchild's achievement.

Both teachers expressed concern aboutthe "theory-practice gap" and a desire tofind solutions for the perceived issues intheir classrooms. Gwen described the needto make her teaching "equitable and acces­sible to all children. You have to back upand say, 'Well, that's not working for thisone or that one , whether it's in language orin math.'"

They recognized opportunities to in­clude more "multicultural" aspects in theirteaching. Gwen stated how certain experi-

ences would be "good for her" and howthe knowledge gained would help "bringmore culture" into her classroom. Clairefollowed up on issues raised in previousclassroom visits. For example, to improvehome-school communication, she wentthrough her files to review a parent ques­tionnaire given at the beg inning of theschool year.

The use of teacher-inquiry provided aprocess for these teachers to address theirfrustrat ion and efforts to implementmulticultural education. As Gwen asked,"What can we really do in the here andnow? " Teacher-inquiry offered a nonthreat­ening approach to dialogue. These teach­ers valued the exchange of concerns andideas and found meeting together to dis­cuss issues helpful. They were able to ex­amine their interpretations and responsesto attempts to implement multicultural ex­periences in their classrooms.

A collaborative st yle characterizedthese teachers' established method of shar­ing resources and teaching strategies. Claireand Gwen shared a single classroom with40 children last year, which required exten­sive curricular planning. Though they werein separate classrooms during this study,they planned a major portion of their cur­riculum together. The reciprocal, natural,day-to-day, curricular, collaborative pro­cess contributed to the teachers' knowledgeof culture. They also discussed cultural is­sues affecting instruction, such as how toaddress the Chinese-American parents' useof "criticism" to motivate their children toachieve more in school. Gwen, aware ofClaire 's cultural knowledge, suggested thatClaire present a workshop to "educate a lotof people who don't know about what isgoing on at home for a lot of our children."

DISCUSSION

Acknowledging the problem of imple­mentation is essential to advancing teach-

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ers' pedagogical efforts . These teachersperceived a broad range of interpretationsof what actually constitutes multiculturaleducational theory and the association ofmulticultural education with a curriculumdominated by societal problems. These per­spectives resulted in confusion, frustration,and di sengagement. Teachers saw multi­cultural education as another "subject"they had to cover with their limited instruc­tional time with children, feeling pressureto comply with state and district mandatesthat they felt had little or no connection tothe teaching-learning process. This percep­tion promoted reasonable decisions to ques­tion and ultimately disregard the recommen­dations of theorists and experts outside oftheir immediate school setting.

These teachers' concept of multicul­tural education also undermined their abil­ity to recognize the ways in which they ac­knowledged the role of culture in theteaching-learning process . They initiallydisowned any relationship betweenmulticultural education and their practice,devaluing and doubting their own knowl­edge, skill s, and efforts. Yet their culturalbackgrounds, linguistic knowledge, per­sonal and professional experiences, habitsof reflection, highly developed observa­tional skills, and child-centered approachto learning provided them with rich, acces­sible resources.

The teachers recognized the impor­tance of responding to children's behaviors.Child-initiated dialogues demonstratedhow children established a personal cul­tural frame-of-reference to the differentsocial, academic, and linguistic situationsthey encountered. Children's cultural dis­plays were a strong indication of awarenessand development. These openly displayedexpressions of culture provided the teach­ers with valuable information regardingchildren's prior knowledge. Claire andGwen used this knowledge to make in-

structional decisions . They were con­sciously and culturally responsive to theinterests, needs, and values of childrenwhen selecting shared reading books, de­signing activities for learning centers, dis­playing children's work, and making deci­sions affecting time allotted to particularactivities.

FINDING THE MEANING

A conceptual understanding of diver­sity pedagogy and personal values alignedto issues of diversity are essential, but it isalso important to acknowledge the complex­ity of the teaching-learning and develop­mental processes teachers experience as theymove from novice to expert level. Knowl­edge of the ways children and teachers learnand the ability to apply and translate cul­tural knowledge to practice is required.

Despite experiential, cultural, and lin­guistic differences between teachers andchildren, teachers, even at a novice level,can learn to notice children's understand­ings of teaching-learning events and de­velop thinking skills to increase awarenessof their own understandings, cultural po­sitions, and filters through which they viewculture, language, class, and ethnicity. Like­wise, instructors of "multicultural" foun­dational courses can focus course contenton schooling issues rather than sociologi­cal problems. Additionally, support toteachers must extend beyond the teacher­preparation stage.

To address the theory-practice gap indiversity requires that those who prepareteachers understand the developmentalnature of teacher knowledge and pedagogy.Centering the content of diversity coursesin the field of education and psychology,rather than sociology, might better prepareteachers to recognize and respond tochildren's competencies and needs and toadapt their instruction and curriculum ac­cordingly. The teachers in this study

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wanted culturally relevant knowledge andrealistic ap p ro aches to the teaching­learning process, yet they felt unsupported .

To offer this support, future teacher­preparation courses and in-service profes­sional development can explore ways tohelp teachers identify and use their per­sonal cultural knowledge and pedagogicalstrengths to create, develop, and implementcurriculum and instruction responsive tochildren ' s prior cultural knowledge .

REFERENCESCoch ran-Sm ith, M., and S. Lytle. 1993. Inside/outside: Teacher

research and knowledge. New York: Teachers CollegePress.

Dard er, A. 1993. How does the culture of the teacher shapethe classroom experiences of La tino stud en ts? Theunexamined question in critical ped agog y. In Hand­book of schooling in urban America, ed . S. W. Rothstein ,195-223. Westport, Conn .: Greenwood.

Gay, G. 1994. At the essence of learning: Multicultural educa­tion. West Lafayette, Ind .: Kappa Delta Pi, InternationalHonor Society in Education.

Gay, G. 1995. Bridg ing multi cultural theory an d practice.Mult icultural Education 3(1): 4-9 .

Gay, G. 2000. Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, researchand practice. New York : Teachers College Press .

Gollnick , D. M., and P. C. Chinn. 1990. Multiwltural educa­tion ill a pluralistic society, 3d ed . Columbus, Ohio:Merrill .

Irvine, J. J.,and D. E. York. 1995. Learning sty les and cultu r­ally div erse students: A literatur e review. In Handbookof research in multicultural education, ed .J.A. Banks andC. A. M. Bank s, 484-97 . New York: Macmillan.

Ladson-Billings, G. 1994. The dreamkeepers: Successfu l teach­ers of African American teachers. San Francisco: [osseyBass.

Teach er inqui ry and collab orative ap ­proaches can be used as viable methods toencourage thinking and instill in teachershabits of continual, critical reflection on self,students, and curriculum. Finally, educa­tional researchers can link teacher behav­iors and children 's achievement out­comes-and, in coll abora tion withclassroom teachers, construct what"multicultur al education" might mean inscho ol settings.

Ladson-Billings, G. 2001. Crossing over to Canaan: The jour­Iley of new teachers in diverse classrooms. San Francisco :[ossey Bass.

Miles, M. B., and A. M. Hub erman . 1984. Qualitative dataallalysis:A sourcebook of new methods. Lond on, England :Sage.

Nieto, S. 2000. Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context ofmulticultural education, 3d ed, New York : Longman.

Pang, V. 0 ., and V.A. Slaban . 1998. Teacher efficacy. In Beillgresponsive tocultural differences, ed . M. E. Dilwor th , 39­58. Thousand Oaks , Calif .: Corw in.

Sheets, R.H. 1995. From remedial to gifted: Effects of cultura llyrelevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice34(30): 186--93.

Shee ts, R. H. 2000. Mult icultural ped agogical knowledge:Learn ing to teach ou r children. Unpublished manu­script.

Sheets, R. H. In press . Comp etency vs. good intentions: Di­versity ideologies and teacher po tential. InternationalJournalof Qualitative Studies ill Education.

Silverman, D. 1993. Interpreting qualitative data: Methods foranalvzing talk, text, alld interaction. Lond on, England:Sage.

Sleeter, C. 2001. Preparing teachers for cultu rally diverseschools: Research and the overwhelming presence ofwhiteness. Journal of Teacher Education 52(2): 94- 106.

rEF,© Kappa Delta Pi

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