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This article was downloaded by: [Laurentian University]On: 07 December 2014, At: 16:33Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
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Linking Teacher Behaviors to CulturalKnowledgeDr. Rosa Hernández Sheets & Adrienne FongPublished online: 30 Jan 2008.
To cite this article: Dr. Rosa Hernández Sheets & Adrienne Fong (2003) Linking Teacher Behaviorsto Cultural Knowledge, The Educational Forum, 67:4, 372-379, DOI: 10.1080/00131720308984586
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131720308984586
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Linking Teacher Behaviorsto Cultural I<nowledge
by Rosa Hernandez Sheetsand Adrienne Fong
Man y scholars place high expe ctationson the theoretical understandings of di versity ideologies as solu tions to improve thequ ality of schooling for more students (Gay1994; Gollnick and Chinn 1990; Irvine andYork 1995; Nie to 2000). Likewise, a bod yof research maintains that knowled ge ofd iversi ty is cri tic al to improving theaca demic and social growth of di versestuden ts (Da rder 1993; Ladson-Billings1994; Shee ts 1995). Therefore, profession aldevelopment and teacher-cred en tial programs often provid e training and prep aration in divers ity to help teachers improveservices to children. Howe ver, prep aringteachers to internalize the role of culture inthe teaching-learning process and providing them with the skill s needed to sus tainand apply thi s knowledge in classroomshas proven to be "easier said than done"(Pang and Sablan 1998; Sleeter 2001).
Though teach ers can acknow ledge theimpo rtance of di versity, competency inclassrooms is often determined by teachers' abil ity to apply th eir own cultu ra lknowled ge in ways that enable students tolearn. Though complex, extensive theorizing of diversity ideologies in education hasins tilled hope of improving schooling conditi ons for child ren (Gay 2000; LadsonBillings 2001; N ieto 2000). Yet multi-
culturalists conced e that the application ofmulticultural theory to schooling is ofteninconsistent and in effective (Gay 1995;Sleeter 2001).
Though the commi tmen t to add ressdivers ity issues seems pervasive in the fieldof educati on, a formidable chasm amo ngthe promises of multicultural educa tion,the intentions of teach er educators, thesk ills of teach ers, an d the realities ofachievement ou tcomes for underr epresented children persists (Sheets in press).Widespread informa tion about di versitydoes not seem to influence the achievementof underrep resented children attendingpublic schools (Gay 1995; Sleeter 2001).
Most teacher s in the field act with thebest intentions, and much of the responsibility for improving the learning outcomesof diverse children lies with them. How doteachers conceptualize "multicultural ed ucation"? How do they try to implement it?We studied two kindergarten teachers in anurban public school in Northern Californiato investigate the issues contributing to themulticultural theory-p ractice gap .
RESEARCH DESIGN
We felt that teacher inquiry (CochranSmith and Lytle 1993) provided a non threatening approach for teachers to qu es-
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tion their positions about culture and examine their practice. In this case, teacherinquiry helped teachers identify their cultural knowledge, recognize the diversitypresent in their classrooms, and constructmeanings to their pedagogical responses tothe particular diversity elements in theirclassrooms. We followed rigorous qualitative methodology (Miles and Huberman1984; Silverman 1993).
Each of the two kindergarten teacherswe selected had 15 years' teaching experience and exposure to at least one university / college course and one in-serviceworkshop on diversity. "Claire" (ChineseAmerican) and "Gwen" (European American), each taught 20 children in separate,adjacent rooms. They planned collaboratively and often grouped children forvarious activities.
Claire, in her early 40s, has a Cantonesebilingual credential. Claire's class included16 Chinese Americans, three EuropeanAmericans, and one Armenian American; 12of the children were labeled Englishlanguage learners (ELL). Gwen, in her mid50s,has a Cross-Cultural Language and Academic Development (CLAD) certificate andhas also taught for 15 years. Gwen's classincluded 14 Chinese Americans, four European Americans, and two Asian Americans;
Rosa HernandezSheets is Associate ProfessorofEducation at Texas Tech University inLublxxk. Her research examines preparation ofteachers ofcolor and successful teacherresponses to children's cultural displays ofcompetency. Dr. Sheets is a member ofthe NuSigma Chapter ofKappa Delta Pi.
AdIienne Fong is an instructor ofearlychildhood and diversity courses at SanFrandsco State University. Her research focuseson issues ofdiversity as they relate to families,
young children, and preparation ofearlychildhood caregivers.
12 children were identified as ELL.The study took place during the spring
semester in an urban public school districtin northern California. The school was oneof the more desirable schools in the district,with standardized test scores above the district mean.
We gave Claire and Gwen a questionnaire, conducted teacher interviews, andobserved their classroom practices using aDiversity Pedagogy Instrument (Sheets2000). The questionnaire, given at the beginning of the study, inquired about teaching background, formal preparation indiversity, and how these teachers conceptualized "multicultural education." Theyalso described how their attempts to teachmulticulturally were supported. In the interview, we encouraged reflection on possible issues hindering and/or advancingimplementation of multicultural theory.Informal conversations (during recess andafter school) provided another valuabledata source.
Observations took place during a 40minute afternoon "Plan, Do, and Review"activity, in which children selected from abroad range of offerings: social, hands-on,manipulative, and academic activities.These observations documented thechildren's choices, social interactions, andrelated teacher responses. We used the Diversity Pedagogy Instrument to record theteachers' and children's complementarybehaviors. Teaching practices that adaptedinstruction and curriculum in response tothe cultural knowledge and experiences ofchildren were recorded as diversity pedagogical behaviors. Children's cultural displays revealed culturally influenced competencies, behaviors, and attitudes.
The data, organized and analyzed according to procedures recommended byMiles and Huberman (1984), used data reduction and data display to draw andverify emerging conclusions from multiple
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data sources. In the first phase of data reduction, an initial coding scheme with keywords and phrases identified the types ofpossible teacher conceptualizations ofmulticultural education. The same processlabeled and coded children's cultural displays. Key words and phrases from bothsets of data were color coded, further reduced, and recorded on two separate matrices as data displays. Recording the categories generated by the data on teacherconceptualization of multicultural education and children's cultural displaysgraphically on a matrix allowed us to examine the emerging themes visually. Conclusion drawing and verification involveda careful analysis of the emerging patterns.
R ELIABILITY OF INFORMATION
The small sample size and short duration period are limitations of this study. Ourfindings reflect these limitations and canonly be generalized to this sample. Additionally, because "multicultural education"may be perceived as controversial, andteachers may feel uncomfortable, uninformed, and/or sensitive when discussingdiversity issues, the reliability of the information, particularly during the interviews,could be compromised if the teachers feltcompelled to offer perceived socially acceptable and/or "politically correct" responses. We tried to minimize this effect byestablishing a cordial and trusting relationship with the teachers, emphasizing collaboration and use of multiple data sources.
FINDINGS
Trained in early childhood methods,these experienced teachers were keen observers of children's behavior. They used achild-centered teaching approach. Thoughthey expressed desire to implement"multicultural theory," they considered itburdensome, confusing, intrusive, andfrustrating. They viewed their teaching
skills as developmental and welcomed theinquiry/ collaborative approach as a wayto improve their practice.
Their cultural knowledge and linguistic skills directly influenced the ways theteachers implemented specific diversitypedagogical dimensions (Sheets 2000). Forexample, teachers and students experienced the diversity pedagogical dimensionon language expansion and maintenancedifferently. Both teachers valued languageacquisition and encouraged secondlanguage development.
CLASSROOM CONTEXT
"Plan, Do, and Review" was a freechoice period. It involved the self-selectionof friends and activities. Students oftenworked and played in groups of two orthree.
In Gwen's classroom, the walls werecovered with children's artwork and photos of recent field trips. Bright rugs and acomfortable reading sofa gave it a homelike atmosphere. A substantial collection ofaccessible resources provided children withmath manipulatives, puzzles, games, artmaterials, and books and posters in Chinese, Spanish, English, and American SignLanguage (ASL). During "Plan, Do, andReview," Gwen circulated around theroom. She organized library books, helpedchildren set up group activi ties, and joinedchildren in board games. She was relaxedand warm with the children, who oftenwalked up and hugged her. The emotionalsafety in Gwen's classroom encouragedchildren to develop friendly and respectful social interactions.
Claire's classroom, formally a facultyoffice, was quite small. This inviting classroom also offered multiple resources-aplay kitchen, four computers, shelves withmath manipulatives, puzzles, and boardgames. A large bookcase full of multicultural children's literature and a collection
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education is."
Teachers argued that
no one "really knows
what multicultural
of posters filled one wall. The ASL alphabet was prominently placed over the blackboard, and a wall hanging with a pictureof diverse children hung from the frontdoor. Children made Chinese paper lanterns, and valentines were strung across theroom. The play kitchen had a set of Chinese plates, bowls, andteacups as well as regulardishes and plastic pizzaand spaghetti.
Claire spent this period at a small table,working with individualchildren to review lettersand sounds from worksheets. She maintained aformal relationship withchildren, who seemed re-laxed, happy, and com-fortable. This classroomfeatured less socializingbehavior and more task-related interactions. Claire, kind but firm, often gave direct instructions.
STUDENT EXPRESSIONS OF CULTURE
While the teachers struggled with"how to teach multiculturally," the childrenfreely displayed their own expressions ofculture. In structured play, storytelling, andrecess, children initiated dialogue aboutculture and "cultural displays" (Sheets2000). These culturally influenced behaviorsreflected and displayed the competencies valued in the children's home culture; as such, they provided the teacherswith valuable information to enhance theteaching-learning process. The children expressed a willingness to share and exploretheir background experiences. They sharedthis knowledge without defensiveness andcompetitiveness. The interaction, an extension of pla y, demonstrated a desire to establish and share a cultural frame ofreference.
BARRIERS TO IMPLEMENTATION
We noted several barriers to implementation of multicultural education. First, theteachers argued that no one "really knowswhat multicultural education is." They concluded that this lack of agreement or consensus on a definition caused the confusion
leading to fragmentationor dismissal in the field .Gwen noted that the constant "debate and discus-sion" about multiculturaleducation left her "dumbfounded." She describedher "multicultural" teaching as "choppy." Clairewondered whether multicultural education meant"setting aside a specifictime of the day or not setting a particular time.Maybe we just incorpo-
rate it into our curriculum."During discussions, both teachers used
a broad application of multiculturalism.According to these teachers, multiculturalcould mean "hundreds of cultures" (e.g.,Chinese, feminist, and individual). Teaching about different world cultures andteaching differently to culturally diversechildren were viewed as a single construct.For example, the discussion of ways to incorporate multicultural curricular contentincluded topics such as taking the childrento see a performance of Balinese dance andrecognizing children's different learningpreferences.
Without a clear understanding of"multicultural education," the teachers offered defensive responses. They describedmulticultural education as just anotherforced "set of standards." Gwen arguedthat all standards seem "prearranged orpredetermined." She maintained, "The artof education cannot thrive this way." Clairesuggested her teaching would simply end
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up " foll ow in g district's mandatedschedules."
The teachers' misconceptions affectedth eir ability to recognize their own re sponses to the role of culture in their teaching, undermining confidence in their effortsto teach multiculturally. In the initial interview, when asked about their multiculturalteaching practice, Gwen blurted out, "Idon't do anything cultural." Claire stated,"I don't have time for multicultural education." Several times during informal conversations, Claire stated that she often feelsthat she does no t know whether or not sheis teaching multiculturally, but guessed thatshe might be "without realizing it." Gwenstated, "Inside of me, I feel there's a crosscultural education going on . .. [but] I'mnot doing what I believe is [multiculturaleducation] ."
Second, the teachers felt overwhelmedand resentful that the classroom wasviewed "by others" as a place to addresssocietal issues (racism, homelessness, violence, drugs). They complained that teachers were expected to carry the burden ofsolving the country's political and socialproblems through multicultural education.Acknowledging that racism and other societal issues affect children, these teacherssaid that the solution to those issues restedon multiple social agencies-family, community, churches, government-ratherthan teachers. Both dismissed an y desire forsocial or political activism.
Finally, these teachers discussed culturalknowledge. Differences among languageskills and experiential backgrounds of teachers and children, coupled with the ability touse personal knowledge and experiences inthe classroom, influenced the teachers' perception of how to implement multiculturaleducation in their classrooms. They understood the need to acknowledge"differences"in classroom instruction and respond to different children's needs accordingly.
Claire's shared cultural knowledge, linguistic skills, and similar childhood experiences with half of the children in her classand bilingual teaching preparation influenced her practice. She remembered learning English in primary school: "Maybe because I was a second-language learner, I canpretty much understand how the studentsare learning English." She particularly focused on developing written and spokenlanguage skills. While children independently participated in "Plan, Do , andReview," Claire worked with individualchildren who were having difficulties withletter and sound concepts. She made deliberate efforts to ensure "proper" Englishpronunciation.
For Claire, recognition of the children'shome culture helped them be "proud to bewho they are ." Claire consciously linkedchildren's prior cultural and linguisticknowledge to new concepts. She sawmulticultural education as "being awareand understanding that students comefrom different backgrounds and culturesand that they may need different types oflearning tools."
Gwen viewed multicultural practice as"children of different cultural backgroundsgetting to know each other, learning to play,work, and work out conflicts together. " Shefocused on enhancing socialization opportunities among the children and saw herrole as promoting cross-cultural relationships and awareness and understanding ofdifferences. She did not share a culturalbackground with the majority of the chil dren in her class and recognized the difference. She often marveled at how theCantonese-speaking children wouldswiftly focus on their work after a shortCantonese phrase from Claire. Gwen usedher own knowledge and strengths to foster what she valued. Because she encouraged first-language maintenance andviewed languages as different forms of
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communication, she found ways to enrichclassroom communication. This childcentered teaching approach and her strongobservational skills helped her respond toclassroom diversity. She often commentedthat she took cues from the children.
INSIGHTS TO IMPLEMENTATION
These teachers understood that theirpractice improved with hard work, newknowledge, and experience. Aware of howthey developed as educators-reflection,collaboration, professional development,classroom experiences, observation ofchildren's behaviors, acceptance of andexperimenting with new approaches, resources, and ideas-they recognized thattheir understanding of "multicultur al education" affected its implementation.
Claire noted that there are multiple approaches to multicultural education: "Youhave to be aware of it. [It's] a little part ofeverything. I don't think there's just oneway. You have to find out where you areand what would be the best way for you."Gwen, conscious of her inability to communicate in Chinese to parents during teacherconferences, learned to use concise wordsand phrases in the "comments" section ofthe written report card to parents. Shehoped that this would meet the needs ofparents who do not read English and whomight use a translator to explain theirchild's achievement.
Both teachers expressed concern aboutthe "theory-practice gap" and a desire tofind solutions for the perceived issues intheir classrooms. Gwen described the needto make her teaching "equitable and accessible to all children. You have to back upand say, 'Well, that's not working for thisone or that one , whether it's in language orin math.'"
They recognized opportunities to include more "multicultural" aspects in theirteaching. Gwen stated how certain experi-
ences would be "good for her" and howthe knowledge gained would help "bringmore culture" into her classroom. Clairefollowed up on issues raised in previousclassroom visits. For example, to improvehome-school communication, she wentthrough her files to review a parent questionnaire given at the beg inning of theschool year.
The use of teacher-inquiry provided aprocess for these teachers to address theirfrustrat ion and efforts to implementmulticultural education. As Gwen asked,"What can we really do in the here andnow? " Teacher-inquiry offered a nonthreatening approach to dialogue. These teachers valued the exchange of concerns andideas and found meeting together to discuss issues helpful. They were able to examine their interpretations and responsesto attempts to implement multicultural experiences in their classrooms.
A collaborative st yle characterizedthese teachers' established method of sharing resources and teaching strategies. Claireand Gwen shared a single classroom with40 children last year, which required extensive curricular planning. Though they werein separate classrooms during this study,they planned a major portion of their curriculum together. The reciprocal, natural,day-to-day, curricular, collaborative process contributed to the teachers' knowledgeof culture. They also discussed cultural issues affecting instruction, such as how toaddress the Chinese-American parents' useof "criticism" to motivate their children toachieve more in school. Gwen, aware ofClaire 's cultural knowledge, suggested thatClaire present a workshop to "educate a lotof people who don't know about what isgoing on at home for a lot of our children."
DISCUSSION
Acknowledging the problem of implementation is essential to advancing teach-
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ers' pedagogical efforts . These teachersperceived a broad range of interpretationsof what actually constitutes multiculturaleducational theory and the association ofmulticultural education with a curriculumdominated by societal problems. These perspectives resulted in confusion, frustration,and di sengagement. Teachers saw multicultural education as another "subject"they had to cover with their limited instructional time with children, feeling pressureto comply with state and district mandatesthat they felt had little or no connection tothe teaching-learning process. This perception promoted reasonable decisions to question and ultimately disregard the recommendations of theorists and experts outside oftheir immediate school setting.
These teachers' concept of multicultural education also undermined their ability to recognize the ways in which they acknowledged the role of culture in theteaching-learning process . They initiallydisowned any relationship betweenmulticultural education and their practice,devaluing and doubting their own knowledge, skill s, and efforts. Yet their culturalbackgrounds, linguistic knowledge, personal and professional experiences, habitsof reflection, highly developed observational skills, and child-centered approachto learning provided them with rich, accessible resources.
The teachers recognized the importance of responding to children's behaviors.Child-initiated dialogues demonstratedhow children established a personal cultural frame-of-reference to the differentsocial, academic, and linguistic situationsthey encountered. Children's cultural displays were a strong indication of awarenessand development. These openly displayedexpressions of culture provided the teachers with valuable information regardingchildren's prior knowledge. Claire andGwen used this knowledge to make in-
structional decisions . They were consciously and culturally responsive to theinterests, needs, and values of childrenwhen selecting shared reading books, designing activities for learning centers, displaying children's work, and making decisions affecting time allotted to particularactivities.
FINDING THE MEANING
A conceptual understanding of diversity pedagogy and personal values alignedto issues of diversity are essential, but it isalso important to acknowledge the complexity of the teaching-learning and developmental processes teachers experience as theymove from novice to expert level. Knowledge of the ways children and teachers learnand the ability to apply and translate cultural knowledge to practice is required.
Despite experiential, cultural, and linguistic differences between teachers andchildren, teachers, even at a novice level,can learn to notice children's understandings of teaching-learning events and develop thinking skills to increase awarenessof their own understandings, cultural positions, and filters through which they viewculture, language, class, and ethnicity. Likewise, instructors of "multicultural" foundational courses can focus course contenton schooling issues rather than sociological problems. Additionally, support toteachers must extend beyond the teacherpreparation stage.
To address the theory-practice gap indiversity requires that those who prepareteachers understand the developmentalnature of teacher knowledge and pedagogy.Centering the content of diversity coursesin the field of education and psychology,rather than sociology, might better prepareteachers to recognize and respond tochildren's competencies and needs and toadapt their instruction and curriculum accordingly. The teachers in this study
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wanted culturally relevant knowledge andrealistic ap p ro aches to the teachinglearning process, yet they felt unsupported .
To offer this support, future teacherpreparation courses and in-service professional development can explore ways tohelp teachers identify and use their personal cultural knowledge and pedagogicalstrengths to create, develop, and implementcurriculum and instruction responsive tochildren ' s prior cultural knowledge .
REFERENCESCoch ran-Sm ith, M., and S. Lytle. 1993. Inside/outside: Teacher
research and knowledge. New York: Teachers CollegePress.
Dard er, A. 1993. How does the culture of the teacher shapethe classroom experiences of La tino stud en ts? Theunexamined question in critical ped agog y. In Handbook of schooling in urban America, ed . S. W. Rothstein ,195-223. Westport, Conn .: Greenwood.
Gay, G. 1994. At the essence of learning: Multicultural education. West Lafayette, Ind .: Kappa Delta Pi, InternationalHonor Society in Education.
Gay, G. 1995. Bridg ing multi cultural theory an d practice.Mult icultural Education 3(1): 4-9 .
Gay, G. 2000. Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, researchand practice. New York : Teachers College Press .
Gollnick , D. M., and P. C. Chinn. 1990. Multiwltural education ill a pluralistic society, 3d ed . Columbus, Ohio:Merrill .
Irvine, J. J.,and D. E. York. 1995. Learning sty les and cultu rally div erse students: A literatur e review. In Handbookof research in multicultural education, ed .J.A. Banks andC. A. M. Bank s, 484-97 . New York: Macmillan.
Ladson-Billings, G. 1994. The dreamkeepers: Successfu l teachers of African American teachers. San Francisco: [osseyBass.
Teach er inqui ry and collab orative ap proaches can be used as viable methods toencourage thinking and instill in teachershabits of continual, critical reflection on self,students, and curriculum. Finally, educational researchers can link teacher behaviors and children 's achievement outcomes-and, in coll abora tion withclassroom teachers, construct what"multicultur al education" might mean inscho ol settings.
Ladson-Billings, G. 2001. Crossing over to Canaan: The jourIley of new teachers in diverse classrooms. San Francisco :[ossey Bass.
Miles, M. B., and A. M. Hub erman . 1984. Qualitative dataallalysis:A sourcebook of new methods. Lond on, England :Sage.
Nieto, S. 2000. Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context ofmulticultural education, 3d ed, New York : Longman.
Pang, V. 0 ., and V.A. Slaban . 1998. Teacher efficacy. In Beillgresponsive tocultural differences, ed . M. E. Dilwor th , 3958. Thousand Oaks , Calif .: Corw in.
Sheets, R.H. 1995. From remedial to gifted: Effects of cultura llyrelevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice34(30): 186--93.
Shee ts, R. H. 2000. Mult icultural ped agogical knowledge:Learn ing to teach ou r children. Unpublished manuscript.
Sheets, R. H. In press . Comp etency vs. good intentions: Diversity ideologies and teacher po tential. InternationalJournalof Qualitative Studies ill Education.
Silverman, D. 1993. Interpreting qualitative data: Methods foranalvzing talk, text, alld interaction. Lond on, England:Sage.
Sleeter, C. 2001. Preparing teachers for cultu rally diverseschools: Research and the overwhelming presence ofwhiteness. Journal of Teacher Education 52(2): 94- 106.
rEF,© Kappa Delta Pi
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